Part I (Foundations)

Audience

Technical communication begins with analyzing the intended readers,

called the audience. Technical writers answer the following questions to
analyze their audience before they begin writing:

 What does the audience already know?

 What does the audience want to know?
 What does the audience intend to do with the information?

In communication, the 'audience' is the person or group of people whom

you expect to read your information. Even though writers do not know exactly
who will read their documents, they can usually define an intended audience as
technical, semi-technical, or nontechnical.

Technical audience:
Technical audience includes those with technical experience and
training, such as technicians and engineers. A technical audience understands
fundamental concepts and jargon without definitions or background
information. Readers expect the writers to use technical language efficiently
and appropriately. For this audience, writers use technical terms and precise
data to convey information.

Semi-technical audience:
Semi-technical audience has some technical training or works in the
industry, but not directly in the field or related technical areas. This audience
needs some explanations of concepts, abbreviations, and jargon. Writers use
technical terms only if they are common in the company or industry. This
audience might need an orientation to the subject and explanation or
interpretation of the terms and information.

Nontechnical audience:
This type of audience is the general public, an unknown audience, or
any combination of technical, semi-technical or nontechnical readers. This
audience expects a clear organization that progresses from the background to
the new information, with examples or illustrations to explain points that may
be confusing. For this audience, writers provide the most comprehensive
treatment of the subject such as common terminology, simple language, a full
background and orientation to the subject, and a complete discussion of the
main points. To simplify difficult concepts, writers often compare technical
processes to more familiar ones through analogies and metaphors.
 The audience, whether technical or general, might want only the
highlights of the information. Or the audience might want detailed information
including the background, procedures used, visual aids, data tables, and your
conclusions.
People read technical information for a purpose. Sometimes that purpose
is simply for general interest. Other times, the audience wants to follow the
procedures, solve a problem, or make a decision. Writers must anticipate
questions and provide the organization and details this audience needs.
Generally, writers sometimes make false assumption about their
audiences as:

 The audience speaks and reads English.

 The audience will read the complete report or manual.
 The audience will remember what they tell them.
 When listeners or readers don't understand, they will ask questions.

Thus writers have to be careful about the audience before presenting their
writings.

***
 Language and Style

The language and style writers use for technical communication depends
upon the audience – the background, need, and purpose of the people who will
read the information. Writers choose the most effective terms, writing style,
and organization to make the subject understandable to their audience.
Generally, technical writers use precise Voice form, Sentence length,
Negatives, and Tone for effective technical communication.

Voice:
A message can be communicated either by speaking or in writing. In
speaking voice and tone can be varied to communicate the message effectively.
Speakers can learn how to use their voice to inform, persuade, and entertain an
audience.
In writing, we have the most common voices called active and passive
voice. The active voice emphasizes the fact that the subject of the sentence
does something. It directs attention to the subject. Most technical writers today
write predominantly in the active voice because it is more direct and easier to
understand and follow. The passive voice emphasizes the idea that the subject
is acted upon. Passive voice is effective if the acting agent is not important.
Mostly, while writing procedures or instructions, writers avoid passive voice.

Sentence length:
Technical communication can be full of ideas and facts. Shorter
sentences are usually easier to understand than long, complicated sentences.
Critics agree that sentences over 25 words are too long for most readers to
understand. A message consisting of only short sentences will sound choppy
and artificial; sometimes the relationship between ideas gets lost when
sentences are too short. A document wit sentences that are similar in length and
structure sounds dull. Variety in sentence length and structure makes the
message more interesting. Technical writers must pay close attention to
sentence length for understandability and interest.

Negatives:
Understanding negative sentences is difficult. People often misread or
fail to see the negative word, such as 'not' or a negative prefix, such as 'non' or
'un'. Understanding a negative sentence is especially difficult when the
sentence contains two (or more) negative terms. Generally, two negatives are
removed into an active, positive form. However fast readers might miss one of
the negatives and arrive at the opposite conclusion for what the author
intended.

Tone:
Tone is the attitude or emotion of the writer expressed in word choice.
Tone can be formal or casual. It can be positive, negative or neutral. Writers set
the tone of their documents by the words they use.
 Formal English creates a formal tone but this tone is thought to be too
stuffy.
 Informal English, using slang or abbreviated words, sets a casual tone
but this tone is considered to be unprofessional.
 Highly value-laden words or decorated flowery words set an insincere
tone and is considered to be emotional.
 Sarcastic or angry words set a negative tone so it is considered as
unproductive and mean.
 Neutral words set a businesslike tone, free from emotion or
manipulation so it is the preferred tone in business writing.

The writers should try to keep a neutral tone in most business writing.
Avoid abrupt shift in tone because shifting in tone is often confusing to
readers.

***
 Organization
Organization of paragraphs is very much important for the writers to
make their view clear to the intended audience while using appropriate
language and style. Organization of paragraphs is also the main skill in writing
outlines and taking notes.
The writer uses several techniques that can be used as organizational
aids such as an introduction sets the stage for the rest of the article. A heading
in large fonts identifies transitions to new ideas. The bulleted lists draw
attention of the reader to the material and make it easy to read. A figure
included in the writing illustrates the comparison of verbal communication to
the electronic analogy. A summary put at the end restates the main idea that
helps the readers to regain the thesis of the writing.

Classification:
Before starting a paragraph, writers must decide what the topic of the
paragraph will be. Usually a paragraph focuses on one main idea and the
supporting ides for that main idea. Sometimes writers start an outline of the
topics they want to include in the entire document, and then start to organize
the ideas into logical paragraphs and sections. Well written technical articles
present information in an order that eliminates the need for repetition. Once a
term is defined it can be freely used in the entire document. Each section of the
article discusses only one idea. Key ideas are underlined or titled. Ideas
presented in an order that prepares the reader for the next idea.
Technical writers plan the logical ordering, or organization, of
information called outlining, which is a numbered and lettered sketch of the
contents. Grouping or classifying information is also a method that some
people use for memorizing information.

Writing Lists:
A list at the beginning of the paragraph, section, or report is an effective
way of telling the reader how the article has been organized. Punctuation marks
like a colon used before the items states a list or still bullets or numbers can be
used for listing to make the writing list clear for the readers.

Topic Sentences:
Each paragraph should have a main idea. If it is stated in a sentence, it is
called the topic sentence. The topic sentence sets the limits of the paragraph. It
can appear at the beginning, middle or at end of the paragraph – or not at all
being an inferred topic sentence. Good technical writers usually start each
paragraph with a clear topic sentence to ensure readability and logic.
If the topic sentence becomes the central idea of a formal report or
document, it is called a thesis statement. Formal report begins with a thesis
statement, followed by main ideas, each supported by details. If the topic is the
central idea of an informal report or memo, it is called a topic statement or
subject statement.
Outlines:
It is sometimes difficult to start a document with intended ideas to
convey and it's ordering. Writing outlines can reduce the uncertainty. Outlines
also save time. Topics can require subtopics. If a topic gets long and complex,
write a list of ideas just for that topic, and you have your list of subheadings.
Formal outlines can become elaborate, with Roman numerals, letters, and
Arabic numbers, all intended to show a parallel structure. Outlines can also be
simple lists of ideas. Experienced writers learn to develop full documents based
on simple lists. To write an outline, write the main ideas and important details
in condensed phrases. Writing an outline is a way of selecting the main ideas
and important supporting details. Practice and careful reading or listening will
improve this skill.

