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University
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300 N. ZEEB RD., ANN ARB O R. Ml 48106
8214155
Williams, Richard Lynn
PROGRESSIVE FAILURE OF RED CONEMAUGH SHALE
The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1982
University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 48106
Copyright 1982
by
Williams, Richard Lynn
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University
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PROGRESSIVE FAILURE OF RED CONEMAUGH SHALE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Richard Lynn Williams, B.S.C.E., M.S.C.E., P.E.
* * * * *
The Ohio State University
1982
Reading Committee: Approved by
Tien H. Wu
Charles A. Moore
Adviser
William E. Wolfe Department of Civil Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his appreciation to his adviser,
T. H. Wu, for his guidance and supervision throughout this research.
The author is also grateful to Dr. Charles A. Moore and Dr. William
E. Wolfe for reviewing the manuscript; to Dr. Elfatih M. Ali for his
constructive comments concerning the strain-softening model; to Kevin
Lynch, research assistant, for assisting in the direct shear testing
program; to Gene 0. Johnson, then geologist with the State of Ohio,
Department of Transportation, for his guidance and supervision prior to
the mapping of the discontinuities; and to the Civil Engineering Depart
ment Workshop personnel, E. Egbert and A. Bernardo, for fabricating the
small test specimen mold and assisting in assembling the large direct
shear test apparatus. The author also appreciates the assistance of
Louise Hastings and Noretta Weese for typing the manuscript, and Randy
Haynes for drafting most of the figures.
The author also wishes to acknowledge the Department of Civil
Engineering and the Graduate School at The Ohio State University for
their financial support. Further gratitude is extended to the Federal
Highway Administration and the Ohio Department of Transportation for
sponsoring the project for which this research was conducted.
The writer also wishes to expresshis sincere appreciation to his
wife, Donna, for her continual support and patience throughout this
entire research.
ii
VITA
August 3, 1 9 5 1 ............ Born - Dayton, Ohio
1970 - 1973 ............... Co-op civil engineer, Southwestern

Portland Cement Company, Fairborn,
Ohio
1974 ....................... B.S.C.E., University of Cincinnati,

Cincinnati, Ohio
1974 -1975 ................. Teaching Assistant, Georgia Institute

of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
1975 ....................... M.S.C.E., Georgia Institute of Tech

nology, Atlanta, Georgia
1975 - 1978 ............... Research Associate, Department of

Civil Engineering, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio
1978 - Present ............ Geotechnical Engineer, R. S. Fling and

Partners, Inc., Columbus, Ohio
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................. ii
V I T A ........................................................... iii
LIST OF T A B L E S ................................................ vi
LIST OF F I G U R E S ................................................ vii
Chapter
I. Introduction ............................................. 1
II. Geology and Rock S t r u c t u r e .............................. 6
2.1 Introduction ...................................... 6

2.2 Mapping of Discontinuities ....................... 10
2.3 C o n c l u s i o n s .......... ............................ 57
III. Tests on Small S a m p l e s .................................. 59
3.1 P u r p o s e ............................................ 59
3.2 Shale Sampling and SpecimenPreparation ............ 59
3.3 Testing P r o g r a m ................................... 61
3.4 R e s u l t s ............................................ 62
3.5 C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................ 85
IV. Tests on Large S a m p l e s .................................. 86
4.1 P u r p o s e ............................................ 86
4.2 Large Direct ShearApparatus ...................... 86
4.3 Shale Sampling andPreparation .................... 87
4.4 Testing P r o g r a m ................................... 90
4.5 R e s u l t s ............................................ 90
4.6 C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................ 97
V. Stress-Displacement Model .............................. 100
5.1 P u r p o s e ............................................ 100

5.2 Available Models ................................. 100
5.3 Model Characteristics ............................. 101
5.4 Application of Theory and Test Results to
Slope S t a b i l i t y .................................. 123
5.5 C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................ 133
iv
VI. C O N C L U S I O N S ............................................. 134
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................... 138
APPENDIXES
A. Strain-Softening M o d e l .............................. 142
B. Computer Program ..................................... 156
v
LIST OF TABLES
Description or Discontinuities ................. 14
Observed Discontinuities in the Morgantown Shale,

West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 644+50,
A t h e n s .......................................... 19
Observed Discontinuities in the Connellsville Shale,

