#1 The Pelagic Oceanic Assemblages of the Sargasso Sea Around Bermuda

By: Martin V. Angel

- The upper wind-mixed layer is occupied by an assemblage of organisms and is described

as the epipelagic zone. It is within this shallow sunlit zone that there is bright enough
sunlight for the plants (or phytoplankton) to be able to synthesise the building blocks of
life—the high energy organic compounds—from the carbon dioxide dissolved in the
water using energy from sunlight.

- During the day the epipelagic zone is occupied by species that are predominantly either
small or transparent, implying that visual predation is a factor that plays a significant role
in determining the composition of the assemblages.

- At night the species composition changes considerably with the appearance of many
larger species, including fish, decapod crustaceans, euphausiids and large copepods that
migrate up from deeper layers.

- Leptocephalus larva of an eel, tend to swim within the thermocline. Note that the body is
almost completely composed of muscles. The digestive system is all concentrated in the
tiny white dot under the head. These larvae are so transparent that in a sample they are
only apparent because their serpentine movements stir the surrounding plankton about

- In a recent summary of the pelagic fishes caught during the 2006 Census of Marine
Zooplankton cruise to the Sargasso Sea Sutton et al 2010 reported the collection of 127
species (84 genera) from 42 families. The numbers of fish captured per 105m3 declined
from 112 in the upper 1000m to 0.2 at 4000-5000m (Fig. 17). Twenty- one taxa were
only taken in the upper 1000m, and 24 taxa were only taken below 1000m. The most
abundant fish was Cyclothone braueri, which contributed 47% of the catches <1000m
and 41% >1000m, and its congeners C. pallida and C. microdon. Statistical analysis of
the fish data separated the species into three assemblages two in the upper 1000m to the
north and south of the subtropical convergence, and also the bathypelagic species from
>1000m which appeared to form a single assemblage. Sutton classifies the bathypelagic
fish fauna into three classes of species viz 1. spanners which have broad bathymetric
distributions throughout much of the water column; 2. vacillators which occur between
800-1500m and which, either do not migrate on a diel basis such as Serrivomer and
Bathylagus, or undertake diel migrations to depths >1000m such the myctophids
Notoscopelus and Ceratoscopelus;and 3. holobathypelagic species that are seldom taken
above 1000m, such as ceratioid anglers, eurypharyngid and saccopharyngid eels and
Chiasmodontids.

- The diversity of the midwater fish fauna in and around Ocean Acre is very rich. Gibbs
and Krueger (1987) reporting on extensive trawling surveys to depths of 1500m of the
fishes of Ocean Acre found 7 species of hatchet fishes (Sternoptychidae) (n=6800), 63
species of lantern fishes (Myctophidae) (n=47,000) and 15 species of big mouths
(Melamphaidae) (n=4000). The zoogeography of the fishes in the North-west Atlantic is
summed up in Backus et al., 1977, and the other volumes in this series give a uniquely
detailed taxonomic summary of the fishes in the region.
 #2 Where is the Sargasso Sea?: A Report Submitted to the Sargasso Sea Alliance
By: Jeff Ardron, Pat Halpin, Jason Roberts, Jesse Cleary, Russell Moffitt, Ben Donnelly

- Distributions of Sargassum across the North Atlantic are poorly known

- Emblematic to the Sargasso Sea, Sargassum (composed mainly of Sargassum natans and
S. fluitans) is widely known throughout the region. It was therefore surprising to us to
find that it has been rather scantily studied. Basic questions such as how long it lives,
appear to be unanswered. In the earlier years of the last century, there was some debate
on whether Sargassum reproduced at sea, with a general belief that it did (Parr 1939,
Winge 1923); however, this information appears to have been largely discounted in
modern accounts which assume it does not (e.g. Gower and King 2011). Clearly, this is
an area requiring further study.

- Exact location and circumstances of eel spawning remain unknown although there is
evidence that certain oceanographic features such as thermal fronts may direct eels to
spawning locations (McCleave 1987). Leptocephali (larval eels) of both species have a
broad distribution in overlapping areas of the Sargasso Sea and tend to be most abundant
in the upper 100m of the ocean.

