ADHESIVE BONDING

MM 324
JOINING OF MATERIALS
 Adhesive bonding and cementing
Joining of materials by inter-atomic or intermolecular
bond through chemical reaction is called adhesive
bonding.
Adhesive bonding is the process of joining materials with
the aid of a substance, acting as a chemical agent, capable
of holding those materials together by surface attachment
forces.
Adhesive
Chemical used to make a joint
Adherend
Materials to be joined
Adhesive bonding in wood, glass and ceramics is also
called gluing, pasting and cementing.
ADHESIVE BONDING
“Joining of Materials and structures”, R W Messler, Elsevier Butterworth–Heinemann, 2004
 Function of adhesive
 Structural Applications
 Non structural Applications
Functions
• To join components
• Comprehensive bonding with substrate.
• Stress distribution is on large area.
• Stress distribution is uniform.
• Viscoelastic nature of polymer gives
flexibility in the joint.
• Provide sealing affect to stop leakage.
 Advantages of adhesive bonding

• High load carrying potential

• Low stress concentration
• Suitable for thin and thick structures.
• Little or no change in chemistry.
• Suitable for dissimilar materials.
• Sealant, insulator of heat and electricity.
• High strength to weight ratio.
• Absorb shock and vibration loads.
• Reduce galvanic and crevice corrosion.
 Disadvantages of adhesive bonding

• Sensitive to peal and cleavage

• Require careful joint preparation.
• Limited shelf life or working time of
adhesives.
• Sometime curing time is too long.
• Repair is almost impossible.
• Sensitive to heat and organic solvents.
• Direct inspection is not possible.
• Adhesive are prone to bacterial attack.
 Adhesive bonding

Forces and Energy

• Ionic Bonds

• With covalent sharing of atoms covalent bond is established.

• Metallic bonds (delocalized)

• Secondary bonding (van der waal’s)

• Surface Energy
 ADHESIVES

Natural Adhesives
Animal-based adhesives (e.g., casein, collagen, gelatin)
Plant-based adhesives (e.g., pitch, natural rubbers, asphalt)
Mineral-based adhesives (e.g., sodium silicate, mineral-based sol-gels, calcium carbonate)

Synthetic Adhesives
Synthetic Organic Adhesives
- Chemically-activated adhesives (e.g., cyanoacrylates, epoxies)
- Heat or radiation-activated adhesives (e.g., one-component epoxies)
- Evaporation or diffusion adhesives (e.g., phenolics)
- Thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives
- Pressure-sensitive (contact) adhesives
Synthetic Inorganic Adhesives
- Portland cements
- High-alumina, calcium aluminate cements
- Mortars (e.g., gypsum)
- Refractory cements
- Dental cements
- Glassy frits
 Theories of Adhesive bonding

1. Electrostatic theory of adhesion

Development of electrostatic forces of attraction
between the adhesive and the adherends at their
interface.

- Difference in electronegativity (Ionic bonding). Polarization at the

interface between adhesive and the adherend.
- Dipole interaction

Insulator or dielectrics e.g., polymers, ceramics and

glasses.

(Emission of light and charged and neutral particles when adhesive

bonds are opened in a vacuum)
 Theories of Adhesive bonding

2. Diffusion theory of adhesion

When two materials are at least partially soluble in one another,
they can and do form a solution at their interface.

- Solid state diffusion (both in the solid form, slow)

- Liquid-solid diffusion (liquid adhesive and solid adherend, fast)

Stronger bonds result in chemically similar materials e.g., polymers.

Inter-diffusion and entanglement of long polymeric chains.

Used in wood and polymers. Difficult to apply for metals or ceramics.

- Solvent cementing of thermoplastics.

- Fusion bonding of thermoplastics.
 Theories of Adhesive bonding
3. The mechanical theory of adhesion
For an adhesive to function properly it must penetrate the microscopic
asperities (e.g., peaks and valleys, open pores, and crevices) on the
surface of adherends, and displace any trapped air at the interface.