West Slope of 1-77, Mile 17.3, Macksburg ............... 23

East Slope of 1-77, Mile 18.0, Dexter City ............. 25

East Slope of 1-77, Mile 18.0, Dexter City ............. 27

East Slope of 1-77, Mile 17.3, Macksburg ............... 29
Observed Discontinuities in the Duquesne Shale, West

Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 643+62, Athens ........ 34
Observed Discontinuities in the Duquesne Shale, West

Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 621+50, Athens 9 • 36
Observed Discontinuities in the Round Knob Shale, West



Observed Discontinuities in the Round Knob Shale, East

Slope of S.R. 682, Station 19+50, Athens ............... 54
Observed Discontinuities in the Round Knob Shale,

North Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 621+00,
Athens . . . . .......................................... 56
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Slicken-

sided Specimens .......................................... 75
vi
Table Page
3.2 Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small

Intact Specimens ...................................... 77
4.1 Stress-Displacement Relationships for Large

Intact Specimens ...................................... 95
5.1 Parameters for Study of Cut Slope Using

Strain-Softening Model and Geometry of
Figure 5.11 126
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Geologic Column of the Conemaugh Formation of the

Upper Pennsylvanian Age in Southeastern Ohio ........ 7
Geologic Column at Mile Posts 18.0 and 17.3, 1-77,

Noble County, Ohio .................................... 8
Geologic Column at Station 19+50, S.R. 682, Athens,

O h i o ................................................... 9
Geologic Column at Stations 642+67 and 632+76,

U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio ......................... 11
Geologic Column at Station 621+00, U.S. 33 and 50,

Athens, Ohio .......................................... 12
Exposed Vertical Face of Morgantown Shale along

U.S. 33 and 50 in Athens, Ohio ....................... 15
Exposed Vertical Face of Round Knob Shale along

S.R. 682 in Athens, Ohio .............................. 15
Grid Pattern Painted on the Exposed Face of Round Knob

Shale in Preparation for Recording a Geologic "Window"
Section ............................................... 16
Exposed Discontinuity Surfaces in an Exposed Face of

Round Knob Shale, S.R. 682, Athens, Ohio ............. 16
Morgantown Shale Located at Station 644+50, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, Ohio .................................. 18
Stereographic Projection of Recorded Discontinuities

in the Connellsville Shale at Mile 18.0 and
17.3, 1-77 ............................................. 21
Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 17.3, 1-77,

near Macksburg, Ohio .................................. 22

near Dexter City, Ohio ................................ 24

near Dexter City, Ohio ................................ 26
viii
Figure Page
2.15 Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 17.3, 1-77,
near Macksburg, O h i o .................................... 28
2.16 Typical Blocky Structure of Duquesne Shale ............. 32
2.17 Duquesne Shale Located at Station 643+62, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 33
2.18 Duquesne Shale Located at Station 621+50, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 35
2.19 Stereographic Projection of Recorded Discontinuities

in the Duquesne Shale at Station 643+62, U.S. 33
and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 38

in the Duquesne Shale at Station 621+00, U.S. 33
and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 39
2.21 Contour Plot of Stereographic Projections of Recorded

Discontinuities in the Round Knob Shale, Athens,
O h i o ..................................................... 40

in the Round Knob Shale at Station 644+70, U.S. 33
and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 41

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 42

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 43

in the Round Knob Shale at Stations 642+67 and
644+70, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, O h i o ................... 44
2.26 Exposed Discontinuity Surfaces in an Exposed Face

of Round Knob Shale. Taken along U.S. 33 and 50
in Athens, O h i o ........................................ 46
2.27 Slickenside Surface in a Core Specimen of Round Knob

S h a l e ................... 46
2.28 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 644+70, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 47
2.29 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 642+67, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, O h i o .................................... 49
ix
Round Knob Shale Located at Station 632+76, U.S. 33
and 50, Athens, Ohio ....................................
Round Knob Shale Located at Station 19+50, S.R. 682,

Athens, Ohio ............................................. 53
Round Knob Shale Located at Station 621+00, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, Ohio .................................... 55
Typical Stress-Displacement Relationships ............. 63
Shear Surface of Slickenside Specimen, Round Knob

Shale ................................................... 65
Shear Surface of Slickenside Specimen, Round Knob

