Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology: Philippine State College of Aeronautics

Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology
MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• 2: Demonstrate deep understanding to data bus systems that typically allows a wide variety of
avionics equipment to properly communicate with one another and exchange data.
• 3: Demonstrate a practical ability to accurately identify, carefully formulate, digital number systems,
effectively solve complex logic gate circuit problems by properly applying basic principles and
CLO standard method to digital electronics in aircraft.
• :9 Identify and properly apply technical concepts and practical terms used in the avionics field.
• 1: Demonstrate the fundamental theory of digital arithmetic.

• 2: Solve complex problems using the effective methods and modern technique used to typically add,
MLO
subtract and multiply number systems.
• 3: Discuss and explain the different types of number systems as they relate to digital electronics.
• 4: Discuss what methods and specific techniques to use to convert numbers into each other are
TLO applicable.
Weeks Topics/Activity Allotted Hours

Data Bus system 1.7 Hrs
4 Activity No. 1 30 mins.
Digital Arithmetic 1.7 Hrs
Activity No. 2 30 mins.

2
CONTENTS
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................4
1.0 Transmission of data theory.......................................................................................................4
1.1 Serial vs parallel signals.............................................................................................................5
1.2 Serial input output interface .......................................................................................................5
1.3 Parallel input output interface.....................................................................................................5
1.4 Data bus.....................................................................................................................................5
1.5 Serial bus...................................................................................................................................5
1.6 System bus................................................................................................................................7
1.7 Data bus function.......................................................................................................................9
1.8 ARINC 429................................................................................................................................10
1.9 Data bus cable .........................................................................................................................10
1.10 Summary ................................................................................................................................10
1.11 Key Points ..............................................................................................................................10
Activity ............................................................................................................................................11
2.0 Digital Arithmetic........................................................................................................................12

2.1 Binary addition...........................................................................................................................12
2.1.1 Binary subtraction ..............................................................................................................12
2.2 Octal addition ............................................................................................................................13
2.2.1 Octal subtraction.................................................................................................................14
2.3 Hexadecimal addition ................................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Hexadecimal subtraction.........................................................................................................16
2.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................................17
2.5 Key points...................................................................................................................................17
Activity ..............................................................................................................................................17
Honesty Clause.................................................................................................................................18
Rubrics..............................................................................................................................................19
Reference..........................................................................................................................................20

3
INTRODUCTION
Information must be transmitted to the components from the computers inside the aircraft systems,
this may be informed of electrical or optical signals and the transmission medium is known as the
data buses. A general overview about data transmission is given in the first part of this Module.
1.0 TRANSMISSION OF DATA THEORY
 A number of problems involve designing an interface, or simply using an existing interface,

to connect two devices. Digital interface may be categorized, for example, as parallel or
serial, internal or external, asynchronous or synchronous. The data rate, methods of error
detection and the signalling format or standard are additional problems.
1.1 SERIAL VS PARALLEL SIGNALS
 You could hold up flash cards that show the letters on the words to communicate a word to
you across the room. If you hold up four flash cards, each with a letter on it, all at once, then
you are simultaneously transmitting. If you only hold up each of the flash cards one at a time
instead, then you are streaming serially. Parallel means that at the same time, all the bits are
sent in turn over a single channel. Serials mean that, according to an agreed sequence,
each of the bits is sent in turn over a single channel or wire. Figure below gives a graphical
illustration of serial and parallel signalling.

