Spe

rma
toge
nes
is
Ce lldi vis
ione nsur est hec ontinuityofl ifef r
om ge nerat
iont oge neration.I tisthe
basisofbot ha sexualr e pr oduc t
iona ndt hef or
ma tionofs pe r
ma nde ggi ns e
xual
reproduc tion.I nhe rit
anc er eferst ot het r
ansferofge ne t
ic
allyde te r
mi nedt rait
sf r
om
parentt oof f
spring.Ge neticsi sth es t
udyofme chani s
msr e s
pons iblef orinhe ritance.
I nt hehuma nl ifec yc leme i
os i
si sas pec i
alf or m ofc elldi vi si
ont ha tproduces
game t
e s,mos toft hec e l
lsi nbodyha ve23pa i
r sofc hromos ome sa nda r
er e ferr
edt oas
diploidc el
ls,whi chme anst heyha ve2s e t
sofc hromos ome stota l
ly44a utos ome sand2
sexc hromos ome s.Ea c hs pe rm ore ggc a
rri
esonl y23c hromos ome sanda r
ec all
ed
haploidc ellsbec ausethe yha veonl y1s etofc hromos ome s
Ha ploidga me teske e
pst hec hromos omenumbe rf rom doubl i
ngi ne ac hs uc ce
eding
gene rati
on,ha ploidga me t
e sa repr oduc edbyas pec ia
ls or tofcelldi visionc alledme i
osis
,
whic hoc cursonl yi nre produc tiveor ga ns,l i
keova riesa ndt est
e s
The f orma tion of s pe rm t akesa bout65 - 75 da ys .The de ve lopme ntof
Sper ma toge nesisinvol vest hef ol l
owi ngpr ocesses:
1.Mi t
o sis
2.Me iosis
3.Spe rmi oge nes i
s( conve rsionofs perma tidsintospe rms )
Proc essbe ginswi thdi ploids t
e mc ellsc alleds perma t
ogoni al oc a t
e dint he
semi niferoust ubul esi nt he t estes.Spe r
ma tozoa c ont a
in 22 a utosome s& 1 s ex
chromos omee itherXorYwhi chde t
e rmi nesthege netics exoft hee mbr yo.

Spermatogonia(i
mma turegame t
ewi t
h46Chr omos ome s
)
e
nlargementint
othisproc e
ssbegi
nsi
nadol
esc
enc
e
her
ebymi toti
cdivisi
ondividesinto
Pri
ma rySperma t
ocyteswi t
h46Chr omos omes
by1s tMe i
oticdi
visi
ondividesinto
SecondarySpe r
ma toc
yt eswith23Chr omosome s
by2ndMe ioti
cdivis
iondividesinto
Spermatids(wit
h23c hromosome s)

Spe r
msorSpe rma t
oz oa( whi chisnon- motile&r i
c hinDNA)
4s per
ma t
idsa r
ef orme d
– e achi sha pl oid(23 )&uni que
– Ha lfoft hes permc ontain22a utosomesa ndXs exc hromos omea ndhalf
thatha ve22a utosome sa ndYs e
xc hromosome .
Thes tructurei sa dapte df orr e
a ching& pe net
ratingas econda ryooc yt
e.He a
d
contains23 c hromos ome s& a c r
osomec a p whichc oversove rt hehe a
d( oocyte
me mbr anediges t
inge nz yme s)&mi dpi ecec onta
insmitoc hondri
atof ormATP&t a
ilis
fl
age ll
um us edf orl oc omot ionf rom va ginat otheut er
inet ubetil
li tunitstheovum.I t
survivesinf e
ma l
ege nitalsf ora bout48+hr s.
Appl iedAna t
omy:
Abnor ma lforma t
ionofSpe r
ma t
oge nesi
s :
Thef ollowingc ausesc anl eadt oa bnorma lforma t
ionofs pe r
ma t
ogenesis,t
he yare:
1.Duet oMumps .
2.Duet os tr
ictur eing e
nitalduc tsofi nfants
.
 3.Duetomorehe a
texposur
etothet
esti
s.
4.Cyrpt
orc
hidis
im
5.Abnormalsper
mc ount&eff
ectofabnor
mals
per
mmor
phol
ogy.
OOge
nes
is
Asaf et
us,oogoniadivi
det opr oducemi l
li
onsbymi t
osi
sbutmos tdegener
ate
(a
tre
s i
a).
Somede vel
opint
opr i
maryoocytes&s t
opinprophasest
ageofme i
osisI
– 200,000to2mi l
li
onpre sentatbi
rt
h
– 40,000remainatpuber
tybutonl y400ma tur
eduringawoma n’
sli
fe
Each month,hormonesc auseme i
osisIt or e
s umei ns eve
ralfolli
cl
ess othat
metaphaseI
Iisreac
hedbyovul a
ti
on.Pe netr
ati
onbyt hespermcause
st hefi
nalst
ages
ofme i
osist
ooccur.

Oogoni
um(
imma
tur
ega
metewi
th46Chr
omo
some
s)
byMi
tos
is

Pr
imaryOoc
ytewith46Chromosome s
by1stMeiot
icdivi
siondivi
desinto
s
t
Se
condar
yOocytewit
h23Chr omosome s&1 pol arbodywith23Chromos
omes
I
nthisst
ageovulat
iontakespla
c ebut2ndmeiot
icdi
vis
ionst
opsi
n
met
aphase.Afterf
e r
ti
liz
ati
onitisconvert
edint
o
Matur
eOvum( wi
th23chromosome )&2ndp
s olarbody(22+X).

