PASSIVE VOICE

USE:
❖ the agent (the person who does something) is obvious: The police arrested the
terrorist. The terrorist was arrested.
❖ the subject of the active sentence is people, he, they, somebody, etc. People think
students are hard-working. Students are thought to be hard-working.
❖ the action is more important than the agent: The system has sent your message.
Your message has been sent.
❖ we want to be nice: You have drunk all my milk. All my milk has been drunk.

MAKE, SEE, HEAR, HELP:

❖ are followed by the to – infinitive in the passive form:
Her father made her eat all vegetables. She was made to eat all vegetables. She heard him
whisper. He was heard to whisper.

LET:
❖ becomes either be allowed to or let oneself + be + V3 if the subject of LET and the
object of the infinitive are the same:
Her parents didn’t let her go to Woodstock. She wasn’t allowed to go to Woodstock. Don’t
let the students ridicule you. Don’t let yourself be ridiculed.

ASSUME, BELIEVE, CONSIDER, FEEL, KNOW, REPORT, SAY, THINK,

UNDERSTAND:
❖ form the passive voice in the following ways: It + passive + that-clause
They believe she is rich. It is believed that she is rich.
❖ Subject + passive + to – infinitive
They believe she is rich. She is believed to be rich.
They believe she was rich. She is believed to have been rich.

If a verb is followed by a preposition, we do not omit the preposition in the

passive: They operated on her last week. She was operated on last week.

REPORTED SPEECH
DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

HERE THERE
THIS/THAT THAT/THOSE
COME GO
BRING TAKE
TONIGHT THAT NIGHT
NOW THEN, AT THAT TIME, AT ONCE
NOW THAT SINCE
TODAY THAT DAY
YESTERDAY THE DAY BEFORE, THE PREVIOUS DAY
TOMORROW THE DAY AFTER, THE FOLLOWING DAY
TOMORROW MORNING THE MORNING AFTER, THE NEXT
LAST NIGHT THE NIGHT BEFORE
THE DAY BEFORE YESTERDAY TWO DAYS BEFORE
THE DAY AFTER TOMORROW IN TWO DAYS’TIME, IN TWO DAYS
THIS WEEK/YEAR/MONTH THAT WEEK/MONTH/YEAR
LAST WEEK/YEAR/MONTH THE PREVIOUS WEEK
NEXT WEEK/YEAR/MONTH THE FOLLOWING WEEK
TWO DAYS/MONTHS/YEARS AGO TWO DAYS BEFORE

QUESTIONS:
❖ We use statement word order to report questions (there is no auxiliary
do/does/did!!!).We introduce yes/no questions with if or whether. We may use them
interchangeably, but if cannot be followed by or not. In this case we use whether.
'How old are you?' He asked her how old she was.
'Are you married?' He didn't know if/whether she was married.
Are you married or not? He wanted to know whether or not she was married.
'Where do you live?' He wanted to know where she lived

REPORTING VERBS:
❖ VERB(+ed) + INFINITIVE: agree, demand, offer, promise, refuse, threaten

❖ VERB(+ed) + sb+INFINITIVE: advise, allow, ask, beg, command, encourage,

forbid, instruct, invite, order, permit, remind, urge, warn, want

❖ VERB(+ed) +-ing: accuse sb, admit (to), apologies for, deny, insist on,
suggest

❖ VERB (+ed) +that clause: agree, claim, complain, deny, exclaim, explain,
inform sb, promise, suggest, admit, accept acknowledge add admit agree
announce answer* argue assert assume believe boast comment complain
concede conclude confess continue* decide declare denydoubt exclaim
expect explain feel foresee imagine imply insist know mention notice
observe point out predict promise propose* protest recommend remark
 repeat reply* report respond reveal say shout* state suggest suppose vow
whisper