Mechanical interlocking and anchoring of adhesive, no chemical bonding.

Open celled polymeric foams, porous ceramics, PMCs, wood and metals
having porous native oxide layer. Etched glasses and abraded metals.

Chemical etching and mechanical abrading important steps in adhesive

bonding.

1. Enhancing mechanical interlocking or anchoring.

2. Creating clean and wettable surface.
3. Increase in bond area due to an increase in the surface area.
4. Formation of a chemical reactive surface.
 Theories of Adhesive bonding
4. Adsorption theory of adhesion
Adhesion due to secondary bonding between adhesive
and the adherends.
Wetting as an indication of adhesion.

The degree of wetting is controlled by the balance between the surface

energy or surface tension of the liquid–solid interface versus the liquid
vapor and solid–vapor interfaces it replaces.
Permanent adhesion results primarily from the forces of chemical
bonding.
 Weak boundary layer theory
If an adhesive bond is properly made, the joint will fail in either the
adhesive or one of the adherends, whichever has the lower cohesive
strength.
If an adhesive bond fails at a lower strength than expected for either of
these, it does so because it failed through a weak boundary layer at the
interface between the adhesive and one of the adherends.

(1) Concentration of low-molecular-weight constituents for organic-type

adhesives or low-density constituents for inorganic types of adhesives due
to separation during bonding;
(2) Weakly attached oxide or other tarnish layers on metals;
(3) Contamination of the adherend(s) by oil, grease, or adsorbed water (in
some cases) due to improper cleaning; and
(4) Entrapped air at the interface.
Schematic illustration of the various mechanisms that can lead to adhesion during adhesive
bonding: (a) mechanical interlocking of adhesive into asperities; (b) secondary bonding from
adsorption with proper wetting from surface-energy effects; (c) electrostatic attraction from
charge separation; and (d) diffusion of atoms or molecules back and forth between adhesive and
adherends. Also, (e) the formation of a weak boundary layer leads to the adhesive failure of joints.
 Adhesive Bonding
Resistance offered to separate substrates joined by
adhesive is called tackiness
• It increases with the viscosity of adhesive
• It also depend on the applied force and time
Reasons are considered microscopic contact with substrate,
electrostatic force, product of time and pressure

Stefan's equation: f t = ¾ (πŋa4) [1/(h12-h22)]

h1, h2 are initial and final clearance between adherends,
ŋ is viscosity of the adhesive,
a is the diameter or other linear dimensions of the contact,
f is the force required to separate the surfaces,
t is the time required to separate the surfaces.

For considerable thicker layer Stefan’s equation become;

f t = ¾ (ŋa2/h12)
 Factors influencing adhesive selection

Materials Requirements
• Curing conditions
• Compatibility
• Handling and disposal
• Mechanical properties
Cost
• Special properties
• Inherent cost
Service Requirements
• Application and curing cost
• Loading type
• Chemical reactions
• Environmental factors
Production Requirements
• Application method
• Storage requirements
• Working life
• Coverage
 Surface preparation for adhesive bonding

Strong adhesive bond  Clean surface (Bonding is a surface phenomenon)

Contaminations

Dirt, grease, cutting coolants and lubricants, ink or crayon marks, visible water
(including dew, frost, and ice), obvious moisture (e.g., high humidity), and weak
surface scales (e.g., oxides, sulfides, and other tarnishes) must be thoroughly
removed.

Cleaning Methods

Chemical

Physical

Mechanical

Combination
 Surface preparation for adhesive bonding

Solvent cleaning
Removal of soil from the surface without physically or chemically
altering the adherends.

a. Vapour degreasing
Removal of loose adhering particulate matter, dirt, or light soluble soils
using hot solvent (e.g., trichloroethylene) vapor that condenses on the
adherend and flows away debris.

b. Solvent wiping, immersion, or spraying

Several different solvents (e.g., ethanol, methanol, acetone, or trichloroethylene)
for the removal of light or heavy soluble soils (e.g., oils, greases, waxes), dirt,
and particulate matter.

c. Ultrasonic cleaning in solvent:

The scrubbing action of collapsing bubbles during solvent immersion

break looses tenacious contaminants, that is followed by a liquid solvent
rinse to remove residues.
 Surface preparation for adhesive bonding

Aqueous solutions with surfactants, detergents, or alkaline or acid cleaners

can be used.