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 For certain circumstances both parallel and serial signalling is appropriate. As all bits are
transmitted simultaneously, parallel signalling is faster, but each bit needs its own conductor,
which can be costly. In internal communications parallel signalling is more likely to be used.
Serial signalling is morally appropriate for long-distance communications, such as to an
external device.
 Each bit is sent in turn, so communication between the devices is slower, but also less
costly, as fewer channels are needed.
 In order to minimize weight and competitiveness, most avionics applications use serial
transmission. The number of channels for parallel or serial signalling also depends on the
mode of operation: one channel per bit for simplex (one-way, from sender to receiver only)
and half-duplex (two-way communication, but only one-way transmission at a time) but two
channels per bit for full-duplex (simultaneous communication in both directions).
1.2 SERIAL INPUT OUTPUT INTERFACE
 The serial input/output interface is more complex than the parallel interface, since it is
necessary to transmit the data on the basis of an agreed sequence. For instance,
transmitting the eight bits of a word involves specifying where the least significant bit is sent
first, B0 or the most significant B7.
1.3 PARALLEL INPU OUTPUT INTERFACE
 They typically have eight lines of data and one or more lines of handshaking. Handshaking
lines involve various functions to coordinate the transfer of data. For example, on all 8 data
lines, the ready line indicates that data is available. If only the ready line is used, the receiver
may not be able to keep up with the information anyway. Thus the strobe line is added to
ensure the receiver is ready for the next character
1.4 DATA BUS
The word ‘bus’ is a contraction of the Greek word ‘omnibus’ and the word simply means ‘to all’.
Therefore, 'bus' refers to a system in the context of computers and digital systems that allows
interconnection and data exchange between the devices in a complex system.
 A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices.
 A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium
 Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a signal transmitted by any one device is available
for reception by all other devices attached to the bus.

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 If two devices transmitted during the same time period, their signals will ovelap and become
garbled. Thus, only one device at a time can successfully transmit.
 Typically a bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or lines. Each line is capable of
transmitting signals representing binary 1 and 0.
 A bus can be used to transmit binary digits either by serial or a parallel form.

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1.5 SERIAL BUS
 The Figure below shows a simple system for serial data transfer between two LRUs, each of
which comprises an avionic system in its own right.
A simple system for serial data transfer between two avionic systems
 Data is transferred through an internal parallel data bus (8 , 16, 32 or 64 bits wide) within the
LRU. Using a simple serial cable, the link between the two LRUs is made (often with only
two, four or six conductors). A bus interface (which is often a single card or module within the
LRU) performs the required parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel data conversion. The data
being transferred may be synchronous (using locally generated clock signals within each
LRU) or asynchronous (i.e. self-clocking). The system shown in the above figure has the
apparent limitation that only two devices can exchange data.
 We need to share the data between many LRUs avionic units in practice. This can be
accomplished through the bus system shown in Figure below. Using a shielded twisted pair
(STP) bus cable with a number of pairs of panels located at suitable points in the aircraft (e.g.
flight deck, avionics bay, etc.) in this system, data is transferred.
A Basic bus interface

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 Each coupler panel enables the use of a stub cable to connect a number of avionics units to
the bus. To optimize data transfer speed and minimize issues associated with reflection and
mismatch, a matched bus terminator must be used to terminate the bus cable at each end.
Bus couplers are produced as either voltage mode or current mode units, depending on
whether they use voltage- or current-sensing devices.
 Within each LRU/avionics unit, an interface is provided that performs the required serial-to-
parallel or parallel to- serial data conversion, as shown on the basic bus interface.
 As well as providing an electrical interface (with appropriate voltage- and current-level

shifting) the interface unit also converts the data formats (e.g. from serial analogue doublets
present in the stub cable to Manchester-encoded serial data required by the terminal
controller), as shown in Figure below. In order to transmit data using the serial data bus,
information must be presented in a standard format. A typical format for serial data would use
a word length of 32 bits.
 This word comprises several discrete fields, including:
o up to 20 bits for data (which may be further divided);

o An 8-bit label field which is used to identify the data type and any parameters that may
be associated with it;
o A source/destination identifier (SDI);
o A number of status bits used to provide information about the mode, hardware condition
or validity of data;
o An added parity bit which provides a means of validating the data (i.e. determining
whether or not it is free from error).
Data formats in a practical bus interface

8
1.6 SYSTEM BUS
 A system bus consist of typically from about fifty to hundreds of separate lines. Each line is
assigned a particular meaning of function.
1.7 DATA BUS FUNCTION
1.7.1 DATA BUS