***
 Part II (Writing Elements)

Technical Definitions

Definitions of terms are the foundation of technical writing. A precise

set of terms is used in technology, and only with a common understanding of
those terms can information be communicated accurately.
Some terms used in technology have different meanings entirely
different from those with which you are familiar in everyday life. Some terms
are used with more precision in technology than in everyday life. Some terms
are frequently confused. Thus the concepts need to be explained can never be
specific unless we learn the use of those words technically. Technical
definitions can be categorized thus:
Informal Definitions:
Informal definitions are generally place between commas or parentheses
e.g. Resistance: opposition to current flow or A potentiometer (variable
resistor) is used for volume controls.
If too many informal definitions are used, a report may become
disjointed and distracting. Normally, a writer using more than two unfamiliar
technical terms in a report will define the terms formally in the introduction or
glossary.
Formal Definitions:
A formal definition has two functions: it identifies the larger class that
the term belongs to, and it provides distinguishing characters. A formal
definition can be written for any technical term, and often the most difficult
part is determining the class. So, accurate distinctions of terms is very much
necessary
Technical writing can be made efficient by not repeating or rewording
terms. Technical terms and jargons describes an idea or concept in a few words
but the disadvantage of jargon is tat it assumes that the readers also understands
the technical meanings of the term and the result will be wordy and
cumbersome. So it requires explicit definitions of terms in clear and simple
language.
Extended Definitions:
Some objects or concepts require more than one-sentence definition. An
extended definition might require a paragraph or even several pages to fully
define a complex concept or object. An extended definition includes the
standard definition sentence, but also provides more details that describe the
object. It can contain related definition and examples that illustrate the term.

Dictionaries:
Dictionaries are written for certain audiences. Small dictionaries provide
only thee most commonly used words and definitions whereas technical or
scientific dictionaries offer only technical terms and definitions. So technical or
scientific can also serve the purpose to define up the idea or the concept
explicitly to the readers.

***
 Technical Descriptions
A technical description can be part of a larger report or a report by itself.
It is especially important when the report concerns a device, tool, process, or
concept that is new or unfamiliar. Description normally includes a definition of
the object, an orientation to the overall characteristics, followed by detailed
description of the parts in a logical order. For example, to describe a device, a
writer would first describe the function of the device. Next, the writer would
describe the physical appearance of the object and its component parts, one by
one, in the order in which they appear or play into the larger function of the
device itself.

Comparisons:
Technical descriptions sometimes compare unfamiliar objects or
concepts to familiar objects or concepts. In technology, people need to express
values, shapes, angles and joints in concrete, meaningful terms. To do this, we
use familiar or graphical terms to describe size, structure and location. Many
fields use the abbreviated method of describing a complex design or shape to
add exactness of their language. Comparisons are useful for explaining and
understanding.

Analogies:
An analogy is a formal comparison based on the resemblance of two
unrelated objects or ideas. An analogy is useful only if the two concepts have
more than one similarity. For descriptions written to technical audiences,
writers include the specific details and terms used in the industry.

Technical Slang:
Clear technical description can be produced by avoiding technical slang,
words used within a specialized area that are unfamiliar to the public. This is
important when communicating to customers, superiors, or subordinates, who
might be confused by the slang terms. During communication, it is important to
prevent misunderstandings, and this can be dome by using the most common,
yet accurate words possible.

Clichés:
Some speakers and writers overuse comparisons to add colour to their
words. Overused comparisons are called clichés, and they should be avoided in
technical writing.

Physical Description:
The technical description of an object generally starts with the general
information, and proceeds to specific information. Regardless of the object
being described, a physical description has the same purpose: to present the
facts about the object. Technical writers use descriptive terms carefully and
precisely, with exact terms. They use modifiers sparingly, but when they do the
modifiers are adjectives that add meanings to the concept. Avoid abstract and
vague terms. An outline for the physical description contains the following
guidelines:
  Orientation to the object or device: it includes a technical definition, and
when and why the device is used.
 General description of the device: It includes the overall dimensions,
appearance, and components of the device.
 Description of each component: It includes a sequential or logic order
with its physical appearance, purpose, and relationship to other
components.

Process Description:
The technical description of a process describes how something works,
beginning with general information about the overall function of the process,
and proceeding to the specific materials or skill required. The description can
include a flowchart or schematic to show the sequence of actions or decision
points in the process. An outline for process description contains the following
guidelines:
 Orientation to the process: It includes a technical definition, and when
and why the process is performed.
 General operation of the process: It includes the main divisions of the
process; materials, skills, and time required; and pre-operation
conditions.
 Description of each step in the process: It includes why and when it
takes place, how long it lasts, and any human intervention required.

***
 Summaries
A summary is a condensed account of the essential information included
in a longer piece of writing. A summary usually appears at the end of an article
or report. The function of a summary is similar to that of a schematic diagram,
which gives a clear, brief presentation of a device without the clutter of the
actual materials necessary to build the device.
A summary answers the basic questions that readers want answered
before they devote more time to reading the article or book. Many people
interested in keeping up with technology do not have time to read every article
printed about their field. They often rely on professional abstracts to find the
most useful articles. A reader searching for information has predictable
questions like what, why, where, when, why and how for each article.
Guidelines for writing the summary:
 Read the article carefully and use a pencil to highlight key ideas, phrases
and conclusions.
 Look for the author's own summary before reading the article.
 Note the author's organization.
 The length of the summary is usually shortened to 33% of the original.
 Avoid personal interpretations, agreements or disagreements.
 Use third person pronoun.
 Re-read the article once more and compare to the summary written.
In a summary, writers reword and condense ideas. Copying exact sentences
is considered plagiarism. Avoid plagiarism while writing a summary or any
piece of documentation, for that matter.
Executive Summary:
An executive summary is a modified summary located at the beginning
of a report or document. Its purpose is to highlight the bottom-line information
needed by upper management to make a decision, including staffing, budget,
and timeline considerations, sometimes in a bulleted list. It might also include a
final recommendation or conclusion, depending on the purpose of the report. If
the document describes a research project, the executive summary includes the
purpose, background, results, conclusions and recommendations, written for a
semi-technical or nontechnical audience.
Abstract:
An abstract is typically a one or two sentence summary that includes the
author's name, publication and date, and keywords used by databases,
librarians, abstracting services and others to locate articles on specific topics.
Abstracts sometimes contain related and alternatives terms so that people can
find the article using a word search, and they can use the related words to
widen a computer search for a topic. People obtain abstracts to determine if
they want to read the original article.
Abstracts can include the author, title and subtitle, source, description of
the article, and identifier keywords related to the topic.

***
 Graphics
Graphics are visual representations of objects, numbers, and other data
in the form of pictures, diagrams, graphs and charts. The purpose of using
graphics is to present information in a visual way and to clarify concepts such
as location, size, relationship and comparisons. Graphics can increase interest
and readability of documents for readers who might shy away from blocks of
solid text. At present computers and graphics software programmes has helped
a lot for a professional and polished look of any article or document.
Besides digitized images, writers create and insert a wide variety of
graphics that supplement written materials. Graphs are representations of
numbers and data in one, two or three dimensions. Graphs must be complete as
well as accurate. Graphics add to our knowledge as well as entertain us.
The main types of graphics used in technical writing are photographs,
line drawings, graphs, and tables. The purpose of adding graphics to technical
report is to supplement the written materials. Graphics are not used to repeat
information that s already clear to impress readers, nor are graphics used to
lengthen a report. Effective graphics can clarify information, organize data, and
emphasize important points. The measures of effective graphics are simplicity
and usefulness.

Photographs:
Camera-produced graphics are easy to insert into reports using a scanner
or digital reprints from negatives. They may be useful to show the overall
appearance of an object but line drawings also serves this purpose. If used,
photos should be always clearly focused and include the intended object –
easier said than done. Because photographs do not necessarily indicate size,
some photographs shoe the object near to something common.