St
ruc
tur
eofAma
tur
edSpe
rm
Af
terSpe
rmat
idstr
ansfor
medint
oSpe
rma
toz
oai
twi
llha
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngpa
rtsa
s:
1.AHe ad
2.ANe ck
3.AMi ddlepiec
e&
4.ATa i
lorPrinci
palpi
ece.

1.TheHe ad:
He a di sde ri
vedf rom t henuc leusofSpe r
ma tids,whi c hc ontai
nsChr omatin
(mostl
yDNA) .Thehe adisbee nc overe
dbyac apwh ichi sknowna sAcrosomewhi chis
deri
vedf romt heGolgia pparatuse s
senti
altopiercethez onape lluc i
daoftheovum.I tis
als
oknowna sAc r
osomicc ap.
2.TheNe ck:
Iti sa na r
row a rea whi chc onnec t
sthe he ad wi tht he rema i
nderoft he
Sperma toz oon.Ithasaf unnels hapedba sa
lbodya ndas phe r
icalc entri
ole.
3.TheMi ddlePi ece:
Themi ddlepiecewhi chl iesbetweenthene cka ndt ai
li tc onta
insaxia
lfila
me nt
whichgr owsoutf r
om thec ent r
iolewhicha ls
oe xtendsi nt
ot het ai
l.Butinthemi ddle
piecethisf i
lame ntissurrounde dinter
nallybyas piralshe at
hma deupofMi t
ochondr i
a
andou te rc ove r
ingi sma debyapl asmame mbrane .I
ti sdivi de dfrom tai
lbyar ing
shapedAnnul usforme dfromt hedi st
alcentr
iol
eoft h
eSpe rmatid.
4.TheTa il:
 Itistheconti
nuat
ionoft
hemi ddl
epiec
ewhichcont
ainstheaxi
alfi
la
me nt
swhich
i
scover
e dbyas er
iesofcover
ingsbyplasmamembraneexter
nally& afi
brousshe
ath
i
nte
rnal
ly.Itconta
insapairofcentr
alfi
bri
lsands
urr
oundedbyni nepai
rsar
rangedi
na
c
irc
ula
rma nnerar
oundthecent
ralpai
r.

St
ruc
tur
eofOvum
Theovumwhi c hisreali
z edf romt hef olli
c l
eisnotfull
yma t
ured.Iti
sint
hes t
age
ofsec
onda ryooc ytewhe r
et hes econdpol arbodyi snotformed.Thes ec
ondpolarbody
wil
lbef orme donl yaft
erthef er
tili
z ation.
Atthet imeofovul a
t i
ontheovuma ppe arswiththefoll
owingf e
a t
ures:
1.Theovumi ssurroundedbyZonaPe l
lucidawi t
h
somec el
lsofc oronar a
diates tickingt ot heou t
er
surfaceofZonaPe lluci
da .
2.Nuc leusisnots eeninthiss tagea sitisdi ssol
ved
forthes econdme i
oticdivision.
3.Spi ndlefors econdme i
oticdi visioni ss een.
4.Thef irs
tpol a
rbodyi sseeni nt hes pa cebe tween
theCyt oplasm( Vitell
us)andZonaPe ll
uc ida
whic hisknowna sPe ri
vitell
ines pac e.
5.Now t hes izeofovum i sve ryl argea ndme as
uresa boutmor ethan100µm i n
diame te
rwhe r
ea sthes izeofot he rc ell
soft hebodyme asure
sa boutonl
y10µm
indiame ter.

