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Analysis of
phenomenological data:
personal reflections on Giorgi’s method
Lisa Whiting offers some personal insights into using Giorgi’s
phenomenological method in a small-scale research study

During the last 20 years, it appears that phenomenology as a research

approach has become more popular and more acceptable in nursing
(Oiler 1982, Cohen 1987, Reeder 1987, Anderson 1991). Studies have
focused on issues such as quality of life (Benner 1985), the
transformation from woman to mother (Bergum 1989), nurses’
feelings towards caring for patients who have AIDS (Breault and
Polifroni 1992), living with a sick child in hospital (Darbyshire 1994),
comfort (Morse et al 1994), the experiences of parents following
admission of their child to a paediatric intensive care unit (Pie-Fan and
Tomlinson 1997), the experiences of critically ill children (Carnevale
1999) and the perceptions of children who have diabetes (Miller
1999). However, in reviewing a number of studies which have used a
phenomenological approach, I was concerned to find that few details
were provided in relation to data analysis. This paper will focus on
data analysis which was undertaken using the phenomenological
method devised by Giorgi (1975). A detailed overview of each of his
stages will be provided and their application to my personal study
discussed.
In February 2000 I completed a small scale research study. Its
purpose was to consider the meaning of health promotion, as perceived
by a group of children’s nurses (Whiting 2001). A phenomenological
approach which was underpinned by the philosophy of Husserl (1960)
was selected. In addition, Giorgi’s phenomenological method was
drawn on to provide further structure, guidance and to aid data
analysis.

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A purposeful sampling technique was used to identify six

experienced children’s nurses working in an NHS trust, three from a
community children’s nursing team and three from a paediatric
assessment unit. The study itself was based on unstructured individual
interviews which yielded a wealth of data.
Corben (1999) provides an excellent overview of some of the
difficulties and misunderstandings associated with a phenomenological
approach, identifying analysis as an issue of concern. The data analysis
was undoubtedly, for me, the most challenging aspect of conducting
the study, fraught with confusion and lack of guidance. When I
initially attempted to analyse the data generated from the interviews, I
searched in vain for accounts of other people’s experiences. By sharing
my personal reflections, I hope to provide insight for future researchers
who may choose to use this approach.

Giorgi’s phenomenological method

The fundamental principle of the phenomenological approach is that
the researcher must remain true to the facts and how they reveal
themselves (Husserl 1960). To help achieve this, Giorgi (1975) devised
his own phenomenological method to aid analysis of data. Both inside,
and to a greater extent, outside, the world of social science, the lack of
structure to the phenomenological approach has been of concern since
rigour is not always demonstrated. This is particularly evident in the
professions of psychology and nursing (Omery 1983). As a result, a
range of frameworks has been formulated by psychologists such as
Van Kaam (1966), Giorgi (1970) and Colaizzi (1978). There is a view
that these give added rigour to a study (Lynch-Sauer 1985, Hilton
1988, Morse 1990 ) and have been used by a range of nurses who have
adopted a phenomenological approach (Benner 1985, Haase 1987,
Koch 1993). Although criticisms have been voiced that if such tools
are employed, phenomenology becomes a method rather than a
philosophical approach (Hallett 1995), I would argue that nursing has
already interpreted and adapted the pure phenomenological thought to
the needs of the profession so that it reflects only some aspects of the
thought processes of the original exponents.

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I felt that, as a relatively novice researcher, a structured approach
would not only provide a framework but would also aid data analysis.
Spiegelberg’s (1982) staged tool was initially considered, however its
reliance on the cognitive processes, based on its derivation from
Husserl’s (1960) work, specifically excluded the use of additional
research tools, such as interviews. For this reason, the approaches
formulated by psychologists appeared more suitable. Following critical
reading of those available (Van Kaaam 1966, Giorgi 1970, Colaizzi
1978, Van Manen 1984), I decided that the most appropriate was the
‘phenomenological method’ developed by Giorgi (1970, 1975) (see
Table 1).
Table 1. Reasons for choosing Giorgi’s phenomenological method

Giorgi (1970) focuses on descriptions of experiences and follows

the Husserl tradition (Cohen and Omery 1994, Koch 1996)
Giorgi’s (1975) phenomenological method appeared
understandable and applicable to this study
The method does not require the adherence to certain fixed
criteria (for example Van Kaam (1966) advocates that a large
sample population is drawn on). A range of other studies appear
to have used this approach with success (Erickson and Henderson
1992, Ashworth and Hagan 1993)
Giorgi (1975) has analysed and developed Husserl’s
phenomenological approach and his method includes a data
analysis process.