2. Intermediate cleaning
A process of removing soil or scale from an adherend surface with physical,
mechanical, or chemical means, singly or in combination, without altering the
adherend chemically. May remove small amount of parent material.

Mechanical methods
Grit blasting, wire brushing, sanding, abrasive scrubbing, or scraping or filing.

Physical methods
Electrical corona discharge and various high-speed ablative processes using flames,
plasmas, or lasers.

Chemical methods
Alkaline, acid, and detergent cleaning (often with scrubbing).
 Surface preparation for adhesive bonding

3. Chemical treatment
Changing the surface of the adherend chemically to improve its adhesion qualities.

Acid or alkaline etching (pickling)  Removal of oxide, smeared surface, or

roughening of surface on a microscopic scale.

Activation of the surface  Removal of adsorbed gases, intervening oxides,

or other scales, and the exposure of clean material.

4. Priming
Application of a dilute solution of the adhesive’s active bonding agent in a suitable
organic solvent to the surface of the adherend to produce a dried film thickness of
0.0015–0.05mm (0.00006–0.002 in.).

Functions:
(i) Protection from oxidation
(ii) Improvement in wetting
(iii) Holds the adhesive during assembly
(iv) Coupling agents (if present) in the primer helps adhesion
 Failure of adhesive bonding
There are several mechanism for failure of adhesive joints but the
predominant are;

Adhesive failure
Interfacial failure between or seemingly between (but actually just adjacent to)
the actual interface between the adhesive and one of the adherends.
It tends to be indicative of a weak boundary layer, often due to improper
preparation.

Cohesive failure
Failure in the form of physical separation that results in a layer of adhesive
remaining on both adherend surfaces or, more rarely, when the adherend
fails before the adhesive fails, with separation occurring totally within one of
the adherends.

Mix failure
Joint failure that is neither purely adhesive nor cohesive; is called a mixture of
both modes.

The operative failure mode is often expressed as a percentage of cohesive or

adhesive failure, with an ideal failure being 100% cohesive.
 Causes of adhesive joint failure

• Surface contaminations
• Poor wetting of adherend
• Internal stresses
• Improper selection of adhesive
• Processing error
• Improper joint design
• Stress on the joint
• Operating environment
 Design Considerations

(1) Providing the maximum bonding area possible in the design

to help spread the applied load and minimize stress in the
adhesive;

(2) Designing the joint in such a way as to force loads to be

transmitted to the joint in favorable loading directions (e.g.,
pure compression, pure tension, or—most achievable—pure
shear)

(3) Orienting joints or designing joint elements or reinforcements

in such a way as to minimize unfavorable out-of-plane (i.e.,
peel or cleavage) loading;
 Design Considerations

(4) Designing joints to ensure uniformity in thickness of the

adhesive layer and keeping this layer as thin as practical.
(5) Designing joints and their elements in such a way that volatile
components of the adhesive can be expelled or absorbed by
the adherends;

(6) Designing joints from combinations of materials that will

minimize stresses arising from differences in coefficients of
thermal expansion (especially for hard brittle adhesives, such
as many of the inorganic types, including cements and
mortars);

(7) Designing joint elements and assemblies in such a way as to

facilitate adhesive application, curing, and inspection.
 Design Considerations

The ideal adhesive-bonded joint is one in which, under all practical

loading conditions, the adhesive is stressed in the direction in which
it best resists failure (i.e., shear).

Good wetting is desired for a good bond

TYPES OF FORCES AND JOINTS