Shale ................................................... 66
Shear Surface of Specimen, Round Knob Shale. . . . . . 68
Shear Surface of Specimen, Round Knob Shale.... ......... 69
Edge View of Small Specimen Before and After Testing,

Round Knob Shale ........................................ 70
Shear Surface of Specimen, Round Knob Shale ......... 72
Shear Surface for Specimen Aligned Perpendicular to

Slickenside, Round Knob Shale ......................... 74
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Tests

on Slickenside Specimens, Round Knob Shale ............. 76
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Tests,

Round Knob Shale ........................................ 78
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Tests,

Round Knob Shale. Specimens Aligned Parallel and
Perpendicular to a Slickenside ......................... 82
Direct Shear Test Results for Small Tests, Round

Knob Shale ............................................... 83
Hydraulic System for Applying Normal Force to

Sample in Large Shear Apparatus ....................... 88
Direct Shear Apparatus. Maximum Sample Size,

11.0 in. x 11.0 in. (27.9 cm x 27.9 cm) ............... 89
Shear Surface of a Specimen of Round Knob Shale . . . . 92
x
Figure Page
4.4 Shear Surface, Round Knob Shale ........................ 93
4.5 Shear Surface, Round Knob Shale ........................ 94
4.6 Stress-Displacement Relationships for Large Tests,

Round Knob S h a l e ........................................ 96
4.7 Direct Shear Test Results for Large Tests, Round

Knob S h a l e ............................................... 98
5.1 Strain-Softening Stress-Displacement Relationship . . . 103
5.2 Model Geometry for Direct Shear Test Specimen ......... 104
5.3 Distribution of Shear Stress in Elastic Region for

Direct Shear Test Specimen .............................. 106
5.4 Distribution of Shear Stress in Strain-Softening

Region for Direct Shear Test Specimen ................. 109
5.5 Stiffness Parameters from Shale Tests ................. Ill
5.6 Comparison of Strain-Softening Relationships

Computed from Model for Small and Large Shear Tests . . 114
5.7 Comparison of Strain-Softening Relationships

Derived from Lab Tests and M o d e l .......................... 115
5.8 Model Geometry for Infinite Slope ..................... 117
5.9 Distribution of Shear Stress along Bond Surface,,

Residual Strength Not Attained ......................... 119
5.10 Distribution of Shear Stress along Bond Surface,

Residual Strength Attained .............................. 122
5.11 Model Geometry for Cut S l o p e .............................. 124
5.12 Effect of Slope Height, E, and Ko on Length of

Slip S u r f a c e ............................................... 127
5.13 Effect of Slope Height on Average Shear Stress

and Length of Slip S u r f a c e ............ 129
5.14 Idealized Cross Section for Stability Analysis of

Cut Slope at Station 31+50, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens,
O h i o ........................................................130
5.15 Effect of Strain-Softening Member Thickness in a

Cut Slope on Length of Slip S u r f a c e ..................... 131
xi
Figure Page
5.16 Effect of Strain-Softening Member Thickness on

Factor of Safety, Athens Cut Slope ..................... 132
A.l Geometry for Infinite Layer Model ...................... 144
A.2 Stress-Displacement Relationship for Rigid Plastic

B e h a v i o r ................................................... 144
A.3 Stress-Displacement Relationship for Perfectly

Elastic Behavior ........................................ 147
A.4 Stress-Displacement Relationship for Strain-Softening

B e h a v i o r ................................................... 147
A.5 Displacement in Strain-Softening Portion ............... 150
A.6 Illustration of Location (x) in Strain-Softening

P o r t i o n ................................................... 150
A. 7 Displacement in Residual Strength P o r t i o n ................ 152
A. 8 Illustration of Location (x) in Residual Strength