Since Husserl’s pure method requires the researcher to draw on his

or her imagination in order to visualise phenomena from varied
dimensions, I felt that this would limit my investigation and would not
allow the aims of the study to be met. However, Giorgi (1970)
suggested that rather than seeking variations of the phenomena solely
in the imagination of the researcher, that consideration be given to the
same phenomena as it manifests itself to different individuals. I
believed that this stance was appropriate for the study under

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investigation, allowing children’s nurses to describe the meaning of

health promotion as it appeared to them.
Giorgi (1971) analysed the suitability of his method, acknowledging
that it moved further from the natural to the human sciences. A
number of areas emerged as central tenets to his thinking (Table 2) and
were adhered to throughout the research:
Table 2. Central tenets to Giorgi’s phenomenological method.

Quality of data, rather than quantity is emphasised.

The participant is a fellow human being of equal status from
whom co-operation is sought
The phenomena can only be known through its varied
manifestations as revealed through others – certainty through
repetition of observations or experiments is not feasible
The aim of a study is to arrive at meanings
Explication is used to reveal the phenomena under question.
‘Within the method of explication one tries to understand the actual
context within which the facts emerge’ (Giorgi 1970). It is therefore
imperative that scripts are continually studied to see what is common
or typical about the context that would allow the facts to appear.
Facts identified by participants may be different, but may be related
in a significant way (Giorgi 1971)
The focus of the study is not to determine reactions to situations
or experiments but to meet the intention of the research
(‘intentionality’).

Application of Giorgi’s phenomenological method

Stage 1. ‘First one reads through the whole protocol to get the sense of
the whole’ (Giorgi 1975).
An important and initial aspect of the data analysis is
phenomenological reduction (or ‘bracketing’). According to Husserl
(1960) and Giorgi (1975), this is essential since it is only once this has
been accomplished that more specific investigations can begin. Husserl
(1960) used the word ‘epoche’ to describe phenomenological

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reduction, the aim being the ‘suspension of belief’ in the ‘outer world’
which prevents the researcher from making any judgements or having
any preconceived ideas (Husserl 1960). The reality of the world is
neither confirmed or denied, it is ‘bracketed’ (Koch 1995). Paley
(1997) comments that this suggestion is extremely radical because it
involves the suspension all judgements about the external world, not
just the phenomena under investigation.
However, the concept of phenomenological reduction has been
interpreted differently by nurses. For example, Jasper (1994) suggests
that it ‘involves the deliberate examination by researchers of their own
beliefs about the phenomenon and the temporary suspension of these’.
Rose et al (1995) comment on the importance of appreciating the other
side of the debate, allowing the mind to encounter a period of
confusion and obtaining the views of others. Cohen and Omery (1994)
state that it is a means of considering the experience naively which:
‘Allows phenomena to come directly into view, rather than to be
viewed (and distorted) through our preconceptions.’
This is the stance which was adopted for the purposes of this study
and maintained as far as possible throughout the analysis of data. As
Aanstoos (1983) comments phenomenological reduction is part of the
analysis and is an approach which focuses the direction of the
researcher’s thinking. It is not concerned with ‘forgetting’ everything
which is already known by the researcher in relation to the phenomena
under investigation, rather, it is about reading the transcripts with an
‘attunement’ to both the factual content of the words and the actual
experiences of the participants (Aanstoos 1983).
I conducted each of the interviews personally, which helped
enormously to ‘get a sense of the whole’. However, I also read each
transcript several times to gain further familiarity with the words and
the order in which they had been spoken. This proved to be useful at a
later stage when handling the large amounts of data and associated
paperwork. Care was taken throughout to ensure that I engaged with
the words of the participants, no attempt being made to interpret the
meaning.