- Because the actual location of the eel spawning grounds is unknown, and the
circumstantial evidence is very general, we must be cautious in our conclusions. For
spatial information, we could draw upon one paper only (Friedland et al., 2007). At the
scale of this exercise, based on this one paper, it would appear that the eel spawning
grounds are most likely captured by the Study Area

#3 European Eel Briefing Note for Sargasso Sea Alliance

By: Matthew Gollock

- The life of a European eel can be split into three main phases: the first marine phase; the
continental phase; and the second marine phase
-

- There is discussion as to how long the migration to the rivers of Europe and North Africa
where eels feed and grow takes, but it is suggested to be anywhere between 7-24 months

- The growth and maturation of the European eel in freshwater may take anywhere
between 5 and 50 years—dependent on environmental conditions, food availability and
the sex of the individual— during which time they are able to inhabit a wide range of
freshwater habitats, will feed on a broad range of prey, and equally, are able to survive
extended periods of fasting

- The silver eels then begin the migration to the Sargasso which may take up to 6 months
depending on the location of the river that they are migrating from

- There is a broad suite of proposed causal factors for the population decrease that can
affect every life stage—elvers and glass eels migrating upstream; freshwater yellow eels;
and silver eels migrating downstream (ICES, 2008). These include; exploitation
(Feunteun, 2002; Dekker, 2003; ICES, 2006); changes in oceanic currents and/or climatic
conditions (e.g. Castonguay et al., 1994; Bonhommeau et al., 2008a;b); barriers to
migration (including hydro-power stations which damage and/or kill eels) (e.g. Winter et
al., 2006; Chadwick et al, 2007); loss of freshwater habitat (e.g. Feunteun, 2002);
pollution (particularly lipophillic substances such as PCBs and substances that affect lipid
storage) the effects of the swimbladder parasite Anguillicoloides crassus (e.g. Gollock et
al., 2005); and poor condition of escaping silver eels (particularly in relation to
insufficient lipid stores) (e.g. Svedäng and Wickström, 1997). While the weight of
evidence for some of these factors is greater than others, it is unlikely that there will be
one single cause, and due to the oceanic nature of eel emigration, it is difficult to monitor
the effects of these in the field. Further, the research carried out and data available in
relation to some of these issues is very limited, and why our understanding is so poor and
consequently our efforts to conserve the European eel are hampered.
- Most relevant to the Alliance, Bonhommeau et al., (2008a,b) have suggested that an
increase in sea surface temperature in the Sargasso Sea from 1979 onwards correlates
with a decline in primary productivity, and it turn recruitment in European rivers—likely
due to reduced feeding success, which may in turn be affected by changes in vertical
mixing in the region (Friedland et al., 2007). The increase in sea surface temperature, and
the associated knock on effects, is very likely linked to rising sea temperatures due to
climate change.

- Further, hydro-power stations are particularly damaging for silver eels due to their
elongate morphology and can result in mortality or significant sub-lethal injury if they
pass through the turbines
#4 The Importance of the Sargasso Sea and the Offshore Waters of the Bermudian
Exclusive Economic Zone to Bermuda and its People (ALLIGUNA IS BASED OFF
BERMUDA!!!)
By: Jessie Hallett

- The only land mass within the Sargasso Sea, and the only entity with jurisdiction over
any of its resources, is Bermuda

- The Sargasso Sea is the only sea defined by currents rather than coastline: the Gulf
Stream to the west, the North Atlantic Drift to the north, the Canaries Current to the east,
and the Antilles Current to the south.

- Sargassum floats by means of small berry-like structures that contain gas. The algae
passively drift on winds and currents, gathering to form large mats that can be tens of
kilometres in area. It is generally believed that these vast mats of “drift algae” have
persisted within the Sargasso Sea for thousands of years

- Mats of Sargassum algae are critical to supporting life in the vast open Atlantic. The
structural complexity of Sargassum provides support and camouflage for a complex food
web (Kingsford & Choat 1985) that includes top predators such as sharks and billfish, as
well as microscopic protozoans. Over 100 species of invertebrates, more than 280 species
of fish, four species of turtle (Coston- Clements et al., 1991), and 23 species of seabird
(Haney 1986) all utilize Sargassum as a resource at some point in their life-cycle, as a
food source, for protection, for nesting or spawning grounds, as a nursery, or as a method
of transport. Some organisms are endemic (unique to one geographic location), found
only in Sargassum habitats (Coston-Clements et al., 1991). Many of the permanent
residents of Sargassum, such as the endemic Sargassum frogfish Histrio histrio and
Sargassum pipefish Syngnathus pelagicus, have evolved unusual shapes or colours that
help them to hide within the plants.