Line Drawings:
Line drawings include the vast majority of the graphics in your
textbooks. Schematics, drawings of components, and block diagrams are all
examples of line drawings. While using line drawings all the significant parts
of the drawing should be labeled. Standard abbreviation should be used.
Adequate white space should be added. Appropriate font, cross sections and
block diagrams should be included.

Graphs:
Graphs include displays of numerical data using bars, lines, curves and
circles. The purpose of graphs is to help the audience visualize the effects of a
changed variable on a subject. The display often emphasizes a trend or
illustrates the results of an experiment. The best graphs used are waveforms
and exponential curves.

Bar graphs: It shows evenly spaced bars extending vertically or horizontally.

Some writers print the exact value inside each bar, which are especially helpful
when precision counts.
Line graphs and waveforms: Line graphs and waveforms are made up of dots
placed at coordinates according to fixed increments on the vertical and
horizontal axes. The dots are then connected by straight lines or smooth curves
to show the subject's response to changing conditions. The horizontal axis
shows the changed condition, and the vertical axis represents the subject's
response or activity.

Pie charts: Pie charts are portioned circles in which each partition represents a
percentage or proportion of the category.

Tables: Tables are displays of information in columns or rows. There is no

limit of columns or rows, and the values within the tables are precise. Tables
are used to compare and contrast the features of two or more objects.

It is important to be aware that graphical representations of data can be

misleading. The graphics can be constructed in ways that visually distort the
data without being exactly dishonest.

Computer Images:
Writers sometimes create and process their own computer graphics
images, sometimes through classroom training, mentoring, or just plain trial
and error. There are many alternatives to creating our own graphics, including
clip art, graphics editor, screen captures, and scanners.

Clip art: Many word processing programmes and Internet sources provide
batches of images that we can copy and paste, drag, or insert into our
documents. Some include graphics with sound and motion.

Graphic editors: Many programmes like Adobe Photoshop, JASC Paint Shop
Pro, and Microsoft Paint, usually include an editor for creating new images and
working with existing images.

Scanner: A scanner is an electronic device that you connect to the computer to

reproduce a hard-copy image as an electronic image. Any photograph placed
on the bed of the scanner, the device converts the image into an electronic
format, and we can save it on the computer in the file format as preferred and
used it for our document.

Screen captures: If we want to reproduce an image visible on the computer

screen, we can take a screen capture of the image on the screen, similar to
taking a photograph of the screen and then it can be pasted in the graphic editor
and save it for the preferred purpose.

***
 Instructions
Instructions provide an overview of the device, such as the purpose of
the instructions or functional and starting state of the device. Instructions also
specify the materials including sizes, part numbers and quantities needed to
complete the procedure. In each step, usually numbered, the writers use active
sentence and imperative mood with the use of second person pronoun 'you'.
Instructions also include graphics when needed for clarity or understanding the
text, or add a description under the graphic to orient the reader to the figure. A
conclusion is also included at the end of instructions so as to describe the final
state or optional procedures.

Guidelines for the general process of writing Instructions

 Perform the procedure yourself: Before writing an instruction we

have to read the whole process so as to become familiar with all the
features and terminology.

 Prepare the working draft: Write a draft of the numbered steps and
make it read by others and get the feedback to revise the missing parts or
confusing information.

 Write the steps using simple, direct language: While writing an

instruction simple and direct language should be used. All the vague and
confusing terms should be replaced and use second person 'you' with
imperative mood.

 Include graphics if needed: Not all instructions include graphics.

However if the steps include parts' names, users will appreciate a
graphic that illustrates or label the difficult part.

 Format the instructions to identify the organization: Select the layout

and format that make the instructions clear and easy to follow. The brief,
simple numbering steps are considered appropriate. Headings, font size
of the heading and making them bold is necessary for long steps.

 Write an introduction to' orient the reader: Explain who should

follow this procedure and why, when or where to follow it. This
information lays the groundwork for the instructions and identifies the
intended audience and outcome.

 Add materials if requirements list: Include all equipment, tools, or

more minimum requirements needed for the complete project. A
bulleted list could be produced to make the items easy to spot. Precise
quantities, sizes, and part numbers could also be included as needed to
make the instructions clear.
 Identify notes and warnings: Use clear wording and formats to
highlight information that has special importance for the readers. Use
note, tips, cautions and warnings according to the conventions of your
style guide.

 Edit, revise, and refine the language: Review the document and if
possible ask other people to review it. Review should be based on two
factors: one for language and the other for technical accuracy. Each
reviewer might suggest different revisions.

 Observe someone follow your instructions: The best way to test

instructions is to ask someone to read and follow your instruction. Avoid
helping the subject; let the person rely only on the written information.
Keep a record pf difficulties experienced by the tester.

 Put the final touches on the instructions: Complete the final revisions
based on testing. Take a last look at the layout and send the document to
the printer.

***
 Comparison and Contrast
When two or more objects are being compared, we often use a technique
called comparison and contrast. Writers want to present facts and details in a
meaningful, sometimes in a persuasive way, so that a reader can see the
differences and similarities of the objects.
In a comparison, we look for correlation. In a contrast, we look for
difference in certain features. It is important to determine the standards of
comparison before beginning a report.

Elements of comparison and contrast report:

Comparison and contrast reports contain three main parts: an

introduction, a body of information, and a conclusion, which makes a
recommendation.
The first part of a comparison report, the introduction, states the
standards of comparison: a short description of the features that will we
discussed and why those features were chosen.
The second part of the report, the body is the comparison and contrast of
the products and their features. It is important to write parallel descriptions of
each product. The features described for one product are described in the same
order for all the products. If a feature is missing on a product, it is noted.
Information in the body can be organized in two ways. The point by
point method itemizes the features being examined: function, display, cost and
complexity of use. For example, if products A and B are being compared, the
first paragraph might compare one feature of both products. Whenever
something is said about A, the parallel information about B is presented. The
next section will describe another feature of both products. The heading for
each section is the feature being described.
The block method is organized by the products. First, all the features of
product A are described in a block, and then the parallel features of product B
are described in a block. The features of product B are described in the same
order as they were described for product A. The heading for each block is the
product being described.
The final section of a comparison and contrast report, the conclusion,
restates only the major points that led the writer to make a final
recommendation. The recommendation is a logical conclusion based on the
evidence presented in a report. Sometimes the writer proposes several
recommendations that take into account the possible priorities of the reader.

***
 Part III (Forms of technical Communication)

Technical Reports

Report is generally described in a way to give people information about

something that you have heard, seen or done. Such information is generally
presented in a written or spoken format. In this chapter three basic report
formats are focused upon: the descriptive report, lab report and proposal.

Layout guidelines for writing report:

The appearance of a report adds to its visual interest and readability.

Writers can use the followings in a technical report:
 Headings to show the organization and flow of information
 Graphics add clarity to concepts, objects, or procedures
 Charts efficiently contrast or summarize details
 The white space or margins and between elements adds breathing room
for readers.

The following guidelines add consistency, unity and cohesiveness to the

documents:
 Alignment: Align elements to consistent margins.
 Contrast: Distinguish between differing elements on a page such as
headings, sub-headings, quote etc.
 Proximity: Group items that relate to each other close together.
 Repetition: Repeat the visual elements of colour, shape, texture, spacing
and the line thickness throughout the document.

Descriptive Reports:

A descriptive report is a formal document with a specific audience, format,

and purpose. A writer must analyze their audience before writing the report by
identifying the basic three questions: Who the audience is? What does the
audience want to know? What does the audience intend to do with the
information? The answer to these questions will influence the language,
content, organization and the supporting elements of the report.
The purpose of the descriptive report is to describe, define, explain,
document or teach or any combination of these purposes. To achieve the
purpose for the audience writers must organize information clearly, emphasize
main points, and provide the backup information needed by the audience.
A descriptive report relates the physical appearance of an object in words. It
may be followed by pictures or line drawings that enhance the description, but
pictures should never be considered a substitute for words.