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Stage 2. ‘The first step of the analysis itself is to try to determine the
natural ‘meaning units’ as expressed by the participant’ (Giorgi 1975)
This stage is achieved by reading and re-reading the transcripts and
then identifying areas of the interview which highlight the participants
experiences in relation to the phenomena under investigation. These
‘units’ are separate entities, which together form the whole meaning of
the experience. Giorgi (1975) stresses that when this phase of the
analysis is undertaken, the attitude of the investigator must be one of
‘maximum’ openness’, the specific aim of the research not being taken
into account at this point. Once the units have been isolated, the
researcher must indicate, in a clear, simple manner, the theme which
dominates each unit.
Each of the transcripts was read carefully a number of times,
highlighting the individual natural units, as they appeared on the page.
Wertz (1983) has suggested that by doing this, the researcher is able to
pay attention to what is being said and the manner in which it was
iterated, ‘empathetically dwelling’ with the participants’ experiences.
Each unit was then cut from the appropriate script and pasted on to a
separate sheet of paper. Once I had accomplished this, it was possible
to re-read with the ‘openness’ which Giorgi (1975) describes and to
identify a central theme for each unit. It is important to reiterate that
the theme merely highlights the key issue of each unit as it appears to
the naked eye, it does not attempt to relate it to the study or to interpret
it’s meaning – this aspect is crucial to the use of Giorgi’s method and
cannot be over-emphasied.
To illustrate this stage, Table 3 identifies some of the units, and their
associated themes, which were drawn from the transcribed interview
conducted with one participant (Linda).
This stage of the analysis proved to be lengthy in terms of time
commitment. Once the natural units had been segregated, I felt that it
was essential to leave them alone for a few days, avoiding as far as
possible thinking about them. I felt that this achieved a freshness in my
approach when I returned to the natural units and their identified
central themes. It also facilitated the process of phenomenological
reduction.

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Table 3: Units and themes arising from Linda’s interview

Natural Unit (Linda’s own words, taken from Central Theme (i.e the issue
her transcript) which dominates the unit)
1. I think the words are very apt – health promotion. A Defining health promotion
promotion to optimal health and prevention of disease
and accidents. It’s promoting health for the child and
family as a whole – both in the hospital and the
community. Looking at healthy lifestyles and helping
people to make their own choices
2. There’s lots that we do – giving nutritional advice; Different activities
discussions about immunization programmes; having
safety campaigns; campaigning for changes at a
political level
3. I don’t think that it’s new. Not for the enlightened The importance of health
… I think that we have to promote health. In fact, it’s promotion
absolutely imperative. We need to be giving advice,
but we tend to do it in a very informal way at the
moment
4. We have close liaison with the local Health Decisions concerning which
Education Authority – they’ll send us various issues to promote are made by
information which we try to use. We also try to look at the team
say illnesses that occur seasonally – like bronchiolitis
because we’re going into the bronchiolitic season.
We’ll do things like sun safety in the summer months.
We do it as a team. We have monthly meetings when
we decide which things we’re going to do and which
order we’re going to do them in
5. We decide who is going to do all the leg work, if Ensuring accuracy of
you like. We ensure that all the information we give is information can be time-
properly researched and up-to-date and totally consuming and is not always
accurate. It’s too much for one person to do all that all feasible in work hours
the time, so we share the responsibility for that … but
it means that we have to do it in our own time
6.We aim it mainly at the parents and the carers, but I The importance of involving the
will say, you have to aim health promotion at the child and family in health
children as well as the carers … it’s essential. Like, last promotion strategies.
year – the Child Accident Prevention Group produced
a booklet with all different things for children to do.
All different age ranges – so you might have a page
about safety in the home, or something like that, and
so we use those sheets for children – so there’s
something for them to do … they can just help
themselves, they’re all in a wallet attached to the board
… there’s things to colour in; crosswords; word
searches, things like that, but I have to say that it’s
mainly aimed at the younger children, say the under
ten or eleven year olds. I do think it’s important that
children are involved … well it’s a must. I think that
we need to consider that side of things much more.

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Table 4: Themes and units arising from Linda’s interview – Stage 2