Cha
nge
sint
heZygot
e
Thef ert
ilizati
ont akespla ceint heAmpul laoft heut erinet ubebe t
we enthes perm
andovum.Thes permpi ercestheZonaPe llucidaa nde nterstheovum.Onc es perme nters
intot heovum t hes econdme ioticdi vi s
ionwi llbec ompl etedbyr e l
easi
ngt hes econd
pola rbody.Nowt henuc leusoft heovumbe come st hef e
ma lepr onuc l
eusandt hehe adof
thes perm wh ichi ss epa r
atedf rom t hemi ddlepi ec e& t a
ilnow be c
ome sa sama le
pronuc l
eus.
Af t
erthisthenuc l
earme mbr aneoft hepr onuc le usislos tandt he23c hromos ome s
oft he setwof ormsa23pa i
rc hro mos ome s
.Me anwhi letheZonaPe l
luci
da,e nsuresthat
no ot hers perma tozoon c ane ntert heooc yte.Th en as pindl ei sforme da nd one
chromos omeofe achpa irmove st oe a che ndoft hes pindle.Thi sleadstof orma t
ionof
twoc ellswith46c hromos ome sine a chc ell.
Fromt hiss taget hef er
t i
lizedovumunde rgoe st odi vi
dei ntoma nyc ell
swhi c
hi s
knowna sc l
eava ges tageupt ot hef orma tionofMor ulas t
a ge.Thef ormedtwoc e l
lswi l
l
unde rgos e
riesofdi visionswhe ref ir
s tonec e l
ldi vide sa ndf ormsa3- c
ells t
ageoft he
embr yof oll
owe dbya4- cel
ls t
a gea nda5- ce l
ls t
a gea ndc ont i
nue stheproc essofc e l
l
divisio ntil
lintos ma llcellswhi chi sknowna sCl ea va ge . Mor ula
Thec leavagepr oc ee
dsa ndr e ache sto16c ell
stagewhi chlooksl ikeamul berrya ndi sc alledthe
Mor ula.Latertheout erc overi
ngoft heovumi .
e.
 ZonaPe l
lucidawi l
lbel osta f
teri mplantat
ion.I nside
itwillhavea ni nnerc el
lma sst hatiscompl et
elys urr
oundedbyanouterl
ayerofcell
s
whi c
hla t
ergi vesr i
set oas tructurec a
lledt heTr ophoblas
t.Thei
nnerce
llmassdevel
ops
int
oe mbr yopr ope rwhi chi snow c all
eda se mbryoblast
.Thetr
ophobl
astcel
lsprov
ide
nutri
ti
ont othee mbryo.
La tersomef luidpa s
sesi ntothemor ulafrom
theuter
inec avity,whi chs eparatesthec ell
sofi nner
cellmassf r
omt het r
ophobl astc ell
s.Asthequa ntit
y
ofthefluidinc reases,themor ulaa cquiresthes hape
ofac yst
.Thee ntireinne rc ell
sc o mesc l
osera nd
theywillattachedt oi nne rsideoft rophoblas tatone
placewithac avityini t,whi chi snowknowna sBla s
tocys
t
andthec avitya sBl astocoe l
e.
Thes i
deoft hebl a st
oc ysttowhi chthei nner
Ce l
lma ssisa t
tac hedi sca l
ledt hee mbryoni cora nimal
Pole,whiletheoppos i
tes ideist hea bembryoni cpol e
.
 For
mat
ionofGe
rmLa
yer
s
Af t
ert hef or ma tionofBl a stoc ystma nyc hange swi llta kepl acei nitforthe
format
ionofor ga nsa ndt is suesa longwi t
hma nyot he rs t
ructureswhi cha ree s
sent
ialfor
suppor
tinga ndnour ishingt hee mbr yo.Nowwewi l
lc ons i
de r
eda boutthef ormat
ionof
TriGermina lla ye rs,the ya re:
1.Endode rm( e ndo=i n s
ide ).
2.Ec t
ode rm( ecto=out si
de ).
3.Me sode rm( me s o=i nthemi ddle ).
Aft
e rforma tionofBl as t
oc ystt hef ollowi ngc hange swi llbes ee ninthef ormati
onof
t
heTr i
ge r
mi na lla ye rs.
1.Someoft hec e ll
sofi nt hei nne rc ellma sswi lldi ff
erenti
a teint
of latcell
swhe re
thesec e ll
sa reknowna sEndode rm.
2.La t
eront her ema iningc el
lsoft hei nne rce l
lma sswi l
lconve r
tintothec ol
umna r
cell
swhi cha reknowna sEc tode rm.Nowt hee mbr yoisha vingtwol ayereddisc
.
3.Be t
we ent heTr ophobl astandEc tode rmas pa ce
isforme dwhi chi sknowna sAmni oticc avity
withAmni oge ni cc e l
lsf ormsa sar oofa nd
Ec t
ode rma sf l
oor .The s eAmni oge nicc e l
lsare
derivedf romt het r ophobl a
s tc ells.
4.La t
ert heEndode rmc ellswi l lpr olifera t
ea nds pread
tolinet hei nne rs ur faceoft het rophobl astcell
sa nd
aroundt heBl astoc ystc avity.Nowt hisc avityisc alled
asPr ima r
yyol ks ac .
4.The nt heExt raEmbr yoni cMe sode rm( EEM)i sf orme d
betwe ent het rophobl as
ta ndt hee ndode rml aye r
swhi ch
alsos pre adbe twe e nAmni oge nicc e llsandt r
ophobl a
st
whi cha rede ve lope df r
omt rophobl as tcells.Thisme soderm
doesnotha vea nyr oleint hef orma tionoft is
sue soft hebody.

6.La t
erinEEM ma nys ma l
lc avitieswilla ppear
whichgr adua l
lyjoinstogethert oformal a r
ge
cavit
ywhi chisknowna sExt ra-Embr yoni c-
Coe l
om.Thi scoelomdi vi
de st heEEM i ntotwo
layer
sa spa r
ietalextraembr yonicme sode rm
whichl i
e sbetwe e
nt heinsi
deoft rophobl astand
outsi
det hea mnioticcavit
y,a ndvi scerale xtr
a
embr yonicme sodermwhi c hline stheout erside
oftheyol ksa c
.Butt hiscavitydonote xtendinto
theEEM whi chl i
esbe t
we ent hea mniot i
cc avit
y
andtrophobl ast
,whi chlat
erc onve rte
di ntoc onnect
ing
stal
k.