- Bermudians are innately connected to the Sargasso Sea, benefitting from its resources in
a variety of ways

CITES
Species common name IUCN StatUS
STATUS
Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale Least Concern Appendix 1
Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale vulnerable Appendix 1
Thunnus thynnus Bluefin Tuna Endangered
T. albacares Yellowfin Tuna Near Threatened
T. alalunga Albacore Tuna Near Threatened
T. obesus Bigeye Tuna vulnerable
Makaira nigricans Blue Marlin vulnerable
Tetrapterus albidus White Marlin Near Threatened
Anguilla anguilla european eel Critically Appendix 2
 Endangered
Rhincodon typus Whale Shark vulnerable Appendix 2
Carcharhinus Oceanic Whitetip
vulnerable
longimanus Shark
Carcharhinus falciformis Silky Shark Near Threatened
Carcharhinus
galapagos Shark Near Threatened
galapagensis
Isurus oxyrinchus Shortfin Mako Shark vulnerable
Prionace glauca Blue Shark Near Threatened
Scalloped
Sphyrna lewini Endangered
Hammerhead
Galeocerdo cuvier Tiger Shark Near Threatened
Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle Endangered Appendix 1
Chelonia mydas green turtle Endangered Appendix 1
Critically
Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Appendix 1
Endangered
Critically
Lepidochelys kempi Kemp’s ridley turtle Appendix 1
Endangered
Critically
Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback turtle Appendix 1
Endangered
Bermuda petrel
Pterodroma cahow Endangered
(Cahow)

- Oceanic species resident in the Sargasso Sea and Bermuda’s EEZ that are on the IUCN
red-list and listed under CITES.

- Since many species rely on Sargassum as a food source and habitat during different life
stages, it is clear that healthy habitats of Sargassum weed must be maintained in order to
maintain healthy fish populations in Bermuda.

- European eels, (A. anguilla) which are highly endangered, and American eels (A.
rostrata) travel through the Bermudian EEZ on their voyage from their respective
continents to the Sargasso Sea to spawn. After they are born, larval eels then travel the
same route back from the Sargasso Sea to streams and rivers in the continents (Kleckner
& McCleave 1988).

- Once Sargassum reaches Bermuda, it provides many benefits to nearshore habitats. When
Sargassum sinks as a result of ageing or excess wave energy (Johnson & Richardson
1977), it provides nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus to corals, other benthic
organisms and fish. Sargassum weed, whether sunken or floating, could be an important
source of food for detrivores and herbivores such as the endemic bream (Diplodus
bermudensis) and chubs, which have been observed targeting Sargassum weed as a food
source (personal observation, C. Flook and T. Murdoch pers. comm.).
- Sinking Sargassum is also an important source of nutrients to deep sea food webs in the
Sargasso Sea, supplying up to 10% of total nutrient input to seabed organisms (Angel &
Boxshall 1990).

- When Sargassum weed reaches Bermuda, it washes up on the shoreline, piling high on
beaches. The most Sargassum is seen on Bermuda’s beaches between November and
April (Butler 1983). Many people consider Sargassum to be a nuisance, as it impedes
beach access and has a strong odour while decomposing (Feagin & Williams 2008).
However, vegetation that washes up on the shoreline is critical to stabilizing the
shoreline, and in the creation of the limestone of which the Bermuda islands are made.
When algae washes up on the beach, it acts like glue that holds sand together. This helps
the formation of beach dunes, which prevent the movement of sand, and decreases
erosional forces during storm activity (Thomas 2004). Over thousands of years, sand
dunes convert to hard sandstone rock, and eventually limestone. Sargassum also
contributes to the sand that forms Bermuda’s beaches, as encrusting organisms such as
bryozoans, foraminiferans, barnacles, serpulid worms, and red algae could be a
potentially large source of calcium carbonate input (Pestana 1985). Pestana (1985)
estimates that carbonate material associated with Sargassum could contribute as much as
10% of sediments to Bermuda’s beaches.