P o r t i o n ................................................... 152
xii
CHAPTER I
Introduction
The physiography of the state of Ohio reflects two general origins
of formation. The southwestern, northwestern, and northeastern quad
rants of the state possess a glacially-derived topography and solum.
The unglaciated southeastern quadrant displays the residual soils and
hilly topography derived from the parent sedimentary rocks. This study
focused on the strength properties of the red shales in Southeastern
Ohio.
The stability of cut slopes in Southeastern Ohio has historically
been a problem when the red Pennsylvania shales of the Conemaugh
formation are encountered (Fisher, et al., 1968). In a survey of cut
slope performance along 1-77 in Southeastern Ohio, Wu (1977) found a
correlation between the presence of landslides and the presence of
Conemaugh red shale and colluvium derived from the red shale. Hamel
and Flint (1969) found a correlation between the presence of landslides
in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, area and the presence of red Conemaugh
shale. In a study of weathering effects on Southeast Ohio shales,
Fisher et al. (1968) noted that all shales degrade under weathering,
but the Conemaugh red shales degrade more rapidly than the Conemaugh
gray shales. This research investigates the strength characteristics
of the red shale and its relationship with slope stability.
1
2
Shale is a sedimentary rock containing planes of weakness which
are a result of the formation process (Leet and Judson, 1971). Changes
in the environment subsequent to formation such as tectonic activity,
weathering, or water content alteration result in the development of
physical discontinuities. Examples of these discontinuities are
desiccation cracks, partings, joints, and slickensides (Goodman, 1970,
and Scully, 1973). The presence of discontinuities tends to reduce the
strength of a solid material by acting as stress concentrators
(Griffith, 1921). Such discontinuities act as stress concentrators.
They result in fracture taking place at an average stress which is
lower than the stress required to fracture the intact material (Skemp-
ton, 1964). In the first part of this research, the various kinds of
discontinuities which comprise the structure of the red Conemaugh
shales are identified from examination of field exposures of the shale.
Protodyakonov and Koufman (1964), Bishop (1967), and Lo (1970)
have studied the influence of the spacing of discontinuities and the
size of test specimens on the value of peak shearing strength. The
highest strength possible was the strength of intact specimens without
discontinuities. The lowest strength was the residual strength. As
the ratio of specimen size to fissure spacing increased, the strength
decreased asymptotically to a value 10% greater than the fissure
strength. The effect of discontinuity spacing and test specimen size
is also reflected in coal mine pillar strength formulas which typic
ally use the results of compression tests on small coal specimens to
estimate the strength of pillars. In a review of coal pillar strength
formulas, Hustralid (1976) showed that the compressive strength of a

3
cube of coal was independent of specimen size for cubes having side
dimensions greater than 36 inches (91.4 cm). Below 36 inches, the
strength was inversely proportional to the square root of the side
dimension. The strength of all coal specimens irregardless of size was
proportional to a constant developed for a particular coal seam. This
constant reflects the influence of the spacing of discontinuities.
From these studies it can be seen that the strength of a specimen is
affected by specimen size, but only in that size reflects the number of
discontinuities. The effect of discontinuities on strength remains an
issue. In the second part of this research, the effect of discontin
uities on the stress-displacement relationship of Conemaugh red shale
is studied in a series of small and large scale direct shear tests.
The stress-displacement relationship of overconsolidated clays,
which are marked by discontinuities, was studied by Skempton (1964).
He pointed out that the strength of these clays attains a residual
strength at large shearing displacements, which is much lower than the
peak strength attained at relatively small displacements. When the
clay is subjected to shearing displacement, the intact material between
the discontinuities gradually yields to form a non-smooth failure
surface (Skempton and Petley, 1967; and Bishop, 1967). With further
displacement, the failure surface becomes smoother and the strength
is reduced. This strain-softening behavior of shale was also noted by
Bishop (1967). He developed a rupture index to quantify the reduction
in strength with strain. This index was a measure of work performed
during the shearing of the strain-softening material as compared with
the work required to shear the specimen if no strain-softening

4
occurred. A higher value of the rupture index indicated a greater
reduction in work required to attain the residual level.
Analytical methods for modeling strain-softening material behavior
have been developed. Christian and Whitman (1969) presented a strain-
softening model for one-dimensional progressive failure of slope exca
vations. Palmer and Rice (1973) employed crack propagation theory to
model the one-dimensional growth of a failure surface within a slope,
where the failure process was initiated by excavation. Gates (1973)
used a strain-softening model to investigate the effect of slope exca
vation on the location and growth of yield zones within the cut.
Initiation of yielding was found to be at the toe of the slope, which
agrees with field observations. Prevost (1974) and Prevost and Hoeg (1975a,
1975b) presented a general plasticity model which included strain-
hardening as well as strain-softening and satisfied associative flow
rules. Sture (1975) developed a friction-slip model which permitted a
reduction of strength from the peak to residual level for strain-
softening materials. In the last part of this research, the Christian
and Whitman (1969) one-dimensional progressive failure model is used to
analyze the stress-displacement relationship of laboratory tests.
Material parameters were determined by comparing the model predictions
with the results of the direct shear tests. Then, the model predic
tions and material parameters are used to investigate the progression
of a plastic failure zone into a cut slope, where the failure zone is
initiated by excavation.
The results of this research are presented in the following order.
Details of the geologic field investigation are discussed in Chapter II.