❖ VERB +OBJECT+THAT CLAUSE: advise assure inform reassure remind tell

warn
❖ VERB +OBJECT (+NOT)+ TO INFINITIVE: ask (somebody) beg (somebody)
expect (somebody) want (somebody) advise allow challenge command
compel encourage forbid force implore instruct invite order permit
persuade remind request tell urge warn
❖ VERB + OBJECT + (to INFINITIVE) + COMPLEMENT (TO BE): acknowledge
assume believe consider declare expect feel find presume suppose think
understand
❖ VERB + -ing FORM: admit apologise for decide on deny mention propose
recommend regret report suggest
❖ VERB + OBJECT + PREPOSITION + -ing FORM: accuse somebody of blame
somebody for congratulate somebody on thank somebody for

WYJĄTKI:
- COMPLAIN TO SB ABOUT + ING/NOUN
- EXPLAIN TO SB +WHY/HOW +CLAUSE
- WONDER WHERE/WHY/HOW/ +CLAUSE
- WONDER WHERE/WHY/HOW +INFINTIVE

WHERE THERE IS NO BACKSHIFT:

❖ Facts or situations that cannot (are very unlikely to) change *
'Water boils in 100 degrees Celsius.'
❖ Something is still valid/true
My son is a student'.
She said that her son is a student. (He is still studying.)
❖ Unreal Past
'If I were you, I would study hard'.
She said that if she were/was me, she would study hard.'
❖ Some modal verbs
had better, could, would, used to, needn't have, should, might, ought to
'I used to smoke.'
She said that she used to smoke.
❖ Past Continuous with Past Simple
'I was taking a shower when the murderer came.
She said that she was taking a shower when the murderer came.
❖ When we want to emphasize that something is true, we believe in it.
'Poland is a well-developed country'.
She said that Poland is a well-developed country. (I believe in it and want to emphasise it.)
!!! but:She said that Poland was a well-developed country. (She thinks so.)
MODAL VERBS:

GERUND VS INFINITIVE
FULL INFINITIVE IS USED:
❖ WITH CERTAIN VERBS: advise, afford, agree, allow sb, appear, be allowed,
compel, decide, encourage, expect, hope, intend, invite, manage, pretend,
proceed, promise, refuse, remind, seem, teel, tend
❖ WITH CERTAIN ADJECTIVES: amazed, angry, delighted, difficult,
disgusted, easy, first, glad, happy, last, likely, obligated, sad, sorry,
supposed, surprised, unable
❖ WITH IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION + ADJECTIVE: It was nice of him to
send you roses.
❖ WITH ONLY
❖ AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE IN EXPRESSIONS: to tell you the truth,
to cut a long story short, to be honest/fair
❖ AFTER NOUNS
❖ AFTER QUESTION WORDS

BARE INFINITIVE IS USED:

❖ WITH MODALS
❖ WITH NEED DARE
❖ HAD BETTER/WOULD RATHER/WOULD SOONER
❖ MAKE LET SEE HEAR SMELL FEEL

INFINITIVE AND PRESENT PARTICIPLE WITH VERBS OF PERCEPTION AND

OTHER PHRASES:

see hear listen watch -> bare infinitive (complete action)

see hear listen watch -> present participle (incomplete action)

go come
spend/waste time → present participle
be busy

THE -ING FORM AFTER:

dislike, enjoy, hate, like, loathe, love, prefer, resent, cease, continue, finish, start, stop, it’s no
use/good, it’s not worth, there’s no point (in), feel like, can’t stand, can’t help, be/get used to,
be get/accustomed, have difficulty (in), in favour of, admit, anticipate, appreciate, avoid,
consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, endure, entail, escape, envisage, evade, fancy, forgive,
imagine, incur, involve, keep, look forward to, mention, mind, miss, pardon, postpone,
practise, prevent, recall, recollect, report, risk, save, shrink, stand, suggest, understand