- Sargassum therefore helps to stabilize the shoreline, and has helped build the island of
Bermuda.

- Sargassum provides additional benefits when it washes up on beaches. It provides food

and habitat for inter tidal organisms, and shorebirds and scavengers feed on the fresh
invertebrates and fishes available in the weed (Winston 1982). Sargassum also enhances
the nutrient content of coastal soils and sediments, thus enriching the growth of dune
plants by providing nitrogen and phosphorus that are otherwise scarce in these habitats
(Feagin & Williams 2008). A Bermudian tradition is the collection of Sargassum weed
that has washed up on beaches in order to fertilize home gardens. It is not known how
much Sargassum is used for this purpose, but it is not likely causing negative ecological
consequences as it is harvested recreationally in small amounts. Using Sargassum as
fertilizer reduces the islands dependence on imported compost products, which can
contain exotic species and pathogens.

- Sargassum plays a role in decreasing the impacts of global climate change, just as other
plants do, because it sequesters carbon dioxide within its tissues as it grows. When
Sargassum dies and sinks to the ocean floor, it transports carbon to the deep sea food web
and removes carbon dioxide from the biogeochemical processes that are currently leading
to increasingly acidic oceans. Further, other seaweeds grow on the surface of Sargassum,
increasing the carbon sequestration activity of the algae. It is not known how much
carbon dioxide Sargassum sequesters, but it has been suggested that, in addition to
carbon fixation by terrestrial forests, the growth of algae will be play an important role in
mitigating anthropogenic carbon dioxide inputs (Alpert et al., 1992).
- One of the reasons Bermuda’s reefs remain so attractive and healthy to visitors and locals
alike is because there is a constant flux of clean ocean water from the Sargasso Sea to
inshore habitats, creating a healthier environment than that of many other reefs
worldwide.

- Despite the importance of the Sargasso Sea to Bermudians, there are many human
activities that are currently threatening the region. Pollution, fishing, Sargassum
harvesting and seabed mining have the potential to harm the environment, compromising
the beneficial resources that Bermudians gain from the ocean. If the marine environment
is too heavily exploited, polluted, or otherwise damaged, many industries in Bermuda
will suffer including tourism, fisheries and science, as they all depend on a clean, healthy
ocean. Bermuda’s EEZ should be considered a national treasure in its unspoiled state as it
is of immense value to the island.

- Another threat is from exploitive activities, such as fishing and Sargassum extraction.
Over exploitation of marine resources can negatively impact small islands such as
Bermuda that are heavily reliant on these resources. The most negative human impact in
the Sargasso Sea has been fisheries exploitation, which began in the 18th century with
pelagic whaling and continues today with the continued targeting of declining
populations of large pelagic fishes. Industrial fishing in the high seas such as the Sargasso
Sea region has led to declines in the populations of large pelagic animals such as tunas
and sharks. Since the year 1900, it is estimated that 90% of predatory fish stocks across
the oceans have collapsed (Myers & Worm 2003), likely because of significant increases
in pelagic fisheries on the high seas in the mid-1900s (Christensen et al., 2003). In the
Sargasso Sea and the Bermuda EEZ, tunas and related species have been the most heavily
targeted, primarily by fishing fleets from Japan and Taiwan, but also by fleets from the
Unites States, Canada, and Spain. During the 1950s and 1960s, bluefin tuna and albacore
were targeted, followed by bigeye in the 1970s and 1980s, and yellowfin in the 1990s and
2000s (Hallett 2011). The shift in target species over the last 60 years reflects declines in
fisheries landings and catch-per-unit-effort that are evident in fisheries records (Hallett
2011). Presently, these species are considered overfished, leading the IUCN to place
them on the red-list this year. Foreign fleets have not been allowed to fish in Bermuda’s
EEZ since 1994; however continued exploitation of these species outside the EEZ will
affect the Atlantic populations of these fish.