5
Chapter III describes shear tests on small samples of shale which were
used to study shear surface configuration and stress-deformation rela
tionships. Chapter IV presents the results of shear tests performed on
large samples of the shale. The strain-softening model is described in
Chapter V. The model and test results are then used to study the effect
of various slope parameters on the development of the plastic zone in
a slope. The conclusions and findings of this research are summarized
in Chapter VI.
CHAPTER II
Geology and Rock Structure
2.1 Introduction
The stratigraphy of Southeast Ohio is comprised of Pennsylvanian
rocks of varying hardness. Of particular interest in the Pennsylvanian
stratigraphy is the Conemaugh formation (see Figure 2.1). Many of the
shale members within this formation are red (Condit, 1912) and are
often called redbeds (Fisher, et al., 1968). The red shale members
include the Duquesne, Round Knob, Birmingham, and Connellsville members.
To document the structure of Conemaugh redbeds and other Conemaugh
shales, the rock structure of several of the members was mapped at
various highway excavations in Southeast Ohio.
Recent exposures of Conemaugh shales in highway cuts near Athens
and in Noble County, Ohio, were studied. In Noble County the Connels-
ville member was exposed in cuts along 1-77 at mile posts 18.0 and 17.3
as shown in the geologic columns in Figure 2.2. In the Athens area the
Morgantown, Round Knob, and Duquesne members were exposed in cut slopes
along U.S. 33 and 50 and along S.R. 682. These members were easily
accessible in these cuts because weathering had not significantly
altered the exposed surface of the members. At station 19+50 along
S.R. 682 the Round Knob member was exposed in the upper regions of the
cut slope (see the geologic column in Figure 2.3). Along U.S. 33 and
50 the Round Knob member was observed at stations 621+0, 632+76,

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B r u s h C re e k L im e s to n e and S h a le , m a r in e , m e d iu m b lu is h
sh a le
g r a y , c h e r t y . h a r d , f o a s ilif e r o u s .
LJ I p p e r M a h o n in g S a ndsto ne and S h a le .fin e g r a in e d to a ha le y .

CL M o h o n in o C o o l
I h o rm o n e la y , m o ttle d g r e e n and r e d c la y s to n e
M ah o n in g L im e s to n e ,fr e s h w a te r , b lu ta h g r a y , f e r r u g in o u s
L o w e r M a h o n in g S a ndsto ne a n d S h a le .c o a rs e g r a in e d w ith
p e b b le s , m a s a tte to c r o s s b ed ded, lig h t g r a y .
/ 'Nx 5>'-
I ]' • ' upper F to e p o ri Cool No 7
Figure 2.1 Geologic Column of the Conemaugh Formation of the Upper