VERBS TAKING INFINITIVE OR GERUND WITHOUT MAKING A CHANGE:

begin, start, continue, cease, commence, omit,
advise, allow, permit, recommend, intend (followed by an object take a full infinite whereas
they take a gerund when not followed by an object)
it needs/requires/wants (can be followed by a gerund or by a passive infinitive)
can’t/couldn’t bear
1 a) beautiful -piękny b) beautician-kosmetyczka c) beautify-upiększać

2 a) payment-opłata b) payable-płatny, opłacalny c) payee-beneficjent, odbiorca płatności

3 a) receptionist-recepcjonistka b) receipt-paragon c) receptive-otwarty (na pomysły, sugestie)

4 a) heroism-heroizm b) heroically-heroicznie,bohatersko c) heroine-bohaterka

5 a) production-produkcja b) producers-producenci c) unproductive-niewydajny,bezowocny

6 a) explanatory leaflet-broszura informacyjna b) inexplicable-niewytłumaczalny

c) explanation-wyjaśnienie

7 a) incomparably-nieporównywalnie b) comparison-porównanie c) comparative-porównawczy

8 a) inadvisable-niewskazany b) advisory body-organ doradczy c) advisability-stosowność

9 a) admirers-wielbiciele b) admiration-zachwyt c) admirable-godny podziwu,zachwycający

10 a) stabilise-stabilizować b) instability-niestabilność polityczna c) unstable-niestabilny

11 a) economise-oszczędzać b) uneconomical-nieekonomiczny c) economic-ekonomiczny

12 a) residence-rezydencja b) residential-zamieszkały c) residents-mieszkańcy

13 a) comforting-pocieszający b) uncomfortable-niewygodny c) discomfort-niewygoda

14 a) death-śmierć b) deadly-śmiertelny,zabójczy c) deaden the pain-łagodzić ból

15 a) demonstrators-demonstranci b) undemonstrative-powściągliwy

c) demonstrably-w oczywisty sposób

16 a) imitation-imitacja b) imitative-naśladowczy c) inimitable-nie do podrobienia

17 a) argument-kłótnia b) argumentative-kłótliwy c) arguably-bezsprzecznie

18 a) unrepeatable-niepowtarzalny b) repetitive-powtarzający się c) repetition-powtórzenie

19 a) unfailingly-bezbłędnie b) failure-porażka c) failing light-półmrok

20 a) discourage-zniechęcać b) courageously-odważnie c) encouragement-wsparcie

21 a) unrealistic-nierealistyczny b) reality-rzeczywistość c) realist-realista

22 a) falsifying-fałszowanie b) falsehood-fałsz c) falsity-fałszywość

23 a) prophet-prophet b) prophecy-przepowiednia c) prophetic-proroczy

24 a) indescribable-nie do opisania b) descriptive-opisowy c) description-opis

25 a) friendship-przyjaźń b) befriended-zaprzyjaźnić się c) unfriendly-nieprzyjazny

26 a) sensation-doznanie,czucie b) insensitive-bezuczuciowy c) senseless-bezsensowny

27 a) fame-sława b) infamous-owiany złą sławą c) infamy-zła sława

28 a) defensive-defensywny b) indefensible-nieuzasadniony c) defence-obrona

29 a) disagreeable-niegrzeczny b) agreement-porozumienie c) agreeable-przyjemny

30 a) possessions-dobytek b) possessive-zaborczy c) possessor-posiadacz

31 31 a) differ-różnić się,nie zgadzać się b) differentiate-rozróżniać

c) differences-nieporozumienia

32 a) activists-działacze b) activated-aktywowany c)inactive-nieczynny

33 a) formative years-lata formowanie osobowości b) deformity-deformacja

c) formation-formacja,system

34 a) compulsory-obowiązkowy b) compulsion-przymus c) compelling reason-istotny powód

35 a) creator-twórca b) creative-kreatywny c) creation-utworzenie

36 a) enthusiastically-entuzjastycznie b) enthusiast-entuzjasta c) enthuse-zarażać entuzjazmem