- Commercial extraction of Sargassum weed is also a potential threat to the ecosystem in

the Bermudian EEZ and the wider Sargasso Sea. In the United States, Sargassum has
traditionally been harvested for use as fertilizer and cattle feed (NOAA & NMFS 2003),
but strict regulations enacted recently prevent heavy exploitation of stocks within U.S.
jurisdictional waters. However, there are many new uses of Sargassum weed that could
potentially lead to high levels of Sargassum extraction from the high seas, or from within
Bermuda’s EEZ. Extracts from Sargassum are presently of interest as biofuels,
antibiotics, antifungals and antifouling agents (NOAA & NMFS 2003). It will likely be
important in the future to protect Sargassum habitats from the threats of heavy
commercial extraction, much like in the United States.
 #5 Oceanography of the Sargasso Sea: Overview of Scientific Studies
By: M.W. Lomas, N.R. Bates, K.N. Buck, and A.H. Knap

- One of the interesting mysteries of this part of the ocean is the spawning of the American
eel (Anguilla rostrata) and the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). various sized larvae of
both species were captured and studied to infer that adults of these species migrate to the
Sargasso Sea and spawn and die, but surprisingly, the routes and mechanisms of the adult
migration is still largely unknown. Anguilla occupy fresh water streams, rivers, brackish
waters and the open ocean in various stages in their life cycle. They apparently spawn in
the Sargasso Sea and ocean currents transport the developing larvae northward until the
young metamorphose into juveniles and then move upstream along the continents. There
is apparently no difference in the vertical distribution of the two species in the Sargasso
Sea, as the larval (leptocephali) of both species were found in equal abundance between 0
and 350 meters. Developing eels remain in fresh or brackish water for about 10 years
before they return to the sea to spawn. Although larvae of both species have been
positively identified, no adult eels have been found and therefore where and what depth
the mature eels occupy is still largely unknown

- Located within the North Atlantic Gyre, the Sargasso Sea is “oligotrophic,” characterized
by low macronutrient concentrations

#6 Role of Sargasso Sea in Carbon Sequestration

By: M.W. Lomas, N.R. Bates, K.N. Buck, and A.H. Knap (Sargasso Sea Alliance)

- The floating Sargassum is home to more than 60 species of organisms, with the
ecosystem housing everything from small plant species to juvenile and adult fish.
Generally the area is relatively free of pollution, though tar and plastic can amalgamate
with the Sargassum community.
-

- The Sargasso Sea plays an important role in the oceanic sequestration of carbon and on
an annual basis is a net sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
- These processes are collectively termed the ocean biological carbon pump and it
sequesters carbon into the deep ocean on the timescale (hundreds to thousands of years)
of the global overturning circulation .
- The reservoir of carbon in the global ocean is approximately 60-70 times greater than that
of the atmosphere. As such, even a small change in the ocean reservoir of carbon has a
significant impact on the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and the response of the
climate system to the release of anthropogenic (i.e., human produced) CO2.
- At present, the global ocean sequesters about 25% of anthropogenic CO2 in the
atmosphere, with the total amount of anthropogenic carbon sequestered in the ocean
estimated at ~120-140 Pg (Pg = 1015 g) of carbon.
- Thus, the sequestration of CO2 into the global ocean is one of the primary mechanisms
that controls the concentrations of CO2 in the lower atmosphere and
- the impact of human produced CO2 on the climate system (IPCC, 1990, 2001, 2007).
- Sargasso Sea is a net sink for CO 2. During the summer, CO2 outgases from the surface
ocean, but this is offset by the strong net sink of CO 2 in the winter (Bates et al., 2002,
Bates 2007) that is actually increasing along with the increases in primary production and
phytoplankton biomass (Lomas et al., 2010). Second, total dissolved inorganic carbon
(DIC) in surface and deeper water layers have increased at divergent rates since 1988
- Since 1988, ~0.6- 2.8 Pg (1015 g) of CO2 has accumulated within the gyre STMW,
~0.04 – 0.26 PgC per year, representing a long- term oceanic sink of CO2 (>10 years) in
this region. The Sargasso Sea biological carbon pump sequesters ~0.06 Pg C yr-1.
Combined these two terms account for the net sink of CO 2 in the Sargasso Sea and they
represent ~7% of the global net biological carbon pump.
 #7 The Sargasso Sea Subtropical Gyre
The Spawning and Larval Development Area of Both Freshwater and Marine Eels