 A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer (or one
computer) to another:
 Data bus may consist of 32, 64, 128 or even more separate lines.
 The number of lines being referred to as the width of the data bus. Because each line can
carry only 1 bit at a time, the number of lines determines how many bits can be transferred at
a time.
 All busses consist of two parts:
o Address bus
 A collection or a wires used to identify particular location in main memory is
called address bus.
 Or in other word the information used to describe the memory locations travels
along the address bus.
 The CPU sends address bus to a particular memory locations and I/O ports.
 The address bus consist of 16, 20, 24, or more parallel signals lines.
o Control bus
 Because the data and address lines are shared by all components, there must
be a means of controlling their use.
 The control lines regulate the activity on the bus.
 Control signals transmit both command and timing information among system
modules.
 Typically control bus signals are
o Memory read
 Causes data from the address location to be placed on the data bus.
o Memory write
 Causes data on the bus to be written into the addressed location.
o I/O write
 Causes data on the bus to be output to the addressed I/O port.
o I/O read
 Causes data from the address I/O port to be placed on the bus

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1.8 ARINC 429 (Data Bus for Civil Aircraft)
 ARINC 429 Data bus which is commonly used in all civil aircrafts.
 ARINC is a private corporation organized in 1929 comprises of a airlines, aircraft manufacturers and
avionics equipment manufacturers to produce specifications and standards for avionics equipment.
 ARINC 429 is also known as the Mark 33 DITS (Digital Information Transfer system) Specification.
1.9 DATA BUS CABLE
Typically the data bus cable consists of a twisted pair of wires surrounded by electric shielding and
insulators. On various frequencies, voltages and current levels, digital systems work. To ensure
that the correct cable is used for the installed system is extremely important. During installation, the
cable should not be pinched or bent and data bus cable lengths may also be critical. For cable
specifications, refer to current manufacturer's manuals.
1.10 Summary
Aircraft data bus systems enable the communication and exchange of data between wide varieties of
avionics equipment. In this section, before introducing some of the systems commonly used in
modern aircraft, we shall take a brief look at the principles of aircraft data bus systems.

10
1.11 Key Points
Modern aircraft are using multiple redundant bus systems to exchange data between varied aircraft
systems and sub-systems. Serial data transfer is used by these bus systems because it minimizes
aircraft cabling size and weight.
Activity No. 1 (30 minutes to answer this Activity)
1. Explain the difference between the serial and parallel data transfer methods.
2. Explain why Aircraft Bus system uses serial data transfer?
3. Explain the function of each of the following bus system components.
a. Bus cable
b. Stub cable
c. Bus terminator
d. Couple panel
After your class schedule your appropriate response to these activity woks through
the Google Classroom platform. (Deadline of Submission to be discuss)

11
2.0 DIGITAL ARITHMETIC
The next obvious step is to study the rules of data manipulation after discussing different methods
of numeric and alphanumeric data representation in the previous modules. Arithmetic and logic
operations include two forms of operation performed on binary data. Addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division are basic arithmetic operations. AND, OR and NOT are fundamental
functions of logic. While the rules of arithmetic operations are covered in this Sub-topic, the next
Module will discuss those related to logic operations.
2.1 BINARY ADDITION
 Adding binary numbers is a very simple task. The rules for binary addition using two bits are
given below. The first three rules are obvious. Rule 4 says that, in binary, 1 + 1 = 10 (decimal
2). The 1 in the sum must be carried to the next column as in regular decimal addition.
 Binary addition is carried out just like decimal, by adding up the columns, starting at the right
and working column by column towards the left.
 Just as in decimal addition, it is sometimes necessary to use a ‘carry’, and the carry is added
to the next column.
 Basic Rules for Binary Addition
Rule No. 1 0+0=0