Some basic guidelines for writing description are as follows:

 Always start with an outline.
 Have the object in front of you as you write your outline.
  Always begin with an introduction.
 Use precise terms and measurements but avid abbreviations for highly
technical terms.
 Describe the function of each part of the object briefly.
 Include graphics or line drawings if it clarifies the ideas.
 Label each main section of the report.
 End with a summary and number the pages.

Sample Report Format:

I. Preliminary Section
1. Letter of Transmittal or preface
2. Title page
3. Executive summary or abstract
4. Table of contents and List of Figures and Tables
II. Main Section
5. Introduction and Thesis Sentence
6. Body
7. Summary and/or Conclusion
8. Tables and Figures (If not included in the body)
III. Documentation
9. Notes (footnote or endnote if needed)
10. Bibliography
11. Appendix

Lab Reports:

The formal lab report describes a lab test or experiment using industry
conventions of methodology and reporting. A typical purpose is to report the
results of an experiment to an audience so that they might replicate the
experiment or conduct further research based on your result.
Scientists or engineers might present test findings in formally bound
reports such as listed below:

 Title page: The front sheet that states the title and also includes your
name, section class, date of submission and instructor's name.
 Purpose: States a one sentence objective or purpose of the experiment.
 Theory: State the basic formulas, theories, assumptions that are used in
the experiment.
 Equipment and components: List all the equipment and components
and the number of these items used in the experiment.
 Procedures: Explain in detail what you did and how you did it.
Diagrams can be included to clarify ideas.
 Results: List the raw data or results of the experiment.
 Discussion: Analyze the results of the tests. Probably the longest part of
the report as you relates theory and scientific principles, equipments and
procedures used in the experiment.
  Conclusions and recommendations: Discuss the results and relate
them to how successfully you achieved the objective.

Technical Proposals:

A proposal is a persuasive document that attempts to convince the

readers to adopt or purchase a service or product. Proposals vary in size and
length, usually becoming longer and more formal as the cost of the product or
service increases. Proposals can be of the following types:
 External: Written to other companies such as when proposing to sell
your service or product.
 Internal: Written within your own company such as when proposing a
new service or product for your department
 Unsolicited: Sent without being requested such as when your company
wants to develop new customers.
 Solicited: Requested by your department or company such as when
responding to customers inquiries, grants, or requests for proposals.

Formal proposals typically include the following elements:

 Cover Letter: Address the letter to the primary decision maker such as
the president of the company. It should be brief and to the point
emphasizing on the main point of the product.
 Title Page: For competitive proposals using graphics to make attractive.
 Table of Contents: Used when the report is longer than a few pages.
 Executive summary: The most important part of the proposal that
includes information for the upper management to make decision.
Bulleted list should be used to make reading easy and understandable.
Active voice and second person pronoun 'you' is used for description.
 Discussion: Includes the reasoning for the proposed service or product.
 Proposed service or product, or comparison of products: The main
body of the report. It might include a technical section for technical
experts and a management section for a more general audience.
 Your company's background or experience: For external proposals.
This helps establish credibility and confidence in your company.
 Budget: Itemize the categories such as components, labour and overall
totals.
 Appendixes: Includes supporting materials and other product data if
needed.

***
 Forms, Memos, and E-mail

Forms are preprinted formats for recording specific pieces of information.

Memos are brief, open-ended communications addressed to a specific person
about a stated subject. E-mail provides an electronic medium for both types of
communication – memos and forms. E-mail can transmit business letters and
reports.

Forms:

Each company and industry has its own standard and customized forms.
Because formats are designed to furnish precise and efficient records, we must
attend to the specific labels to determine that information to include in each
lime or box.
 Some forms include detailed instructions, such as tax forms. Most
business forms have brief labels or titles for sections, columns and rows.
 Some forms are available online, and you can complete and transmit
them on your computer.
 Some forms require an entry in every box or line.

Guidelines to fill out forms:

 Write or print form neatly with correct spelling and clear wording help.
 Check out information that isn't easily supplied.
 Do not overlook questionnaire and anticipate the asked question
properly.
 Record your procedure and se it to fill in the form.
 Use standard abbreviation and symbols to fill up the form.

Memos:

Memos can be used to call attention to your projects, effort, coworkers

and plans. They are used to praise, inform, question and complain. But they all
have the potential to become a permanent record. Because memos are generally
short so they are planned very carefully than reports. Memos can be prepared in
three different types: Status memo, Negative memo and Personal memo.
A status memo informs others of the state of a project or situation. IN
status memo, stay positive and action-oriented, yet realistic.
Negative memos are written to reject, disagree, complain, or admonish.
When a negative memo is written, it couldn't be erased later. So, the message
that is written should not be damaging to you and others. Because negative
memos cannot be softened by body language or voice tone, your written words
may be stronger than you intention so try to sound like a businessman and
factual. Attempt to identify and resolve underlying issues.
Personal memos are written to convey private information. We need to
be aware of confidential information while writing personal memo.
E-Mail:

Most businesses routinely provide Internet access to employees to carry

out the work efficiently and for instant response. To receive and send E-mail,
users must set up an e-mail programme. Most e-mail programmes provide a
template, similar to a memo format at the top of the message. The following
guidelines need to be remembered specifically for e-mail users:
 Enter the address.
 Attach documents and files with the e-mail, if needed. Describe the
attachments in the text of e-mail, including the size of the file.
 Fill in the subject line with the brief topic.
 State the purpose or scope of your e-mail in the first paragraph.
 The language of your e-mail depends on your audience and purpose.
 Be specific about what you expect and how to reach to a solution, if you
are requesting an action from the recipient.
 Keep humour to a minimum.
 Include your name, title, mailing address, phone and fax number, and e-
mail address in your closing for alternatives for return contact from the
recipient.
 Re-read your e-mail before sending.

***
 BUSINESS LETTERS
In the business world and in everyday life, we encounter situations that require our
composure and a steady voice. Practicing strategies to reduce anxiety gives us the tools we
need to deal with people effectively in all situations.
Many people are just nervous about writing a formal letter as they are about giving a
formal presentation, and with good reason. Poorly worded letters can have serious
consequences because it takes time to detect, pinpoint, and resolve any miscommunication.
As we practice writing different types of letters, we should be familiar with many tools
to get started. Our knowledge of spelling, mechanics, and grammar are necessarily to be well to
prevent or revise distracting errors. The technical vocabulary can add the precision needed for
clear.

Personal vs. Business Letters

Letters usually fall into two groups: Personal and Business. We can write personal letter
in an informal, breezy style that reflects the way we speak – with slang, familiar expressions,
and a variety of loosely organized topics. Many people now use e-mail as a substitute for
personal mail, and the styles are similar.
When we write business letters we must use formal language, Standard English and a
conventional style. Business letters should be clear, concise, and well edited. Business letters
have a clear purpose, usually stated in the first paragraph. They might cover more than one
topic, and if so, the ideas and paragraphs are organized and presented in a logical, deliberate
order.
Business letters are usually written in two ways: blocked or modified-blocked style,
with single spacing within paragraphs and double spaces between paragraphs and letter parts.

Letter Formats
The two standard formats for business letters are the blocked and modified-blocked
style with intended paragraphs.
The blocked style is the simplest. Start every part of the letter and every paragraph in
the body of the letter in the left margin, and skip one line between parts and paragraphs.
In the modified block with the intended paragraphs, indent your address and your
closing and signature to the same number of spaces, usually near the centre. You can also
indent the first line of each paragraph a consistent number of spaces or not indent any
paragraphs. Choose your preference and be consistent.