7.Atthi
sst
aget
wome mbra
nesar
eforme
dwhi c
hplayver
yi mpor
tantrol
einchi
ld
bi
rt
h,the
yare:
a)Amnion:I
tisc
over
edbythepa
rie
tale
xtr
a-embryoni
cme soder
m,andthat
 t
hec onne ctings tal
ki sattac he d.
b)Chor ion:I tist hel ayerf orme dbyt heuni onoft hepa rie
talEEM a nd
t
rophobl ast.
c)Af tert hef or ma tionoft he seme mbr an estheEEM Coe lomwi llincreas
ei n
si
z ewhi chma ket hepr ima ryyol ks aci ntos ma l
lerca vitywhic hi sknown
ass ec onda ryyol ks ac.Now he ret hec ellsnol onge rwi l
lbef lat
tened
whi chbe come sc ubi calinna tur e.
8.Now t hee mbr yoi sac ir
c ulardi s cwi t
ht wol aye rsofce l
lsi .
e.Ectode rm with
columna rc ellswhe rea st hee ndode r mwi t
hc ubicalc el
ls.
9.Fur t
he rsomeoft hec ellsofe ndode rmwhi ch
arec los ertot hema rgina r
ec onve rte df rom
cubi ca ltoc olumna rwhi cht heya rec alleda s
proc hor dalpl a te
.Th ispl atede t
ermi ne sthec entral
axisoft hee mbr yowhi chhe lpsi ndi s t
ingu ishingt hef uturehe a
da ndt ai
lof
embr yo.
10.Afte rf orma tionoft hispl ates oons omeoft he
cellsoft hee c todermwhi cha rec los ert o
thet aile ndbe ginst opr oli
f erate,whi chf orm
ane le vationt ha tbul ge sintot hea mni otic
cavitywhi chi sknowna sPr imitiveSt re ak.
Thi spr imi ti
ves tr
e aki sar oundorova lswe ll
ing
atfirs tlaterduet oe longa t i
onoft hedi sci tt urnsi ntoalinea rs t
ruct
ure.Thec ell
s
oft hepr imi t
ives t r
e akwi llpr olifera t
ea ndt he yaremove dbypus hedthe mselves
betwe ent hee ct
od erma nde ndode rmc ells.The sec el
lsa reknowna sIntra
embr yoni cMe s
ode rm whi chi st het hir dge rml a yer
. Thi sme s
ode r
ms preads
throughoutt hedi sce xc epti nt her e gionoft hepr ochorda lpl a
te.Thewh ole
proc es soff or ma tonofpr
i imitives treaka ndofi ntraembr yonicme sodermi s
knowna sga strulation.

AmnioticFluid:
Itpr
ovidessupportf orthede lica
tetis
s ue soft hegrowi ngembryoorf etus.I
tall
owsfree
moveme ntsandprot ect
st h
ef e t
usfromt hee xternalinj
ury.Ital
soavoidsa dhes
ionofthe
fet
ustoa mnion.Aspr e
gna ncya dvance st hequa nti
tywi l
lincre
aseswhi chreac
hesabout
oneli
ter.Whe nthisf l
uidismor ethatc onditioni sknowna sHydr a
mni os,andwhenitis
tooli
tt
leitisknowna sOl i
ga mnios.Bot ht hesear eabnormalcondit
ionswhi chmaycause
dif
fi
cult
iesdur i
ngc hil
dbi r
th.
Inrecentstudiesitisf oundtha ttheAmni ot
icfluidcont
ainsthes t
emc el
lswhich
haveama inroleinde velopingthet i
ssueoror gansoft hebody.

Pl
ace
nta
Placentaisanor ganwhichha sac ardi
nalr ol
einthegr owthofthef oe
tus.Itcan
als
obec al
le
da sMa hasrotusonAyur vedicgroundsbe ca
us ei
tdoe st
hef unct
ionsofa l
l
thesrot
usofa na dulthuma n.Beforewel ookintot hefor
ma ti
onofplacentaweha veto
knowns omeoft hec hangestakingplacei nt hee mbryowhi cha r
ee ssent
iali nthe
formati
onofpl acent
a.Placentai
sf ormedpartl
yfr ome mbryoni
cs t
ruct
ures(Chorion)and
part
lyfromth ema te
rnalstr
uctur
es( Deci
duaBa salis)
.
De f
initi
on:
Itisadi scoidor ganoft ruema mma lsdur ingpr egnancy,joiningmot herand
offs
pring,pr ovidinge ndoc ri
nes ecre
tiona nds elect
ivee xchangeofs olublebl oodborne
substancesthrougha ppositi
onofut eri
nea ndtrophobl as
ticva s
culari
zedpa rt
s.
Inthef orma tionofpl acentathef oll
owings tepsha stobeknownt heya re:
1.For ma tionofDe cidua.
2.Cha i
nge sint heTr ophoblast
.
1.Forma ti
onofDe c idua :
Afterf erti
liza t
iont hec hangedmuc ousme mbr aneoft heuterusma inl
yi nthe
fundusa ndbodyi sc al
leda sDe cidua .Thez ygot
ewhe nitre ac
hest otheut er
usfor
implantati
oni twi llbei ntheformofMor ula
.Whe nthismor ular e
achesthee ndome t
ri
um
isinthes ecr
e tarypha se.
Thef orma tionofDe ciduade pendsont hepr oge st
eronehor moneofCor pus
Luteum.Noc or pusl uteum onde c i
dua .Iffer
tiliz
ati
ondoe snotoc curthecha ngesinthe
muc ousme mbr aneoft heu te
ruswi l
lalsonott akeplac e
.