Rule No. 2 0+1=1
Rule No. 3 1+0=1
Rule No. 4 1+1=0 carry 1
Example:
Solve the following binary addition problems
111 carry 1 carry

a. 1002 b. 10102 c. 10012
+ 112 + 1102 + 1012
111 10000 1110

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2.1.2 BINARY SUBTRACTION
 Again the rules for subtracting binary numbers are similar to decimal. When subtracting a
large digit from a smaller one a 'borrow' is taken from the next column to the left.
 After borrowing from the next column to the left, a ‘pay back’ must occur. The subtractions
rules for binary are quite simple even if the borrow and pay back system create some
difficulty.
 Depending where and when you learned subtraction at school, you may have learned a
different subtraction method, other than ‘borrow and payback’, this is caused by changing
fashions in education.
 However any method of basic subtraction will work with binary subtraction but if you do not
want to use ‘borrow and payback’ you will need to apply your own subtraction method to the
problem.
 Basic Rules for Binary Subtraction
Rule No. 1 0-0=0

Rule No. 2 0-1=1 borrow 1
Rule No. 3 1-0=1
Rule No. 4 1-1=0
Example:
Solve the following binary subtraction problems
a. 1102 b. 10102 c. 10012

- 1002 - 1102 - 1012
010 1002 1002

13
2.2 OCTAL ADDITION
Octal addition is performed just like decimal addition, except that if a column of two addends
produces sum greater than 7, you must subtract 8 from the result, put down the result, and carry the
1.
Example
1 1 1 carry 11 1 1 1 carry 1111 carry
a. 6 6 5 28 b. 1 5 6 3 58 c. 2 7 7 7 38
+ 7 6 7 48 + 7 5 4 7 48 + 7 4 3 4 28
1 4 7 4 68 1 1 3 3 3 18 1 2 4 3 3 58
2.2.1 OCTAL SUBTRACTION
 We will use the complement method octal subtraction. The steps for subtracting two octal
number as follows:
o 1. Compute the seven’s complement of the subtrahend by subtracting each digit of the
subtrahend by 7.
o 2. Add 1 to the seven’s complement of the subtrahend to get the eight’s complement
of the subtrahend
o 3. Add the eight’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend and drop the high
order 1. This is your difference.
Example
Compute 75268 - 31428
1. Compute the seven’s complement of 3142 by subtracting each digit from 7
7 7 7 7
- 3 1 4 2
4 6 3 3
2. Add 1 to the seven’s complement of the subtrahend giving the eight’s

complement of the subtrahend.
4 6 3 5
+1
4 6 3 6

14
3. Add the eight’s complement to the minuend and drop the high-order 1,
giving the difference.
1 1
7 5 2 68
- 4 6 3 68
1 4 3 6 48
Therefore 752688 – 31428 = 43648
2.3 HEXADECIMAL ADDITION
 One consideration is that if the result of an addition is between 10 and 15, the corresponding
letter A through F must be written in the result.
Example
1 9 516
+ 3 1 916
4 A E16
 A second consideration is that if either of the addends contains a letter A through F, convert
the letter to its decimal equivalent (either by memory or by writing it down) and then proceed
with the addition.
Example
3 A 2
+ 4 1 C
7 B E
 A third consideration is that if the result of an addition is greater than 15, you must subtract
16 from the result of the addition, put down the difference of that subtraction for that position,
a carry a 1 over to the next position.
Example 1 carry
D E B
+ 1 0 E
E F 9

15
2.3.1 HEXADECIMAL SUBTRACTION
 We will use the complement method to perform hexadecimal subtraction. The steps for
subtracting two hexadecimal numbers are follows:
o 1. Compute the 15’s complement of the subtrahend by subtracting each digit of the
subtrahend by 15.
o 2. Add 1 to the 15’s complement of the subtrahend to get the 16’s complement of the
subtrahend.
o 3. Add the 16’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend and drop the high-order
1. This is your difference.
Example
Compute ABED16 – 1FAD16
1. Compute the 15’s complement of 1FAD by subtracting each digit from 15.
15 15 15 15
- 1 5 A D16
E 0 5 2
2. Add 1 to the 15’s complements of the subtrahend, giving the 16’s complement of
the subtrahend.
E 0 5 216
+ 1
E 0 5 3
3. Add the 16’s complement of the subtrahend to the minuend and drop the high-
order 1, giving the difference.
A B E D 16
- E 0 5 316
8 C 4 016
Therefore ABED16 – 1FAD16 = 8C4016