37 a) necessitate-wymagać b) necessarily-koniecznie c) necessities-potrzeby

38 a) indestructible-niezniszczalny b) destruction-destrukcja

c) destructive-niszczycielski

39 a) management-zarząd b) unmanageable-niesforny,nieposłuszny

c) managerial/management-menedżerski,kierowniczy

40 a) unbelievable-niewiarygodny b) beliefs-pogląd,wierzenie c) disbelief-niedowierzanie

CONDITIONALS
 CLAUSES:

LINKING TWO MAIN CLAUSES:

 - AND “i”(for addition)
- BUT “lecz”(for contrast)
- OR “lub”(for choice)
- BOTH...AND “oboje..i”
- EITHER...OR “albo… albo”
- NEITHER...NOR (is negative, we invert the subject and auxiliary verb after
nor) eg: I neither like him nor do I have to love him
- NOT ONLY BUT (ALSO) “nie tylko...lecz także”

LINKING A MAIN AND A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:

- THAT (noun clauses) eg: He told me that he was moving to Poland
- INTRODUCED BY PRONOUNS: WHO, WHICH, THAT eg: John, who is
his brother, lives in Poland.
- WHEN, BEFORE, AFTER eg: She started crying before the exam.
- IF, UNLESS eg: They may well fail the exam unless they start studying hard.
- ALTHOUGH, WHILE eg: Although Sylvia never wanted to become a
teacher, she finally accepted the offer.

★ TIME:
- WHEN (MUST BE FOLLOWED BY PRESENT TENSE, in question words
may be followed by future form) AS, AFTER, BEFORE, WHILE, UNTIL,
SINCE eg: I’ll tell him that when I see him
- AS SOON AS, ONCE, WHENEVER, NOW(THAT), THE
MINUTE/MOMENT (THAT), IMMEDIATELY, BY THE TIME (THAT)
eg: You should inform us about her whereabouts the moment you see her.

★ REASON:
- BECAUSE eg: Stella broke her arm because Peter pushed her.
- SINCE, AS, FOR eg: Since/As you have won the contest, perhaps you could
tell us what are you going to do with the prize.
- GIVEN THAT (more formal, may be used to introduce a reason that is already
known) eg: Given that his poetry is so sophisticated, the number of copies sold
is incredibly high

★ PURPOSE:
- SO THAT..(NOT) eg: Could you please hurry up so that we can catch up with
the rest? / They left early so that they would/could/should not be late for the
morning lecture
- IN ORDER THAT…(NOT) eg: Please leave the exam papers on your desks
in order that the invigilators can collect them
- FOR FEAR THAT eg: We did not inform him about the meeting for fear that
he would be eager to come
- LEST+SUBJUNCTIVE eg: We did not inform him about the meeting lest he
be eager to come.
- IN ORDER/SO AS eg: She decided to focus on her studies in order to/so as to
graduate with honours.

★ NEGATIVE PURPOSE:
- SO AS NOT TO(SUBJECT OF THE VERB AND INFINITIVE ARE THE
SAME) We are doing this so as not to disappoint the teacher.
- SO THAT CAN’T/COULDN’T/WON’T/WOULDN’T She divorced him so
that she wouldn’t have to listen to his constant complaints.
- FOR FEAR +MIGHT/SHOULD She didn’t leave the room for fear they
might catch her/for fear of being caught/lest they catch her.
- FOR FEAR OF SOMETHING/DOING SOMETHING
- LEST+(MIGHT/SHOULD) +INFINITVE
- IN CASE Stay here in case he needs your help. /She stayed there in case he
needed her help.
- PREVENT+NOUN/PRONOUN+FROM (GERUND) Gretchen will do
everything to prevent him from leaving her
- AVOID+GERUND They did every single exercise to avoid disappointing the
teacher.