Natural Unit Central Theme Central Themes Expressed as
Revelatory of Structure (What
it tells me about the meaning of
health promotion)
1. I think the words are very apt – health Defining health Health promotion means having
promotion. A promotion to optimal health and promotion an understanding of the concept
prevention of disease and accidents. It’s promoting
health for the child and family as a whole – both in
the hospital and the community. Looking at
healthy lifestyles and helping people to make their
own choices
2. There’s lots that we do – giving nutritional Different activities Health promotion means
advice; discussions about immunisation embracing a range of strategies
programmes; having safety campaigns;
campaigning for changes at a political level
3. I don’t think that it’s new. Not for the The importance of Health promotion means
enlightened … I think that we have to promote health promotion commitment
health. In fact, it’s absolutely imperative. We need
to be giving advice, but we tend to do it in a very
informal way at the moment
4. We have close liaison with the local Health Decisions Health promotion means
Education Authority – they’ll send us various concerning which teamwork
information which we try to use. We also try to issues to promote are
look at say illnesses that occur seasonally – like made by the team
bronchiolitis because we’re going into the
bronchiolitic season. We’ll do things like sun
safety in the summer months. We do it as a team.
We have monthly meetings when we decide
which things we’re going to do and which order
we’re going to do them in
5. We decide who is going to do all the leg work, Ensuring accuracy of Health promotion means
if you like. We ensure that all the information we information can be commitment
give is properly researched and up-to-date and time-consuming and
totally accurate. It’s too much for one person to do is not always feasible
all that all the time, so we share the responsibility in work hours
for that … but it means that we have to do it in our
own time
6. We aim it mainly at the parents and the carers, The importance of Health promotion means actively
but I will say, you have to aim health promotion at involving the child involving children and their
the children as well as the carers … it’s essential. and family in health families
Like, last year – the Child Accident Prevention promotion strategies
Group produced a booklet with all different things
for children to do. All different age ranges – so
you might have a page about safety in the home,
or something like that, and so we use those sheets
for children – so there’s something for them to do
… they can just help themselves, they’re all in a
wallet attached to the board … there’s things to
colour in; crosswords; word searches, things like
that, but I have to say that it s mainly aimed at the
younger children, say the under ten or eleven year
olds. I do think it’s important that children are
involved … well it’s a must. I think that we need
to consider that side of things much more.

Stage 3. ‘The next step is to interrogate in terms of the specific

purpose of the study’ (Giorgi 1975).

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Ashworth and Hagan (1993) emphasise the need at this stage to
acknowledge any presuppositions, this will help avoid
misinterpretation of the participants’ views. This point is reiterated by
Giorgi (1975) who clearly states that it is not feasible not to have
presuppositions, but that the researcher should admit these to him or
herself, this forms part of phenomenological reduction. It was
therefore important for me formally to state my experiences and this
undoubtedly helped me to be aware of my presuppositions.
Once presuppositions have been stated and laid aside (as far as is
possible), this stage of the analysis involves questioning the material
which emerged during the second phase. Giorgi (1975) suggests that
the questions which are central to the research should be ‘put to the
data’ in an ordered and systematic manner. For example, the
fundamental question for my study was: ‘What is the meaning of
health promotion?’
Therefore this stage of the analysis involved looking at both the
natural units and the central themes (Table 3) and asking ‘what does
this tell me about health promotion?’ Giorgi (1975) clearly states that
some of the natural units may not reveal anything explicit about the
phenomena, in which case there is a blank for this unit. Table 4
illustrates the findings from stage two for the same participant’s
(Linda) natural units and central themes.
Giorgi (1975) does not attribute a term for the final themes generated
(column 3 of Table 4), however, to avoid confusion, and in keeping
with his terminology, these will now be referred to as the ‘revelatory’
themes. The process identified in Table 4 was carried out for all of the
natural units and their central themes which had been identified in
stage two. When I repeatedly asked the question ‘what does this tell
me about health promotion?’ I found that the same points were arising
on a number of occasions (as may be expected). As a result a total of
13 revelatory themes from all of the transcripts were revealed
(interestingly, none of the natural units yielded a blank). However, on
closer inspection four of these themes had commonalities and I felt
that the number could therefore be reduced to nine (Table 5).

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I anticipated that this would also facilitate the discussion of the

findings.
Table 5: Revelatory themes

Revelatory Themes
Health promotion means having an understanding of the concept
Health promotion means being a role model
Health promotion means approaching families in a sensitive,
intuitive manner
Health promotion means commitment
Health promotion means embracing a range of strategies
Health promotion means teamwork
Health promotion means evaluation
Health promotion means actively involving children and their
families
Health promotion means underpinning practice with appropriate
knowledge.

Stage 4. ‘Once the themes have been thusly enumerated, an attempt is

made to tie together into a descriptive statement the essential, non-
redundant themes’ (Giorgi 1975).
Giorgi (1975) suggests that this is conducted by formulating a
description of each revelatory theme in relation to the specifics of the
research situation. Giorgi (1975) acknowledges that these would
certainly not be universal descriptions, but may be applicable to other
situations. Giorgi (1975) suggests that this stage is particularly
important since it allows ‘feasible communication’ to other sources.
However, he stresses that this would not be the final word on the
subject, the descriptions are intended to be considered further. Table 6
identifies final descriptions for just two of the themes.
The nine themes provided an initial insight into the meaning of health
promotion for the six participants of the study. Having completed this
aspect of the data analysis, I was then able to consider, with relative

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ease, each revelatory theme which was generated, examining it in
relation to relevant literature and illustrating it with participants’ quotes.
Table 6: Descriptions of two of the themes

Theme: Health promotion means being a role model. There is a

fundamental belief that the children’s nurse is a valuable
role model in terms of health promotion.
Theme: Health promotion means teamwork – children’s nurses
view teamwork as vital to the promotion of health. This
includes working with members of the multidisciplinary
team, relevant organisations and members of the
community at large. It ensures that there is sharing of
expertise to facilitate the success of initiatives, and, that
there is not overlap of roles.