16
2.4 Summary
A mathematical function that takes two operands and performs a calculation on them is an
arithmetical operator. They are used in common arithmetic, and most computer languages contain a
set of such operators that can be used to perform a number of sequential calculation types within
equations.
2.5 Key Points
The subtraction or addition of binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers follows the same rules as the
subtraction or addition of numbers in any other number system. The only variation is in borrowed and
carry number.
Activity No. 2 (30 minutes to answer this Activity)
1. Why computers do used binary arithmetic?

2. How does the computer CPU implement binary addition and subtraction?
3. Solve the following digital arithmetic problems:
e. 10101010102 – 100100102
f. 1110001102 + 1100011002
g. 777337738 + 434434418
h. 63737338 – 35343438
i. FADE16 – 1FA16
j. 9AC116 + BBA116
After your class schedule your appropriate response to these activity woks through
the Google Classroom platform. (Deadline of Submission to be discuss)

17
Honesty Clause
This honesty clause establishes a fundamental social contract within which the College community
agrees to live. This contract relies on the conviction that the personal and academic integrity of each
individual member strengthens and improves the quality of life for the entire community. It
recognizes the importance of honesty, trust, fairness, respect, and responsibility and wishes these
principles to be a defining part of Philippine State College of Aeronautics
The Institute of Engineering and Technology values and fosters an environment of academic and
personal integrity, supporting the ethical standards of the engineering profession, where we design
and build for the benefit and safety of society and our environment.
I agree that the submission of any academic work shall constitute a representation on my part both
that such work has been done, and its submission is being made, in compliance with honesty and
integrity. Furthermore, my responsibility includes taking action when I have witnessed or am aware
of another’s act of academic dishonesty.
_________________________
Students Name over Signature

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Rubrics serve as a basis for evaluating the activities provided.
Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor

Content The content is The content is Content is not Content is an Incomplete content
Development comprehensive, precise comprehensive, comprehensive and incomplete the topic is not clearly
and encouraging, precise and encouraging, even is not clearly pointed out and not
clearly stated and well encouraging, clearly though the topic is not indicated and is not encouraging (1 out
supported by the stated and well well supported but encouraging (2 of the of 5 questions had
(50 pts) subject. The writing and supported by the addressed.) To have 5 questions been addressed
its purpose are very subject. The scripture the subject matter addressed) with)
clear (Exceptionally, all and its purpose are inconsistent with its
questions were clear. (4 of the 5 content and to clarify
addressed) questions were thoughts. (It
addressed in an addressed 3 out of 5
exceptional way) questions
(50-41 pts) (40-31 pts) (30-21 pts) (20-11 pts) (10-10 pts)
Organization & Paper structure and The paper structure The paper's Paper structure and Organization and
Structure organization are and organization is organization and organization is not structure are not
excellent easy to follow. very clear and easy to structure are clearly easy to follow. The suitable for the
The transitions of follow. Paragraph easy to follow. transitions to topic. Paragraph is
(20 pts) paragraphs are present transitions throughout Paragraph transitions paragraphs need confused and
and very logical and the paper are present throughout the paper improvement thought is lacking
maintain the thought and logical and are present and logical transition.
flow throughout the maintain the flow of and maintain the flow
paper. thought. of thought.
(20-17 pts) (16-13 pts) (12-9 pts) (08 -05 pts) (04 -01 pts)
Format and Paper follows the exact The paper follows Most of the guidelines Paper complies with Paper disorder
References designated guidelines most guidelines and go through paper. some guidelines. made of lacks of
and correctly includes includes incorrect Borderlines, size of Included are elements incorrect
complete references. spacing between text paper, inappropriate borderlines, paper formatting this
lines, using different ink used and 3 size, inappropriate include as such:
font sizes with 4 references are ink used and 2 borderlines, paper
(20 pts) references. included. references. size, improper ink
used, overlap text,
copied plagiarized
or prepared by
another person with
1 reference are
included.
(20-17 pts) (16-13 pts) (12-09 pts) (08 -05 pts) (04 -01 pts)
Grammar Grammar rules, usage Grammar rules, usage Grammar rules, usage Paper made few Language utilizes
Punctuation and are fully followed, is followed and is followed and mistakes in grammar misleading
Spelling spelling is correct. spelling is correct. The spelling is correct. and spelling, conversional tone,
Language is very clear language is very clear Language is clear and language lacks made of numerous
(10 pts) and precise; sentences and precise; the precise; sentences clarification or grammatical and
consistently display structure of phrases is display varied includes some spelling errors.
strong, varied structure. consistently strong structure consistently misleading The activity was
The activity was and varied. strong. conversional tone. submitted two
submitted on time. The activity was The activity was The activity was weeks late.
submitted two days submitted four days submitted one week
late. late. late.
(10-09 pts) (08-07 pts) (06-05 pts) (04-03 pts) (02-01 pts)