Thecha
ngesinDe ci
dua :
1.Thecell
sofmuc usmembranewillbethi
ckenedandproli
fer
ated.
2.Theshapeoft hecell
swil
lbecomei ntos
phe r
oida
lfromc ol
umna rtypewit
hmore
fl
uidi
ns i
det hem.
3.Thenucleusbe c
ome smorevi
sibl
ea ndpl
a s
mamor etrans
parentinnatur
e.
4.Duetomor eprolif
era
ti
onoft hec el
lseventhecapil
lar
ieswi l
lalsoincr
eas
ein
numbertonour i
shthem.

Pa rt
soft heDe cidua:
TheDe ciduac anbec lassifiedintothreepartsas:
1.De ciduaBa salis–i tisthepa rtwhi chli
esbe lowt heimpl a
ntedzygotewhi chalso
ha sama inrolei nt heforma t
ionofPl acenta.
2.De ciduaCa ps ulari
s–i tist hepa rtofthede cidua swhi c
hs epar
a t
esthez ygote
fromt heut e
rinec avity.
3.De ciduaPa ri
etalis–i tisrestofthede ci
dua se xc eptthea bovetwoa rea
swhi chdo
notha vea nyrol einthegr owt hoffetous.
La yersofDe cidua :
TheDe ciduac anbedi vide dintothreela ye
rsasf ollows :
1.St rat
umCompa ctum( l
aye rwh i
chi scompa ctinna ture):
Itist hemos tout ermos tlayeront heinne rs urfac eoft heut er
uswhi c
hi sas i
ngle
linedl a
ye rwhi chismor ec ompa c
ti ntheircells.Thi sla yera l
soha saope ningsoft he
uterineglands .
2.St rat
umSpongi osum( layerwhi chislikespongyi nna tur e
):
Int hisl ayert he c ell
sa res cat
tere
da nd l oos el
ya rranged with plenty of
intercel
lulars paces.Ita lsoha stheut e
rineglandsa ndma nynumbe rsofcapil
lari
esinthis
layer.
3.Li miti
ngLa yer:
Thi sisa lsoas i
nglel ayerandl ienexttot hemus culatureoft heuter
usa ndwh ich
ac t
sa smot he rlayerfort hea bovetwol a ye
rs.Dur ingme nstr
ua ti
ont hefi
rstt
wol ayersare
l
ostwhe
rea
sthi
sla
yerwi
llnotbes
heddown.

Att
hee ndofpregnanc
y,thedec
iduaisshe
dof f
,alongwit
hthepl
ace
ntaa
nd
me
mbr
anes
.Iti
sthes
heddingoffwhi
chgive
sthedec
idua
sitsname
.

2.Cha ngesint heTr ophoblast:

Thee ssenti
alf uncti
onale le
me nt
soft hepl acentaa reve r
ys ma llfingerl i
ke
proc es
seswhi c hareknowa svi l
lie
swhi cha rede vel
ope dfrom t hesec el
ls.Init
iall
y,the
surfaceoft rophobl astiss moot ha nduni forml ateri tbec ome sune venbyf orming
elevati
onsa nd de pressi
onson whol ei tss urface
.The see l
e vat
ionsa re know a s
Trophoblasticbuds .Laterthesebudsa r
ec onve r
tedintovi l
li
sa sf ollows :
Init
iall
y,thet rophoblastlayeri sas i
nglel ayer.Buts oondi ffe r
e nti
atesintotwol ayer
s
witht wotype sofc el
ls.Thet wol a
yersarema debyat woc e
llst heya re:
1.Sync itiotr
ophobl as
t–t heoutermos tlayerofthevi l
li
. The s
et wolayersa r
e
2.Cyt otrophoblast–Thi sisthesecondl ayerofthevi ll
i. knowa sPrimaryVi ll
i.
Laterwhe nthesepr i
ma ryvil
liarel i
ne doni t
si nneras pec tbyc horioni
cl ayerof
extrae mbryoni cme soderm whi chformsc entralcoreofvi lli
,t he sevi l
li
sa reknow a s
Sec ondar
yVi l
li.
Whe nt heSe condaryVi ll
isarefil
ledwi ththebl oodc api l
lariesthentheVi lli
sare
knowna sTe rt
iaryVi l
li.