The General Formatting Guidelines:

• Use the computer (or typewriter) to type all business letters. Do not send hand written
correspondence.
• Single space the text of a letter, but skip one line between the parts and paragraphs of a
letter.
• Use the white space (margins) to create a frame around the letter. Adjust the margins so
they are similar.
• If the letter is more than one page, number the pages, starting with page 2, in a
consistent place, such as the upper-right or lower right corner.
• Indicate at the end of the letter if you are sending enclosures and if you have copied the
letter to someone else.
• Type envelopes using recommended style.
 Elements of the Business Letter
Business letters have the following parts, separated by a double space.
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Receiver’s name and Title (if known)
4. Subject
5. Greeting
6. Body of the letter
7. Closing
8. Handwritten signature of the sender
9. Typed name and title of the sender
10. Enclosure or copy information (if needed)
Example of Inquiry Letter in blocked style

Ace Engineering Incorporation

Heading Mahendranagar
Kanchanpur

Date September 29, 2013

Keshav Raj Joshi

Address Kanchanpur Engineering Works
Mahendranagar

Subject Subject: Schedule a sales call

Greeting Dear Mr. Joshi

Recently, a close friend, Mohan Singh, mentioned your company and that you
Introduction manufacture customized connectors using innovative designs. I would like to
and purpose meet with one of your representatives to see examples of your products and
discuss whether your company can help me meet the needs of my customers.

In particular, I am looking for a connector for ink-handling applications. Currently

Details we are purchasing connectors from Acme Engineering, but I have recently
received several complaints from customers about ink leaks.

Please have a representative call me at 099-525169 early next week to schedule

a meeting here with my installation managers. We would like to see product
Follow-up
samples at that time. I am available any weekday, and I would prefer to receive
your call after 1 P.M. Thank you for your assistance.

Closing Cordially

Signature

Typed name Ajay Sharma

& signature President

Enclosure Enclosure: Schematics for variation ink-handling products.

 Example of Follow-up Letter in modified-block with intended paragraphs

Kanchanpur Engineering Works

Heading Mahendranagar
Kanchanpur

Date September 30, 2013

Ajay Sharma
Address Ace Engineering Incorporation
Mahendranagar

Subject Subject: Schedule a meeting

Greeting Dear Mr. Sharma

It was a pleasure talking with you today. I look forward to meeting you
Introduction and your managers on Monday, June 19, at 2 P.M. I will bring several samples of
and purpose our products to examine and discuss.

In the meantime, I have enclosed the standard product specification and

examples of the shrouded 1/16” hosebarb we currently manufacture, as we
Details discusssed. Based on our preliminary discussion about your apllication, we would
use a different valve that the one in these parts. This will allow us to maintain
the overall package size you require.

We will provide pricing information for your purchasing agent at our

Follow-up meeting on Monday. Of xourse, if ou have any questions about these or other
parts that we manufacture, certainly give us a call.

Closing Sincerely,

Signature

Typed name Keshav Raj Joshi

& signature Design Engineering Manager

Enclosure Enclosure: Specification and samples.

Positive Letters

A positive letter expresses information in a neutral or positive tone. The writer could be
making a request, providing information, or acknowledging good service. Some letters can be
extremely brief – even only one or two sentences.
Longer letters are made up of three distinct parts, usually presented in three or more
paragraphs: 1. Introduction 2. Explanation 3. Resolution and closing
The introduction states the subject clearly and directly. It may also include the purpose for
writing.
 The middle part of a letter explains the request or provides the information. Usually, the
information is organized and presented in an order that is easy to read and understand.
The resolution paragraph states t specific action that will accomplish the purpose for
writing. It could be a request, date, or statement of commitment. State the specific response
that you expect from the letter. Provide exact instructions or requests.
Sometimes no resolution is required, and the writer can simply close the letter. Do not
extend the letter with excessive, flowery language, but conclude the letter with a positive
comment – either appreciation or acknowledgement.

Negative Letters
Letters are sometimes written to refuse service or employment, to turn down claims or
credit, or to deny information. Since the reader will find the news disappointing, it is important
not to confuse or insult the reader and make further association with the reader more
uncomfortable than necessary. It is possible to continue a business relationship despite a
negative situation. These lattes usually have three parts:
1. Introduction 2. Reason for refusal 3. Refusal and Closing
The introduction states the purpose for writing. It recounts the incident that occurred to
initiate the letter. Write the introduction objectively, stating facts that both you and the reader
accepts as facts. Avoid accusatory language. Avoid any wording that is judgmental or belittling.
The reasons for refusal are stated to clarify the position and reassure the reader that we
considered the request fairly and can justify our refusal. Often company policy or procedure
can be citied, which then provide guidance for the reader’s actions in the future. Reasons for
refusal should be consistent and legally sound. Avoid sounding evasive. Write with confidence
and conviction.
The last part should clearly state what is being refused, and what, if any, further action can
be taken. Close with a positive, sincere statement that will keep the door open for further
business or association with the reader.
Example of negative Letter in blocked Style

Date September 30, 2013

Ajay Sharma
Address Ace Engineering Incorporation
Mahendranagar

Greeting Dear Mr. Sharma

Thank you for your interest in the Universal Communication Company. I reviewed your
Introduction CV and application for a position as technician at Universal. Your education appears to
cover all the areas of fundamental electronics and eletricity.

Reason for Presently, however, we are interviewing only technicians with experience In maintaining
refusal digital devices, an area that does not appear on our CV.

For this reason, Mr. Sharma, I cannot consider you for our present positions. If you are
Refusal &
able to complete th ebasic and intermediate cources in digital devies before graduation,
Closing please consider resubmitting your CV to Universal.

Sincerely,

Shyam Singh
Human Resource Manager
Techniques of Business Correspondence

1. The You-View Point

We human beings are self-centered creatures. We structure our thinking our opinions, attitudes and
beliefs to conform to our best interests. We want recognition. We want good things to happen to us. We like
to talk about ourselves. We like others to say good things about us. In general, we like ourselves better than
we like anyone else.
As we are self-centered, we see each situation from our points of view. In letter writing situations this
attitude leads us to a writer-oriented, we-View point approach. Such approaches obviously do not give
positive responses, do not build goodwill, nor does it help readers to do things we want them to do. Positive
are effects possible from reader’s point of view, attitude involves seeing situations from readers standpoint
and choosing word and strategies that will bring that focus on the reader’s point view. You view point
involves using second-person pronoun. The pronouns ‘you’ and ‘your’ clearly call attentions to the readers
and their interests. For example:
We view-point: We are happy to have your order for Kipper products, which we are sending today by
railway express.
You view-point: Your selection of Kipper products should reach you by Saturday, as they were shipped by
railway express.
We view-point: We have received your report of May 1.
You view-point: Thank you for your report of May 1.

2. Conversational Style
One technique of effective correspondence is writing conversationally – making letters sound human.
Words of good conversational effect, correct language and friendly tone are essential. In addition, familiar
words of our language communicate best. Conversational style includes the following points:
i. Tendency to be formal: Writing in conversational style is not easy, for we tend to be stiff and
formal. We should write in warm and friendly way.
ii. The language of business: Early business writers developed an unnatural style for letters. The
language of business was influenced by legal language and the language of the nobility. It was
highly stereotyped, detached manner of communication and had a little of the warmth that is as
essential for friendly human relations.
iii. Use of rubber stamps: “Rubber stamps” language is a group of words and expressions we use as
a habit in certain type of situation. They are expression we use without thought. We can avoid
such rubber stamps by writing in conversational vocabulary.