19
REFERENCES
Digital Techniques Electronics Instruments Aviation Maintenance Technician Certificate

Series, retrieved from:
ttps://www.scribd.com/document/427718484/MODULE-5-Digital-Techniques-Electronic Instrument-
Systems
Electronic Flight Information Systems, retrieved from:

https://www.flight-mechanic.com/electronic-flight-information-systems/
Electronics Flight Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/pilotslounge/efis.pdf
Electronics Flight Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/pilotslounge/efis.pdf
Mike Tooley 2013) Aircraft Digital Electronic and Computer Systems: Principle Operation and
Maintenance, retrieved from:
https://www.classicaviation.in/uploads/ebook/1539501241Mike_Tooley_Aircraft_Digital_Electronic_a
nd-_Computer_Systems.pdf
Part 66 Cat. B1 Module 5 Digital Techniques/Electronic Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.ksu.lt/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/M5-Selected-pages.pdf

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Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

• 1: Demonstrate the fundamental theory of digital arithmetic.

Weeks Topics/Activity Allotted Hours

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.0 Digital Arithmetic........................................................................................................................12

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.0 TRANSMISSION OF DATA THEORY

 A number of problems involve designing an interface, or simply using an existing interface,

1.1 SERIAL VS PARALLEL SIGNALS

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.2 SERIAL INPUT OUTPUT INTERFACE

1.3 PARALLEL INPU OUTPUT INTERFACE

1.4 DATA BUS

 A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices.

 A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.5 SERIAL BUS

A Basic bus interface

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

 As well as providing an electrical interface (with appropriate voltage- and current-level

 This word comprises several discrete fields, including:

o up to 20 bits for data (which may be further divided);

Data formats in a practical bus interface

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.6 SYSTEM BUS

1.7 DATA BUS FUNCTION

1.7.1 DATA BUS

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.8 ARINC 429 (Data Bus for Civil Aircraft)

1.9 DATA BUS CABLE

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

1.11 Key Points

Activity No. 1 (30 minutes to answer this Activity)

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.0 DIGITAL ARITHMETIC

2.1 BINARY ADDITION

 Basic Rules for Binary Addition

Rule No. 1 0+0=0

Solve the following binary addition problems

111 carry 1 carry

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.1.2 BINARY SUBTRACTION

 Basic Rules for Binary Subtraction

Rule No. 1 0-0=0

Solve the following binary subtraction problems

a. 1102 b. 10102 c. 10012

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.2 OCTAL ADDITION

2.2.1 OCTAL SUBTRACTION

1. Compute the seven’s complement of 3142 by subtracting each digit from 7

2. Add 1 to the seven’s complement of the subtrahend giving the eight’s

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

Therefore 752688 – 31428 = 43648

2.3 HEXADECIMAL ADDITION

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.3.1 HEXADECIMAL SUBTRACTION

MODULE 4 Digital Techniques Flexible Modalities

2.5 Key Points

Activity No. 2 (30 minutes to answer this Activity)