TheDe ciduaa ndVi lli

sa rema ins t
ruc ture si nvol ve di nt hef or ma tionoft he
Plac enta .Thec horioni cVi llisa refor me da llaroundt hez ygot ebutt hevi lliswhi chgr ows
intot heDe cidua .TheVi ll
isr e l
a t
edt ot heDe c iduac aps ularisa ret ra nsit
or y,a fters ome
timet he yde ge nerate.Thevi ll
isr elatedt oDe ciduaBa sa l
iswi l
lr ema in,a ndt he ywi l
lbe
furthe rt heyu nde rgoc onside rablede velopme ntwhi c hf or msi nas hapeofdi scma ss
whi chi sc alledt hePl ac enta.
Thes ync ytiotrophobl astgr owsr apidlya ndbe c ome st hick.Sma l
lc a vit
ie s(c a ll
ed
lacuna e)a ppe ar
si nt hisl aye r
.Gr adua ll
yl a c
una ei nc rea sei ns ize,a nda rrange dr adi al
ly
aroundt hebl astocys t
.Thel acuna ea r
es e parat
e df r
om onea nothe rbys ync ytium,wh i
ch
arec alle dtrabe culae .
Thel ac unaegr adua l
lyc ommuni catewi the achot her,s ot hate ve ntua l
lyonel arge
spa cei sf orme d.Ea cht rabec ulusi snows ur r
ounde da llr oundbyt hi sl acuna rs pac e.The
sync ytiot r
ophobl astgrowsi nt ot hee ndome tri
um.Ast hee ndome triumi se rode d,s omeof
itsbl oodve s selsa reope nedup,a ndbl oodf rom t hemf i
llst hel ac una rs pace .I nitial
ly
trabec ulusi sma deupofs ync ytiotrophobl as t
,nowt hec ytotrophobl astc ellsmul ti
pl ya nd
grow i ntoe ac ht rabec ulus.Thet rabe culusi snow c alle dapr i
ma r yvi llus.Thel a cunar
spa cei snow c al
ledt hei ntervi ll
ouss pac e,andf i
lledbyma terna lbl ood.Thee xtra–
embr yoni cme sode rmi nva de sthec entreofe ac
hpr ima ryvi l
lus .
Now t hebl oodve sse l
soft hevi lluse s t
a blishc onne ctionswi t
ht hec irculatory
systemoft hee mbr yo.Fe talbl oodnowc irculatest hrought hevi lli
,whi lema terna lbl ood
circula testhrought hei ntervillouss pace.Atal aters tage ,howe ver,t hec ytotrophobl as
t
eme rge st hrought hes ync ytiumofe a chvi ll
us,tof ormal aye rtha tcompl etelyc ut sof fthe
sync ytiumf romt hede cidua .Thi sla yerofc ell
si sc a l
ledt hec ytotrophobl asstics hell.The
cellsoft hisshe llmul tiplyr apidly ,andt hepl a
ce ntai ncre asesi ss ize.
Placent as ubdi vide di nt o anumbe rofl ob es,by s eptat hatgr ow i ntot he
int
ervil
louss pac
ef rom thematernalside.Ea c
hl obeiscall
edama t
erna
lcot
yledon,and
appearsasc onvexa rea.Gener
ally15t o20l obes,eachlobecontai
nanumbe ranchori
ng
vil
liandtheirbranches.
Ones uchvi l
lusa ndit
sbr anchesconstit
uteaf eta
lcotyle
don.Thefullyformed
placent
ac onsis
ta60t o100fetalcotyle
dons.Placentaformsac ompactmas
sa ndisdisc
-
shaped&di ameterof6t o8inchesa ndwe i
ght–500g.

Circul
ati
onthroughthePlacenta:
Bloodflowt hr
oughla cunarspacesinthesyncyti
otr
ophobla
st,begi
nsase a
rlyas
the9thda yofpr egnancy.The rea f
terma te
rnalbl
oodi ni nt
ervill
ousspacethrough
materna
la r
ter
ies,const
antl
yi nc i
rcula
tion.Bloodfr
omt heinter
vil
lousspaceisdrai
ned
byve i
n.Int
ervill
ousspacec ontai
na bout150mlofbl ood,whichisrepl
acedin15to20
seconds
.

Funct
ionsofPl a centa:
1.Tr a nspor tofOxyge n,-( 25ml/mi nuteinfulltermf etus)actsasal ung.
2.El e ct
rol ytes& Nut r i
ti
on–(Ca r
bohydrate,Li pids,Polype pt
ides,Ami noa ci
ds,
vitami nss alts&wa terbydi ffusionhencea ctsast hestoma ch).
3.Ane xc retionofc ar bondi oxide,urea,andot he rwa steproductss oa lsoactsasa
kidne y.
4.Ma t
erna la nti
bodies– ( IgG ga mmagl obulins)t ransmita nd gi vet hef e
tus
immuni tya gai
nstsomei nfecti
ons .
5.I ta ctsa saba rr
iera ndpr e
ve nt
sma nyba cteri
s ,andot herha rmf ullsubstances
.
Howe ve rmos tvirus es(Poliomye li
ti
s,me asles,e t
c)a ndsomeba c t
e r
iaca npass
acros sit.
6.Dr ugst aken by t he mot he rma ya ls
oe nte ra nd c an pr oducec ongenita
l
ma lforma ti
ons .
7.Ma t
erna lhor monesdonotr ea
c hthef etus,howe vers yntheticpr ogest
insa nd
estroge n’se asil
ycr ossthepl acentaandc anha vea dversee f
fect
sont hefetus.
8.Pl ac entas ynthesi
z ess eve r
a lhor mones;t hesea r
epr obably produc edi nt he
sync ytiotrophoblast.

Hormone sproducedbyPl a
c ent
a:
a)Progeste
rone–Se cret
esf orma i
nte
nanceofpr e
gnancyaft
e rthe4thmonthwhe nthe
cor
pusluteumi sdegene r
ated.
b)Oe s
trogens–he l
psi npromot i
ngtheuter
inegrowthanddeve l
opmentofthema mmary
gla
nd.
c)Huma nc horoni
cgonodot ropin(hCG)-issimila
rinitsact
ionstolute
ini
zinghormone
ofthehypophys i
scerebri
.
d)ChorionicGonodotropins-a reexcr
ete
dthroughma t
erna
lur i
ne.It
sprese
nc ei
susedas
atestt
ode t
e c
tapr e
gna ncyini t
searl
ystage
s.