3. Accent on Positive Language

Achieving goal through letters often depend on the words used to carry the message. There are many
ways of saying anything and each way conveys a meaning different from others. Accent on positive language
can be achieved by effect of words. Positive ways usually are best for letter goals, especially when
persuasion and goodwill needed. Negative words stir up resistance and hurt goodwill. Beware of strongly
negative words, words that deny and unappealing words.

4. Overall tone of Courtesy

Courtesy is a major contributor to goodwill in letters. It involves the preceding goodwill techniques.
In business letters, courtesy can be achieved through following techniques:
i. Singling out your reader: It also involves writing directly for the one reader. This means writing
for the one situation giving the reader individualized treatment.
ii. Refraining from Preaching: The effect of courtesy is enhanced by avoiding preaching. Usually
preaching is not intended as it results from efforts to persuade. Elementary, flat clear statement
often sounds preachy. So, doing more than expected builds goodwill. Giving extra information to
the customers also creates goodwill.
 iii. Avoiding anger: Anger is not justified in letter writing. Anger destroys goodwill. They make the
reader angry. If both writer and reader show anger, there is little likelihood that the two can get
together on whatever the letter is about.

5. Showing Insincerity
Business letters must have the quality of sincerity. We must convince our readers that we mean what
to say and that our efforts to be courteous and friendly are well intended. The best way to get sincerity into
our letters is to believe in the technique we use. If we honestly want to be courteous, if we truly feel that you-
viewpoint treatments lead to harmonious relations, and if we really feel that tactful treatment will spare our
reader’s sensitive feelings we are like to apply these techniques automatically; and our sincerity will show in
your writing.

6. Techniques of Emphasis
Emphasis also determines effect. Every fact communicated should get its due emphasis. There are
four major emphasis techniques:
i. Emphasis by position: Position determines emphasis. The beginning and endings of a unit of
written communication carry more emphasis that do the centre parts. The first and the last
sentences of a letter, first and the last sentences of a paragraph, and the first and last words of
sentence all carry more emphasis than the middle parts.
ii. Emphasis by space: The more space one gives a topic, the more emphasis the topic receives. In
conveying the desired effect in our letter, we will need to take care to say just enough about each
bit of information we must present.
iii. Emphasis by sentence structure: Sentence structure determines emphasis. Short, simple
sentences emphasize content but long, involved ones do not. We should combine the less
important information, taking care to present logical relationships in our combination sentences,
the more important material should be cast in independent clauses and the less important
information relegated to subordinate structures.
iv. Emphasis by mechanical means: Mechanical devices like underscore, colour, diagrams, and
such also give emphasis to content. For obvious reasons of appropriateness, these techniques are
rarely used as letters, with the possible exception of sales letters.

***

PRESENTATIONS
In business, we spend more time talking rather than writing. Much of the oral communication that
goes on in business is informal. Primarily, it is the face-to-face communication that takes place whenever
people get together. Obviously, this is a form of communication in which we all have experience. And most
of us do a reasonably good job of it. But some of the oral communication will be formal, as in speeches,
lectures, oral reports, meetings, interviews, and dictation. All these more formal kinds of oral communication
are a part of the work that business people do.

Making Formal Speeches

Making speeches is difficult for most people. Most of us feel uncomfortable speaking before others
and generally do a poor job of it. But it need not be this way. With effort, we can improve our speaking. We
can do this first by learning good speaking techniques. Then we put these techniques into practice. Those
techniques are as follows:
Selection of the Topic
The first step in formal speech making is to determine the topic of your presentation. In some cases
the topic is assigned, usually one within your area of specialization. If the topic is not assigned and if we
have to select the topic then we should consider our knowledge, our audience and the occasion.
After the topic is determined what to talk about, we should collect the information that will form the
basis of our speech. Primary research can be conducted at library or in company files. We may also consult
colleagues or people from other companies. Then the information has to be organized formally.
The formal speech usually begins with the greeting. The introduction of the speech has much the
same goal as the introduction of a written report: to prepare the listener to receive the message. SO, we need
to gain attention in the opening. After, we have to state the subject of the speech. The ending usually restates
the subject, summarizes key points, and concludes the main message.

Determination of Presentation Method

With the speech organized, we should be ready to begin for presenting it. We need to decide on our
presentation method – whether to present it extemporaneously, by reading it, or by memorizing it.
Extemporaneous presentation is by far the most popular and effective method. Using this method, we
first thoroughly prepare our speech and then make notes and present the speech from them. We need to
rehearse it repeatedly.
Memorized presentation is the most difficult method. A very few speakers actually memorize an
entire speech. Instead they memorize key parts and use notes to help them through the presentation.
A third method of presentation is by reading. Unfortunately most of us do not read aloud well. We
tend to read in a dull, monotone, producing a most uninteresting effect. We fumble over words, lose our
place, miss punctuation marks, and such.

Considering personal aspects

A logical first step in preparing a speech is to analyze ourselves because we are a part of the message.
Following up the given four characteristics might make our presentation better:
a. Confidence: A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is confidence. This includes our
confidence in ourselves and our audience’s confidence in us. To gain our audience’s confidence we
should be able to project right image, and talk in a strong, clear voice.
b. Sincerity: Sincerity is vital because our audience can easily detect our insincere tone and thus give
little value and weight to what we say. So we need to project an image of sincerity by being sincere.
c. Thoroughness: Thoroughness in our presentation generally will make our message better received
than scanty or hurried coverage. Thorough coverage gives the impression that you have taken time
and care, and such an impression tends to make the message believable.
d. Friendliness: A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has a significant advantage in
communication effort. People simply like people who are friendly and are more receptive to what
they say. Because friendliness is difficult to pretend so natural sense of it should have to be portrayed.

Audience Analysis
One requirement of good speech making is to know your audience. You should study your audience
before and during the presentation. In analyzing the audience before presentation we have to size up the
audience in advance. Look for the characteristics that will affect our speech, such as sex, age, education, and
knowledge.
Continue analyzing the audience during the speech which we call feedback. This can be done by
reading the facial expressions, movements, and noises of audience. These factors help us receive the
feedback information which helps us adapt to the audience.

Appearance and Bodily Actions

Our audience forms impressions from the following six factors that can make our oral presentation
either impressive or dull.
 a. The communication environment: Much of what our audience sees is all that surrounds us as we
speak – everything that tends to add to a general impression. This includes the stage, lighting,
background, and such. These factors should contribute to good communication rather than distract the
audience from our message.
b. Personal appearance: Our personal appearance is the part of the message the audience receives. So
our dress code should be proper according to the occasion and should be well clean and well groomed
to create an impression.
c. Posture: Posture is likely to be the clearest thing our audience sees in us. Even if the listeners cannot
be close enough to detect facial expressions and eye movements, they can see the general form the
body talks. Good posture may contribute to the effect of good communication.
d. Walking: The way we walk before our audience also makes an impression on the listeners’. A
strong, sure walk to the speaker’s position gives an impression of confidence. Hesitant, awkward
steps give the opposite impression.
e. Facial expressions: The most apparent and communicative bodily movements are facial expressions.
They suggest our confidence on the reporting. Those expressions might create the overall impression
or ruin it. Eye contact is also the most obvious one to communicate the message as it reflects our
inner self.
f. Gestures: Like posture, gestures add to the message we communicate. Gestures have vague
meanings but they do communicate. So the use of gestures should be used attentively.

Use of Voice
Good voice is a requirement for hood speaking. Following areas should have to be corrected to make
our voice seem impressive:
a. Lack of pitch variation: speakers who talk in monotones are unlikely to hold their listeners’ interest
for long. Most often the failure to vary pitch is a matter of habit – of voice patterns developed over
years of talking without being aware of effect.
b. Lack of variation in speed: Determining how fast to talk is a major problem. As a general rule, we
should present the easy parts of the message at a fairly brisk rate and hard-to-understand information
at a slower pace.
c. Lack of vocal emphasis: Good communication can be achieved by giving words their due emphasis
by varying the manner of speaking. This can be done by varying the pitch of our voice, varying the
pace of our presentation, and varying the volume of our voice.
d. Unpleasant voice quality: Unpleasant voice may be natural but speech therapy can improve such
voices.