★ RESULT:
- SO You partied all night, so you are feeling exhausted in the morning
- SO MUCH….THAT She cried so much that her eyes were red and puffy.
★ CONDITION:
- IF/UNLESS(IF NOT) You don’t have to do this unless you want to.
- AS LONG AS You can go to the party on Saturday as long as you clean your
room
- PROVIDING
- IN CASE Take a couple of quid with you in case you can’t use your credit
card
- ON (THE) CONDITION THAT/PROVIDED (THAT) The CEO has
employed the graduate on (the) condition that he works for 50% of the usual
salary.

★ CONTRAST:
- BUT/WHILE/WHEREAS I love junk food, whereas you prefer steamed
vegetables.
- WHILST/WHILE (often before the main clause) While/ Whilst only a few
students really like practical grammar, all of them realize how important it is

★ CONCESSION:
 - ALTHOUGH, (EVEN THOUGH), MUCH AS, YET (information in the
main clause is surprising unexpected) Much as I hate to say this, I don’t love
you anymore.
- ALTHOUGH (neutral context), EVEN THOUGH, MUCH AS (informal
context), YET (we do not begin sentences with) She was totally exhausted,
yet she decided to help
EVEN THOUGH-> i know that it is something
EVEN IF-> i don’t know what it is
THOUGH-> can be used after an adjective, with verbs such as be, look, seem.
Well-educated though she is/may be (although she is well-educated), Clara is not
exactly likeable.

- HOWEVER +ADJECTIVE/MUCH/MANY We've got to eliminate him,

however unpleasant it may be.
- DESPITE/IN SPITE OF -> if we are using it not in a clause In spite of the
international crisis, the company kept making profits
- DESPITE/IN SPITE OF (TH FACT THAT) -> if we are using it in a
clause In spite of/ Despite the fact that she had financial problems, she
decided to buy a brand new car.

★ PLACE:
- WHERE, WHENEVER, AS FAR AS, AS HIGH AS, AS LOW AS, AS
NEAR AS (to refer to the present or future they are followed by present
tense or may) My dog will go wherever I go.
- MIGHT (we can use for a past tense and references) The dog went where I
went.

★ OTHER:
- EXCEPT THAT/WHEN/WHERE/IF (express exception) They don’t see
each other except when they are on holiday.
- AS IF/AS THOUGH (to say how someone behaves or does something)
She behaves as though she’s unaware of the company’s problems. (Maybe she
is; we don’t know)
She behaves as though she was unaware of the company’s problems. (We know
that she is aware of them)

ADVERBIAL LINKING EXPRESSIONS (OFTEN IN WRITTEN LANGUAGE):

★ THEREFORE, HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS (we separate them with
commas, we can insert it before the verb or after be or an auxiliary, some
can be used at the end)

★ AFTERWARDS, BEFOREHAND(we usually put it at the end), AFTER

THAT, NEXT, FOLLOWING THAT, EVENTUALLY, FINALLY, IN
THE END, FIRST(LY)

★ IN ADDITION, SIMILARLY, FURTHERMORE, WHAT IS MORE,

MOREOVER (to add something)

★ THEREFORE, CONSEQUENTLY, ACCORDINGLY, AS A

CONSEQUENCE/RESULT

★ FOR THIS/THAT REASON

★ HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS/NONETHELESS, ON THE OTHER

HAND, EVEN SO, ON THE CONTRARY (contrast)

★ EVEN SO (surprising contrast)

★ STILL (at the beginning), ALL THE SAME, MIND YOU, THOUGH
(informal!!!!!)

★ IN CONCLUSION, IN BRIEF, TO CONCLUDE, ALL IN ALL,

OVERALL (summarise)

★ FOR EXAMPLE, FOR INSTANCE, SUCH AS

★ NOTABLY, NAMELY

★ IN OTHER WORDS, TO PUT IT ANOTHER WAY, THAT IS (TO SAY)

★