By: Michael J. Miller and Reinhold Hanel

- There has been much debate and concern about what has caused the decline of the
Atlantic eels (e.g. Dekker et al., 2003; ICES 2001, 2006, 2007), with explanations
ranging from habitat loss and overfishing, or parasites, virus infections and contaminants
accumulating in their bodies affecting the migration or spawning abilities , to changes in
the physical or biological characteristics in their Sargasso Sea spawning area or during
their long larval migrations back to their continental growth habitats
- For example, the implementation of dams in both Europe and North America has reduced
the amount of effective habitat for diadromous species greatly, and what river habitat that
was left available for recruitment and safe outmigration of the adults was heavily
impacted by development and pollution.
- Regardless of what is causing the declines in these eel species, what is known is that they
both appear to spawn in the southern part of the Sargasso Sea.
- Therefore, the Atlantic eels spawn in the middle of a complex area that includes oceanic
fronts and strong countercurrents. Due to the atmospheric and oceanographic conditions
that exist in that part of the Sargasso Sea, this region is called the Subtropical
Convergence Zone, because it is where warm and cold water masses meet in the fall,
winter, and spring.
- The eels seem to have evolved the ability to detect the location of this area and appear to
spawn within a narrow band of latitude between the fronts (Kleckner and McCleave
1988; Miller and McCleave 1994; Munk et al., 2010). For example, if the migrating eels
can detect when they have crossed a frontal region, they may stop migrating and begin to
look for mates and prepare for spawning (McCleave 1985, 1987). However, eels also
have a magnetic sense (e.g. Nishi et al., 2004, 2005), as do some other marine animals
(Lohmann et al., 2008), which could be used to imprint on the geomagnetic location
where they were born and then return back there.
- After the spawning season that extends from about February to June, the leptocephali of
both anguillid species appear to become widely distributed as they are transported by the
currents and eddies in the region.
- most European eel leptocephali probably use the Gulf Stream-North Atlantic Drift after
moving west through the southern Sargasso
- Regardless of how they achieve it, or how long it takes, the migration of the European eel
is probably the longest of any anguillid species, making its recruitment especially
vulnerable to oceanic changes.
- Unlike most fish larvae, leptocephali appear to feed almost exclusively on particulate
organic material such as “marine snow” and discarded larvacean houses (Otake et al.,
1993; Mochioka and Iwamizu 1996), but not on zooplankton like most fish larvae
- This overview of the Sargasso Sea as a spawning area of eels has shown that this
subtropical gyre is of critical importance to many eel species, which in turn are important
 ecological components not only in the Sargasso Sea itself, but in the other regions where
their larvae eventually recruit.
- The European eels recruit to western Europe, its Mediterranean coast and to North
Africa.
- The long migration of the European eel to and from the Sargasso Sea seems to have put it
in a precarious position, with a host of problems caused by human impacts, ocean-
atmosphere changes, or even possibly global warming that have its population size
reduced to critical levels.
- The Sargasso Sea is also a place where natural selection has produced some interesting
species adapted to live exclusively within the floating communities of sargassum weed
that drifts around the spawning area of eels, such as the shrimp and fish shown in Figure
18. The various interesting geographic features of the Sargasso Sea and the many
creatures found there, in combination with its unique pattern of distinct frontal bands that
form in the colder months of the year, make this region a unique part of the world’s
oceans not only for eels, but for all creatures of the sea, which calls for the need to
carefully protect this special place on earth.

#8 The Geology of the Sargasso Sea Alliance Study Area, Potential Non-Living Marine
Resources and an Overview of the Current Territorial Claims and Coastal States Interests
By: Lindsay Parson and Rosemary Edwards

- With the exception of Bermuda and its 200M limit, which lies wholly within the SSASA,
there are no current issues of sovereignty over exploration and exploitation of marine
resources. Pending and/ or future claims to parts of the study area, however, are several
and other resource-based interest in exploration and possible exploitation are very likely
in due course.
#9 Maritime Traffic in the Sargasso Sea An Analysis of International Shipping Activities
and their Potential Environmental Impacts
By: Julian Roberts

- Less emphasis is generally placed on the physical impacts that vessels may cause.
However, the physical impacts of shipping are becoming more and more apparent. Such
impacts may include, engine and machinery noise; physical damage to organisms and
habitats (ship strike and anchor damage); and wake and wash effects associated with high
speed passage in narrow channels.