Appl
iedAna
tomy:

Abnor
malImpl
ant
ationofPl
ace
nta:
Pa
rti
al
lyorcomplet
el
y,i
ntothel
owe
rse
gme
nt,i
sca
ll
edPl
ace
ntapr
aevi
a.
A.Firs
tdegr ee–Ext e
ndsintothelowerut er
inesegme nt,butdoesnotr
eacht
heint
ernal
os.
B.Secondde gree–thema r
ginreac
he stheint
e r
nalos,butdoe snotc
overi
t.
C.Thirdde gr
ee–Thee dgeofthepl ac
e nt
ac over
sthei nter
nalosbutwhenosisdi
late
d
dur
ingparturi
tiont
hepl a
cent
adonotobs tr
ucttheos.
D.Fourthde gree–Thep lace
ntac ompl e
tel
yc over
st hei nt
e r
naloswhichcompl
etel
y
obst
ruct
stheose ventheosiscompl et
elydila
ted.

Abnorma lsha pesofthePla ce

nta:
Thenor ma ls ha peofthePl ace
ntaisDi s
cs haped;thefoll
owingarethea nomali
esofthe
pla
centa.The ya re:
1.Bidi
s coida l–Whe nitconsist
softwodi scs
2.Lobed–Whe nitisdivi
dedintoma nylobe s
3.Diff
ue s–Chor i
onicvil
lipers
istroundtheblastocyst
;thepla
centaisthinanddoesnot
ass
umet hes ha peofadi sc
.
4.Plac
e ntas uc centur
iat
a–Sma l
lpartofthepl a
centaissepar
ate
df r
omt herestofit
.
5.Fenestrated–The r
ewi l
lbeahol einthedi s
c.
6.Circumva llate–t heperiphera
le dgeoft heplacentaiscovere
dbyac i
rcula
rfoldof
deci
dua .

Umbi
li
calCor
d(Na
bhiNa
di)
Defi
nit
ion:
Itisthestr
uct
ureconnect
ingthef
etusfr
om c
ent
reofant
eriora
bdominalwal
lof
foe
tust
of oe
talsur
fac
eofplacent
a ,a
ndconta
ini
ngth
evess
elst
hroughwhic
hf e
talbl
ood
pass
estoandfromthepla
centa
.

Thedimensi
onsofPl acenta:
1.Length–50c m.
2.Breadth–2c m.
Theumbili
calc or
da ppearanc eli
ket
wist
edwithma nyspir
alt
ors
ionsoffa
lseknot
s.Thi
s
appea
ranc
etot heumbi l
icalc ordmaybeduetothefol
lowingt
wof ac
tor
s:
a)Duet oune quall
eng thsoftwoumbil
ic
a lar
ter
ies.
b)Duet ofe t
almove me nts.

De velopme ntofUmbi li
calCord:
Itisde vel
ope dfromExt r
ae mbr yoni cme s
ode rmoft hec onne ct
ings t
alkwhi chis
thepe rsis
tentpr imaryme sodermi nt hebl a s
tocys ts t
age,be twe enc a uda lendoft he
embr yot ot hepl a
c e
nta.
Ast hehe ada ndtailfoldsaref ormi ng,s i
mi l
a rfoldsa r
ea lsof or
me done achside
whi chi sknowna slater
alfolds.The sef oldsa pproxima teont heve ntra
la spec
ta ndform
anope ningknowna sUmbi lica
lo pening.Re sultofthe sefoldst hec onne ctivestalkmove s
towa r
dsve ntralsideofe mbryoa nda t
ta chesint her egionofumbi li
ca lope ning.
The ngr aduallya mnioticc avitye nlargesa tt hee xpe nseofe xtrae mbryonic
coelomea ndyol ks a candduet ofol dingi tr eachest heve ntrala spe cta tthes i
teof
umbi li
c alope ning.He reitsurr
ou ndsthebodys t
alk,a ll
antoicdi ve r
ticuluma ndr emnants
ofEEC,yol ks aca ndvi tellointe s
tinalduc ta ndul ti
ma t
elyisc onve rt
e dint
oUmbi l
ica
l
cor d.Thepr ima ryme s
ode rm wi llbec onvertedi ntoWha r
ton’sJ e
lly,whi chprot
ect
sthe
ve ssel
sint heumbi l
ic alcord.
Cont entsofUmbi l
ica lCord:
1.TwoUmbi li
c ala r
teries.
2.TwoUmbi licalve i
ns–t he s
ea reseenonl yine arl
ypr egnanc y,inlate
rmonthsof
pregna ncyt her ightve inisde ge nera
te da ndleftveinis‘left
’.
3.Wha rt
on’ sJ ellywhi c hisde rive dfrom t heprima ryme soderm he l
pinprot
ect
ing
theve ss e
lsint hec ord.
4.Re mna ntsofAl lantoicde ivericulum,yol ksac,vitel
lointest
ina lduct.
5.Amni ons hee tisenc losedove rtheabovea llst
ruc t
ures.
Appl i
edAna tomy:
1.Anoma liesofLe ngt hoft heUmbi licalcor ds:
a)Toobi g–duet ot hisi tma ypa ssa roundt hene c
koft hef oe tus& ma ycause
strangulat
iont ot hef oetus.
b)Toos ma ll–duet ot hisitma yc aus edi f
fi
c ultduringc hil
dbirth.
2.Anoma liesofSi teofa tt
ac hme ntofUmbi lic
a lCord:
i.Nor maa ttachme nti sinc entraltot hepl ac
e nta.
ii.Ma ri
gna l–a ttac
hme nta tthema rginsoft hepl acent.
iii.Furcra
te–t heve sselswi lldivide&r ea
che spl acent
a.
iv.Ve l
ame ntous–whe ntheve sselsa rea t
tachedt oa mnion.