Table 7 provides an overview of the meaning of health promotion as

perceived by the participants of the study.

Reflecting on the data analysis

Giorgi (1975) acknowledges that his approach to the analysis of
phenomenological data could be criticised because it relies on
interpretation by the researcher. However, he suggests that this issue is
not something which is peculiar to phenomenological research.
Furthermore he contends that if the investigator reads the participants
descriptions without prejudice and thematises the transcript from their
perspective, the quality of the findings is neither impaired or
contaminated. Giorgi (1975) states that if another researcher undertook
the data analysis, there may indeed be a difference in the revelatory
themes, however, he maintains that his ‘experience has shown that it is
never wholly different; rather it is divergent because another
investigator is looking at the same data slightly differently’.
In order to verify this view, I showed one of the participant’s (Linda)
transcript and the identified natural units to a colleague who has
recently completed a phenomenological study. I asked her to apply
stages two and three to the data. Although the wording of her findings

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was different to mine, the similarities were both uncanny and

reassuring.

Table 7. Appendix

Understanding. This term is used to denote the pre-requisite of

understanding the concept of health promotion
Role modelling. This highlights the responsibilities which
children’s nurses have in terms of role modelling and the
subsequent influences
Sensitivity. This recognises the importance of having an approach
to health promotion which is sensitive to the needs of the child,
family and community as a whole
Commitment. Health promotion is not without its difficulties,
therefore commitment to it’s practice is a fundamental requirement
Innovation. A range of innovative strategies must be drawn on to
facilitate the success of health promotion initiatives for children
and their families
Teamwork. This is essential and includes a multi-agency
approach, as well as work with other professionals
Evaluation. It is imperative that children’s nurses consider
evaluating health promotion strategies with which they are
involved, in order to provide evidence of their value
Children and families. Both children and their families must be
actively involved in health promotion strategies in order that
success is facilitated
Knowledge. This acknowledges the value of education
programmes which may be one method of providing knowledge
to underpin practice.

Having read a number of published nursing studies which have drawn

on Giorgi’s (1975) method, I found that several authors failed to
provide sufficient detail of the research process itself to allow me to
make judgements as to the extent to which the method was actually
followed. For instance, although Ashworth and Hagan (1993) do

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attempt to show both the implementation process and how themes were
generated, others such as Erickson and Henderson (1992) give very
limited details. While editorial preference may influence the length and
content of published work a more detailed methodological exposition
would seem to be an imperative if such investigative approaches are to
gain greater acceptance. Of greater concern however is that a number of
commentators including Omery (1983) and Streubert and Carpenter
(1999) appear to have interpreted Giorgi’s (1975) stages differently to
that presented in his original work. For instance, Omery (1983) says
that stage four of Giorgi’s (1975) method involves the formulation of a
classification system for themes, giving the example of ‘successful
coping strategies’, yet Giorgi himself, (1975) states clearly that the
revelatory themes comprise of statements which reveal what the study
has told the researcher about the phenomena under investigation. While
there is almost an expectation that frameworks developed in other
disciplines will be adapted and applied in nursing, this surely highlights
the importance of being true to the original source.

Conclusion
It is important to remember that central to Husserl’s (1960) approach to
phenomenology (from which Giorgi’s (1975) work clearly emanates) is
the uncovering of true meanings, the searching of irrefutable truth. This
study sought to describe the meaning and fundamental elements of
health promotion as perceived by as group of children’s nurses, rather
than the interpretation of experiences. I would suggest that the use of
this phenomenological approach in nursing is appropriate, however, it is
not one to be adopted without considerable thought, particularly as the
data analysis can be complex and can leave the uninitiated researcher
feeling confused and bewildered. Despite this, I would not try to deter
anyone who wished to use it and hope that my reflections may be
useful to other nurses embarking on this type of research.

Lisa S Whiting MSc, BA(Hons), RGN, RSCN, RNT, LTCL is Senior

Lecturer, Child Health Nursing, University of Hertfordshire

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