- However, 90% of anthropogenic acoustic energy emitted to the marine environment is

generated by ships propulsion. The seas of the northern hemisphere are particularly prone
to high levels of vessel sourced noise due to the large volume of shipping. As a result,
shipping is now the largest source of low- frequency sound and there is a direct
correlation between the level of noise and increased vessel size, speed and load. The
acoustic pollution they cause is constant and may affect very large areas of open ocean.
One of the major concerns is that this low frequency noise is also at the same frequency
as that used predominantly by baleen whales for communication.

- Noise has been shown to have significant effects on marine species, although most
research has focussed on cetaceans. Continuous exposure to acoustical pollution can
cause physical injury, disrupt behaviour, mask communication and other biologically
important signals, affect species’ ability to hear at certain critical frequencies and
increase their sensitivities to disturbance

- While most interest in this topic has focussed on cetaceans, there is increasing concern
regarding the impact of such noise on fish, other vertebrates such as aquatic and diving
birds and marine invertebrates (including crustacea). There is a small but growing body
of literature demonstrating a broad range of impacts on fish although further investigation
is required.

- In fragile marine environment such as coral reefs, ships may cause harm by running
aground or by the use of anchors. Although published data on the effects of anchoring of
large vessels are lacking, anchor damage has been widely recognised as a significant
threat to the coral reefs of the Florida Keys and the Gulf of Mexico.

- Physical damage may in some cases also result in long term environmental contamination
caused by the deposition of harmful antifouling substances in localised parts of the
environment.55 However, by definition, physical effects on benthic habitats and species
arising from groundings are restricted to shallow water areas.

- Spatial analysis of vessel movements throughout the North Atlantic clearly shows that the
routes passing through the Sargasso Sea, from the Gulf of Mexico/ Caribbean to Western
Europe and the Mediterranean, are the most heavily trafficked routes in the region.
Traffic densities do not appear to show significant seasonal variations and numbers of
 vessels appear relatively stable. Hence, this continuous presence of vessels in the
Sargasso Sea has the potential to give rise to a number of environmental effects.

- Shipping may give rise to a broad range of impacts, depending on the particular
environmental values present.

#10 Summary of Sea Education Association Long-Term Sargasso Sea Surface Net Data
By: Amy N.S. Siuda

- It does appear that Sargassum sp. is either a filter for passively drifting particles or
attractive habitat/protection for plankton. To assess coincidence of Sargassum sp. and the
other parameters, the question was asked: when zooplankton, eel larvae, plastic and tar
are present, are increased concentrations found in the presence of Sargassum? The results
are presented in Figure 13. For zooplankton, greater densities were found associated with
Sargassum in the South Sargasso Sea during both fall and spring. No significant
differences were observed in the North Sargasso Sea. For eel larvae, greater densities
were observed in the presence of Sargassum only during fall in the North Sargasso Sea.
For plastic, densities were greater in the presence of Sargassum during fall throughout the
Sargasso Sea, and during the spring only in the South Sargasso Sea. For tar, greater
densities were observed in the presence of Sargassum only during spring in the North
Sargasso Sea. Many of these seasonal and regional differences can be explained by the
general distribution of each parameter.

#11 Humpback Whale Research Project, Bermuda

By: Andrew Stevenson

- [Nothing of importance]

#12 Values from the Resources of the Sargasso Sea

By: U.R. Sumaila, V. Vats and W. Swartz

- The Sargasso Sea (Figure 1) covers an area of approximately 4,163,499 km 2. The

Sargasso Sea contains a collection of commercially and ecologically valuable resources
including fish species and Sargassum spp., a genus of brown macroalgae commonly used
as fertilizer, cattle feed and other commercial extracts.

- Sargassum within the Sargasso Sea is primarily composed of two species, which jointly
create a dynamic structural habitat of the region (SAFMC, 2002). S. natans
(approximately 90% of total drift macroalgae) and S. fluitans range in size from 20-80 cm
in diameter and form aggregations known as algal mats, which are found at or near the
sea surface (SAFMC, 2002). Sargassum habitat extends primarily between 20°N and
 40°N latitudes and between 30°W longitude and the western edge of the Florida
Current/Gulf Stream. The highest concentrations of Sargassum are found within the
North Atlantic Central Gyre, located within the Sargasso Sea. The biomass of Sargassum
is estimated at a standing crop size of 4-11 million metric tonnes. SAFMC (2002)
provides more details on the distribution of Sargassum species within the Northwest
Atlantic.