Fe
talCi
rcul
ati
on
Thef eta lcircul ati
oni snomuc hde f
ere ntfrom t hea dultc i
rc ulat
ionbuta sit
r
ecei
vesnut rit
iona ndoxyge nf romt hemot herduet ot hisr easont he rea res omec hanges
i
nthefl
owofbl oodi nt hef etus .Thec hange sarea sfo l
lows :
a)Asl ungsa renotf unc tioni ngt heoxyge ni se xc hange df rom t hepl acentaf r
om
ma terna lbloodt othef etusbl ood.
b)Oxyge na t
edbl oodf r ompl a cent awi l
lreac htot hef etust hroughUmbi licalve i
n.
c)TheUmbi l
ica lve ini sa ttache dt othel ef
tbr anc hofpor talve in.
d)Thes ma llqua nt it
yofbl oodgoe stot heliver&r eache sthei nf eriorve nac avaa nd
mos toft hebl oodi sdr ainedi ntoi nfer
iorve nac avat hroughduc tusve nosuswi th
oute nte ri
ngt hel i
ve r.
e)Nowt hebl oodr eac hest ot heRi ghta t
rium whe r ethemos toft hebl oodpa ss
es
throughf orame nova lebyt heva l
ve soft hei nferi
orve nac avaa ndr eami ngbl ood
willmi xwi tht heb loodc omi ngf rom thes upe ri
orve nac a
vaa ndwi llenterinto
Rightve ntricle.
f) Thebl oodf rom Ri ghtve nt riclee nter
st hep ulmona r
yt runkwhe remos toft he
bloodi sbypa s sedt hr oughduc tusa r
teri
osust ot hea ortaa ndl essbl oodr eachesto
lungsf romt he retot heLe fta t
rium.
g)Theb l
oodwhi c hr ea che dt ot heLe ftatrium i smos tl
yoxyge nate dbl ood,wh i
ch
reache st ot heLe ftve ntriclea ndf rom t heret oa or t
aa ndt hent ot hes ystemic
circulation.Thi sblo oda lsomi xe swi ththebl oodwhi chi sbypa ss edbyt heduc t
us
arteriosusfr omt heRi ghtve ntricl
e .Butthemos toxyge natedbl oodwi llenterinto
thec arotida nd s ubc lavia na r
terieswhi chs uppliest ot hebr ai
na nd uppe r
 extr emi t
ie s.Ther e
ma inin gpa r
tsoft hebod ywi llreceivet hel e
ssoxyge nated
blood.
Thec ha nge si nt hef etalcircula t
iona fte rbi rth:
Imme di ate lya fterthebi rthoft hec hil ds omeoft hec hange stakesplacei nt he
fetalbl oodve ssels,whi chhe l
pi ne sta blishi ngt hea dulttypeofc ircul
ati
oni nthec hild.
Thec ha nge sa rea sf ollows :
i) Atf i
rs tUmbi li
c ala r
teriesa reoc c lude dbyc ont ract
ionoft hemus c
lesoft hewa ll
oft heumbi lica la r
teries.Thi she l
psi npr e ve nti
ngt hef etalbloodnott ol e
a ve
towa r
dst hepl a centa.
ii)Ne xti nt heUmbi l
icalve ini soc clude donl ya fterfewmi nutessothatthebl oodi n
thepl a cent awi llc ompl etelyr eache st ot hef etus .
iii
)Theduc tusve nos uswhi c ha lsooc c lude sa longwi ththeUmbi li
calvein.
iv)Ne xti nt heduc tusa rteri
os usi soc c l
ude dwhe ret hewhol ebl oodfromRt .ve ntr
icle
wi l
lr eac ht ot hel ungswhe r
ei ti soxyge na te da ndr eachestotheLt .atri
um.
v)La t
e rt hebl oodwhi chr eac hest ot hel e fta t
r i
umi sincreasedi nit
squa nti
tywhi ch
ultima telyc a us esr aiseinpr essurei nt hel efta trium Duet ot hisrai
seinpr essurei n
lefta t
riumwhi chc ausesdi mi nishedpr e s
s ur eint h er i
ghta tr
ium.Duet ot hi
spr essure
variationi nt hea triumsc ausest heva l
veoft hef ora me nova l
et oc l
ose.
Thes t
ruc turesoft hef etusa r
er epl aceda sf ollowi ng:
1.TheUmbi licalve inisc on ver t
edi ntoLi ga me ntumt ere
soft helive.
2.TheUmbi licala rt
e r
iesa rec onve rtedi nt oMe dia lumbilicalligaments
.
3.TheDuc tusve nos usisc on ve r
tedi tLi ga me ntumve nosum.
TheDuc tusa r teriosusi sc onve rt
e di ntoLi ga me ntus ma rteri
osum.