Use of visual aids

Visual aids usually carry key parts of the message. Thus, they are points of emphasis in our
presentation. Following measures can be taken to the use of the visual aids:
a. Make certain everyone in the audience can see the visual aids.
b. Explain the visual aid if there is any likelihood that it will be misunderstood.
c. Organize the visual aids as a part of the presentation. Fit them into the plan.
d. Emphasize the visual aids. Point to them with bodily action and with words.
e. Talk to audience, not to the visual aids.
f. Avoid blocking the listeners’ view of the visual aids.

ORAL REPORTING
A special form of speech is the oral report. One is more likely to make oral reports than speeches in
business, and the oral reports we make are likely to be important. Most of us have had little experience and
even less instruction in oral reporting. Thus the following review should be valuable.
Definition of Oral Reports
An oral report is defined as an oral presentation of factual information. A business oral report
logically limits coverage to factual business information. An oral business report covers much of the
information exchanged in the daily conduct of business. It also covers the most routine and informal report
situations. It even includes highly formal presentations.

Differences between Oral and Written Reports

Oral reports differ from written reports in three ways.
1. Visual Advantages of the written words: Written reports permit greater use of visual aids to
communication. With writing, we can use paragraph to show the reader the structure of the message
and to make thought units stand out. We can use punctuation to show relationship of information.
These techniques improve the communication effect of the entire message.
2. Reader control of written presentation: The speaker controls the pace of an oral report, while the
reader controls the pace of written report. Readers can pause, reread, change their rate of reading or
stop as they choose. Since the readers set the pace, even the most difficult writing can communicate.
Whereas listeners can’t control the pace of the presentation.
3. Emphasis on correctness in writing: Written reports put more stress on correctness because our
written work is likely to be carefully inspected. We have to follow the recognized rules of grammar,
punctuation, sentence structure and so on. But for oral presentation we become more lax in following
these rules.

ADDITIONAL ORAL COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

Formal speaking and oral reporting may be important part of our business communication, but probably
various other communication activities will consume more of our time. Specifically, we are likely to spend
more time conducting and participating in:
1. Conducting and participating in meetings
2. Interviewing
3. Telephoning
4. Listening

CONDUCTING AND PARTICIPATING IN MEETINGS

From time to time in business, we participate in meetings either formal or informal meetings. In
meetings we will be either leader or participant. The following technique will help us in both purposes:

Techniques for Conducting Meetings

The way we should conduct formal meeting is related to the formality of the occasion. Meetings of
groups such as formal committees, board of directors and professional organizations usually follow the
generally accepted rules of conduct called parliamentary procedure. The following techniques will be helpful
to us to conduct the meetings:
1. Plan the meeting: To conduct a successful meeting we should plan it and develop the agenda that is
to select the topics that must be covered in order to achieve goals of the meeting. The agendas are to
be arranged in a logical order and then be made it available to the participants.
2. Follow the plan: We should follow the plan item by item. Some discussion may tend to stray the
discussion so, we need to keep the discussion on track. New items may be resolved later.
3. Move the discussion along: As a leader we have to control the agendas when one item is discussed
and the other one should be introduced for discussion. Discussion should not be cut off unless all
 important points have been made. We have to use good judgment to bring out every related point
regarding the agenda.
4. Control those who talk too much: Do not allow one person to talk too much. We need to control
these people but in a democratic way. We need to let these people talk as long as they are
contributing to the goal. In case of duplication or using useless matter we should step in tactfully.
5. Encourage participation from those who talk too little: Encourage everybody to take part. Those
who speak little should be encouraged to speak up so as to show respect for their comments and they
may contribute to the discussion.
6. Control time: When the meeting is time limited we must determine in advance how much time will
be needed to cover each item.
7. Summarize at appropriate places: After a key item has been discussed we should summarize
conclusion and comments made on each item. For some formal meetings, minutes kept by secretary
will provide this summary.

Techniques for Participating in a Meeting

As a participant in a meeting the following technique might help us to contribute for a successful meeting:
1. Follow the agenda: When an agenda exists we should not bring up items not on the agenda nor
should we comment if such items are brought up by others. Following the agenda is the needful.
2. Participate: The purpose of the meeting is to get information from everyone concerned. Thus we
should fully participate meaningfully to achieve the goal of the meeting.
3. Do not talk too much: Avoid talking too much. We have to speak up whenever we have something
important to say and that might be helpful to contribute to the agenda of the meeting.
4. Cooperate: Every meeting requires cooperation to achieve the goals of the meeting so we should
respect the leaders and the other participants and work with them in every practical way.
5. Be courteous: We have to act courteous to other group members. Specifically we should respect
their rights and opinions and permit them to speak.

INTERVIEWING PEOPLE

Interviewing Skills
Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview
Interviewing Skills: Introduction
• An interview is a 2-way communication ; however, it should be controlled by the interviewer
• Every interviewee is a guest in your organization and should be treated in such a manner
• Always welcome the interviewees with a warm greeting
• Encourage interviewees to respond positively and share the information
• It is always better to take notes during Interview
• Good interviews flow smoothly when both the interviewer and the candidate take part in an information
exchange
Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview
Types of difficult Interviews
• Some interviewees demand a particularly focused interviewing technique.
• In order to get an accurate assessment of a candidate’s ability, the interviewer’s ability to handle different
types of candidate is very important
• Before Interviewing, develop an understanding of the following types of candidates:
o Nervous candidate
o Uncommunicative candidate
o Talkative candidate
Handling a nervous candidate
• Give them an especially warm greeting
• Engage in more small talk than usual
• Point out various facilities or areas of interest within your organization
• Start with specific , fact-based questions that are easy for the candidate to answer and unlikely to be
stressful
• Speak slowly in a relaxed, informal manner
Handling an uncommunicative candidate
• Many reserved or uncommunicative candidates simply need to be encouraged to share their thoughts

• Using silence can be effective

• If the candidate is having trouble in answering questions related to their strengths and weaknesses, tell
them that you will give them some time to think about it and come back to the question later
Handling a talkative candidate
• Candidates who talk too much , often about things unrelated to the job or interview can be challenging
• Tell the candidate that you will be following a structure, and stress on the time available for each section
of the interview
• When necessary, remind the candidate of the time limits
• Redirect the conversation as politely as possible
Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview

Conducting the Interview

There are 3 steps to follow while conducting an Interview:

• Open the Interview (Put the candidate at ease)

• Gather Information (Ask questions & listen to responses)
• Close the Interview (Create a positive impression of your organization )

Opening an Interview

• While opening an interview, your purpose is to put both you and candidate at ease , and set the stage for an
open conversation
• There are 3 steps you should complete when opening the interview:
o Build rapport
o State the agenda
o Ask for acceptance

Gathering Information

• Gathering Information represents 70 to 80 percent of the interview

• There are 3 steps you should complete when gathering information from the interviewee:
o Ask lead questions
 o Ask follow-up questions
o Transition to the next subject

Closing an Interview

• The close of the interview is used to indicate to the candidate that the information-gathering portion is
complete and the interview is about to wind down.
• Take the following 4 steps when closing an interview:
o Ask for and answer questions
o Promote the organization and the job
o Outline next steps
o Thank the candidate

Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview

Evaluation of candidates

• Manage your bias

o Interviewer should be very careful to identify and overcome any biases
o Bias is a form of extreme generalization. You may generalize that a candidate lacks written
communication skills because of last two people hired from the same college had poor written
communication skill.
• 2 steps to evaluate the candidate:
o Summarize the interview
(Refer the candidate’s resume, and the notes taken during interview)
o Score the candidate
( Review Job requirement, mention success factors , and calculate)
Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview

Effective communication techniques

Effective communication techniques include:

• Active Listening
(Follow 70/30 rule : Listen 70 percent of the time Talk 30 percent of the time)
• Nonverbal behavior
(silence, lean forward, eye contact)
• Verbal devices
(Restatement, expanders (“I see”, “That’s interesting”)
Interviewing Skills

Interviewing Skills: Conducting an Interview

Summary
• A successful interview should determine if there is a match between the individual and the job
• Be prepared for the interview
• Analyze candidate’s resume before the interview and frame the lead questions
• Follow a structured process
• Develop a simple outline that covers general job duties
• Behave politely with the candidates

EFFECTIVELY USING THE TELEPHONE

What is the initial contact your customer or client has with your company? If your business is like most
others, it's a telephone call. We invest a tremendous amount of time and money to generate that contact.
Your customer's or client's experience from that initial contact will largely determine the result -- making or
losing the sale, resolving a complaint and keeping a client or customer or losing that client or customer. As
the old saying goes, "There's no second chance for making a good first impression!"

In this age of voice mail, the telephone experience of customers doesn't seem to get much thought, a major
mistake! Whether by personal contact or by voice mail, that experience of your customer or client should be
a critical marketing concern. Properly training your team members, especially your receptionist or telephone
operator, is critically important.

Without getting into all of the details, which we hope to cover in a future seminar, here are suggested
telephone procedures. We will use the word "customer" to include a client, customer or patient.

1. Smile before you answer the telephone. It will help to put you in a positive frame of mind, which
is communicated to the customer in the tone of your voice.

2. Answer on the second ring. You need to smile and get to the telephone. On the second ring, your
company is "Johnny on the spot!" After the third ring, customer is wondering if anyone is at
work in your business.
3. a. If the customer is calling directly to your line, answer in this sequence: "Good
morning/afternoon, (company name), this is (your first name, last name)." 99% of the time this
will elicit the customer to give his or her name in return. Do not ask for the customer's name.

"Good morning/afternoon" communicates good social graces and gives the customer a moment
to prepare for your real response. The name of the company communicates he or she has
reached the right place. "This is" tells the customer that your name is coming. Giving your first
and last name elicits the first and last name of the customer as a response.
 I know this will feel terribly long, but once you practice it, it will flow.

b. If the call is being transferred to you, you may answer, "Good morning/afternoon, this is (your
first name, last name)."

4. Listen attentively.
5. a. If the customer asks for another team member and the team member is available, respond,
"Thanks so much for calling. I'll put you straight through. Could you hold for a moment,
please?"(Don't screen calls.)

If the customer has told you they are upset about a problem, let the team member know before
transferring the call.

b. If the customer asks for a team member who isn't available, respond, "________ is with
someone right now. Is there some way I or another team member can help you?" Do not say the
team member is in a meeting. If not, "Shall I transfer you to _________'s voice mail, or would
you like me to take a message?" If to voice mail, "Thanks so much for calling. I'll put you
straight through." If a message, "Let me have some details, so I can help."

If you have voice mail or an answering machine, your message is also important. Most customers will also
appreciate being given the option of skipping the message.

Here is a message I have used. "Hello! This is Mike Gray of Michael Gray, CPA. To skip this message, press
the star key. Thanks so much for calling. I'm sorry I can't take your call, right now. Please leave me a
message and I'll return your call as soon as possible. Thank you!"

If I am going to be out of the office, here is a message I might use.

"Hello! This is Mike Gray at Michael Gray, CPA. Today is Tuesday, March 18. I expect to be out of the
office all day today, and return tomorrow. Please leave a message and I'll return your call as soon as
possible." (Optional, "If you have an emergency, please call Dawn Gray at 918-3166.")

Using the telephone

The telephone is a personal mode of communication. The telephone can be more difficult than face-to face
communication because the telephone makes most non-verbal (unspoken) cues impossible. Most
organizations want to convey the message that it is anxious to give good and efficient service. The first
contact that many clients have with some organizations is often by telephone. When making a call, the
number dialed has to be correct. The caller needs to be prepared and organized before the call is made. They
should be clear about what they want before dialing.

Answering the telephone

The following guidelines should be considered when answering the telephone:

• Answer promptly
• Identify yourself
• Never answer the phone with ’hello’ or ‘are you there’
 • Be ready to talk by concentrating and cutting out distractions
• Try not to have the caller waiting too long – ask if the caller can have the call returned
• Use your voice effectively- use appropriate language, grammar, tone of voice, rate of speech and be
clear and concise
• Non verbal communication cannot be considered when communicating over the telephone
• Consider the rate of speech - don’t speak too quickly, don’t be abrupt or rude
• If names, numbers or addresses are needed, spelling confusing words back to the information giver is
the best way to make sure the information is accurately communicated
• Answer questions quickly or refer the question to other personnel if answer is unknown
• Avoid slang expressions such as, ‘O.K.’, ‘Hang on’
• If the caller is making a complaint, listen sympathetically and apologise for errors and delays
• If the caller is abusive, continue to respond in a polite manner – use self control and avoid losing your
temper
• Be particularly considerate with the elderly and people from non English speaking backgrounds
• Take messages carefully by listening and questioning. If possible use a telephone message pro forma
which helps to remind you of information that is required such as time, date, topic etc
• Review the details of the call and make sure that all the information is known
• Don’t extend the call time unnecessarily and end it politely and definitely.

Making a Call

When making a call, the caller needs to:

• Ensure that number is dialed correctly

• Organize and prepare for the call. A prepared checklist of the objectives and ideas, and ways to
express them, is a good idea. If questions are to be asked, the questions should be prepared
beforehand. If information / facts need to be communicated, documents should be on hand to refer to.
• A statement needs to be prepared. The person making the call needs to identify him/herself, the
organization they are from and establish some rapport by outlining the reason for the call.

LISTENING

Poor listening is a major cause of miscommunication. We do not hear all. We forget much that we
hear. To improve our listening we must keep ourselves alert and force to pay attention. The following
techniques can serve as guidelines to help improve our listening:
1. Stop talking: Most of us prefer talking to listening. Even when we are not talking we are inclined to
focus on what to say next rather than on listening to what is being said. So, we must stop talking
before we can listen.
2. Put the talker at ease: If the talker is out at ease, the talker can better give details. Then we can have
better input with which to work.
3. Show the talker you want to listen: We can convince the talker that we want to listen rather than
oppose. This can create a better atmosphere for the talker for exchanging information. We should
look and act interested. Doing things like reading, looking at your watch, and looking away distracts
the talker.
4. Remove distraction: Certain activities can also distract the talker. So don't doodle, tap with the
pencil, shuffle papers or the like.
5. Empathize with the talker: If you place yourself in the talker's position and look at things from
his/her point of view we can create the atmosphere of understanding. With such atmosphere
established, a true exchange of information can result.
6. Be patient: We should allow the talker take plenty of time. We should not interrupt in between so
that we can get reliable information. So we must be patient to listen to the talker.
7. Hold the temper: We know that angry mind cannot hold good views and cannot contribute to
communication so, we must patiently listen to what the talker says.
8. Go easy on argument and criticism: Argument and criticism tend to put the talker on defensive.
Thus the talker tends to be calm or angry and can't contribute much for effective communication.
9. Ask questions: By frequently asking questions, we show an open mind and show that we are
listening. Asking questions help develop the message and ensure correctness of meaning.
10. Stop talking: The last option was also the first. All other options depend on it.