- Eels are another commercially important fish stocks that are highly dependent on the
Sargasso Sea through the course of their life cycles. The region is a key spawning ground
for both European and American eels and, although these species are not directly
exploited within the Sargasso Sea, large fisheries for both species exist throughout North
America, Europe, and Africa, both for food consumption and as brood stocks for capture-
based aquaculture.

- We extract catch data spatially for the Sargasso Sea from this database for our analysis
and present them in TABLE 1.
-

- We see from TABLe 2 that the total landed value in 2005 is about $84 million while the
cost of fishing is estimated at about $33 million. Hence, the resource rent before subsidies
are deducted is $51 million a year. When subsidies of about $15 million are deducted, the
adjusted resource rent is estimated at $36 million a year (TABLe 2).
-

- The Sargasso Sea is the single largest spawning area of the two species of freshwater
eels: the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L., and American eel, Anguilla rostrata. Both
these eels do not reproduce in captivity, due to a hormonal inhibition of maturation. In
the wild, they migrate to the Sargasso Sea to spawn.

- The European eel is considered to be outside safe biological limits (Dekker, 2003). The
actual decline in both European eel recruitment and populations could be as high as 99%
in some catchments (Gollock et al., 2005). A number of anthropogenic and natural causes
 have been identified as reasons for the decline including climate change, overfishing,
habitat loss, destruction of migrating routes, pollution, parasites and diseases.

- We report in TABLE 5 the estimated landings, prices and landed values of eels spawned
in the Sargasso Sea but caught in waters of Europe and North America. The detail
sources of data are provided in Annex1.

- Adding the landings in Europe in 2009 to the average annual US landings reported in
TABLe 4 gives a total eel catch of 11,135 t a year. This generates a total landed value of
about US$120 million annually. Assuming that the cost of fishing is 70% of landed value,
this would generate profits of about US$36 million a year. If we assume economic and
income multipliers of 3 and 0.5, this will generate economic impact and household
income effects of over US$360 and US$60 million a year, respectively. These numbers,
even though impressive, are lower than their potential given the current depleted state of
eel stocks in these countries.

- The United States has strongly regulated the harvest of Sargassum within its EEZ since
2002 with Environmental Impact Statements filed in both 1998 and 1999 (see action 7 on
p. 9 and summary on p. vi of SAFMC (2002)). The U.S. (in 2002) stated a maximum
sustainable yield for Sargassum at 100,000 t per year.

- During the time of harvest average price of Sargassum from the Sargasso Sea reached
$30 per pound processed product, with the average revenues generated from 1995-1997
harvests of Sargassum of $43,000 per year. But harvesting of Sargassum in the Sargasso
Sea has now been banned, and therefore there is no direct use value derived from it.
- However, Sargassum plays a vital role in the ecosystems, providing a host of indirect
values (see later section). By creating a dynamic structural habitat, Sargassum supports a
large variety of marine organisms, including approximately 145 species of invertebrates,
over 100 species of fish, a variety of marine birds, 6 species of listed whales, and 5
species of highly migratory endangered marine turtles.

- Sargassum weed provides key habitat to over 100 species of fish, and plays a key role in
the early life history of many species, as well as in the migration patterns of others. The
biomass of Sargassum is positively correlated to fish abundance. The most abundant
fishes found in association with Sargassum weed include the carangids and balistids. The
Sargasso Sea also provides key habitat for a number of commercially important fish
species. These include seasonal abundances of jacks (Caranx spp), cobia (Rachycentron
canadum), wahoo (Acanthocybrium solandri), eels (Anguilla spp.), tunas (Thunnus sp.),
billfishes, rainbow runner (Elagatis bipinnulata), amberjacks (Seriola spp.), mahi mahi
(Coryphaena hippurus), red porgy (Pagrus pagrus), mullet (Mugil spp.), American
butterfish (Peprilus triacanthus), and grey triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), among others
(SAFMC, 2002).