Pennsylvanian Age in Southeastern Ohio.
.860
PITTSBURGH TOP
COAL ■OF
- c c- SLOPE
— c PITTSB UR G H
c— c - CLAY
he— c - S H A LE
.840
TOP
OF
:Z B ELLAIRE SLOPE
.820 — SHALE
B ELLAIRE
SHALE
B E L L A IR E
_800 SANDSTONE
B E L L A IR E
SANDSTONE -------------- BELLAIRE
SHALE
LOWER L IT T L E IT-TTT
I I
T I‘ I I
T PITTSB UR G H COAL 1.1 ■1. SUMMERFIELD
Z
III T -IT T L IM E S TO N E
O rzr S U M M E R FIE LD
L IM E S T O N E
_780 0 3
»- , — —5
h-C ~-
——c
X X .
>
«c~ r~ c~
lc * ?c-
r X
CO N NELLSVILLE
S HA LE AND —* -c-
° x _ c_ CONNELSVILLE
SHALE
CLAY SHA LE
UJ .760
£ _ C&—
r f V l*ei — c
-c- -c i
-c:
-7 4 0 *c x BO TTO M
c< c »c~ ■OF
CUT
— c--
CLARKSBURG
C LA Y
-c c-
SHALE M IL E 1 7 .3
_720 c g -
MO RG ANTOW N
SHALE
B OTTO M
OF
L700 C UT
M IL E IB .O - C - DENOTES CLAY
XXX DENOTES RED SHALE
Figure 2.2 Geologic Column at Mile Posts 18.0 and 17.3, 1-77,
Noble County, Ohio
9
760 MORGANTOW N
SHALE
~ D U Q U E S N E
TOP
lL -7 ~ i£ l SHA LE OF
SLOPE
' AMES LIM ESTONE
_ 7 40
: AMES
SHALE
z hound KNOB S H A LE
o
.720
<
>
u
-I 2 .” " COWRUN
bl I— SHALE
_700
BOTTOM
OF
CUT
680
-C - DENOTES CLAY
STA TIO N 19 + 5 0
Figure 2.3 Geologic Column at Station 19+50, S.R. 682, Athens, Ohio
10
642+67, and 644+70 (see the geologic column in Figures 2.4 and 2.5).
The Morgantown member was studied at station 644+50 and the Duquesne
member at stations 621+50 and 643+62 (see Figures 2.4 and 2.5).
2.2 Mapping of Discontinuities
2.2.1 General. The purpose of the mapping was to record the
location and thickness of discontinuities and spacing between bedding
planes. Discontinuity is a general term used to describe a break in
the uniform appearance of the rock. Discontinuities vary in character
and extent (Duncan and Goodman, 1968). In the present study they are
considered to consist of the following types.
Bedding planes separate the various layers of sediment which
constitute the rock mass. They represent planes of weakness (Leet and
Judson, 1971).
A fault is a discontinuity resulting from rupture within a rock
mass. The rupture is marked by differential movement parallel to the
fault surface. Faults may extend for a few inches or hundreds of miles
(Billings, 1954).
Any discontinuity with a smooth and polished surface may be called
a slickenside (Billings, 1954). A slickenside may extend a few inches
to hundreds of feet.
A joint is a rupture within the rock mass which shows no visible
movement parallel to the rupture plane. Joints differ in length from
a few feet to thousands of feet. Joints are recurrent features with
a spacing of a few inches to hundreds of feet (Billings, 1954, and
Duncan and Goodman, 1968). Often the occurrence of joints at a

11
800
MORGANTOWN TOP
■••••: SANDSTONE -O F
TOP
_780 -O F
SLOPE
SLOPE
MORGANTOWN
S A N D S TO N E
a_xc__ jLje JL
.c c-
VUA-c*
760 A. 1 — DUQUESNE DUQUESNE
X JS’ C • S H A LE c C^ ~ SHALE
p_c JLc-
J L C—
_I2sc— *
T T AMES AMES
T T I I
LIM ESTO N E 1i 1i 1i 1 LIM ESTO N E
NO
i r r ^ A M E S SHALE
740 GAYS PORT LIMESTONE
A M ES
ii
. m : SHALE — GAYSPORT SHALE

V A 3 1 3
i O c, ROUND BOTTOM
_ x_jS.
v ROUND ~1T~C~ KNOB ■OF
7 " KNOB _ _ SHALE CUT
720 -c-
' £ SHALE L, X ,
“
-c -
COWRUN
SHALE
S T A T IO N 631 + 5 0
_700 TO 633+50
B O TTO M
COWRUN ■OF
SANDSTONE
CUT
680
-C - DENOTES CLAY
STATION 642+00
TO 645+00
Figure 2.4 Geologic Column at Stations 642+67 and 632+76, U.S. 33

and 50, Athens, Ohio
12
780 TOP
OF
U N ID E N T IF IE D SLOPE
* *
. i.".. •• MORGANTOWN
SANDSTONE
_760
c DUQUESNE
SHA LE
C T - i'
__740 o L AMES LIM E S TO N E

z
-------------- GAYSPORT
o SHALE BOTTOM
■OF
I- L2_cA_ CUT
<
> 720
u r>f!LX c ' ROUND
-1 -c-K— ? KNOB
_ c * — SHALE
Id
L_2Lc —
X * BOTTOM
°£ t (R A M P A )
700
-C - DENOTES CLAY
XXX D EN O TE S RED SHALE
_680
S TA T IO N 621 tO O TO 624 + 00
Figure 2.5 Geologic Column at Station 621+00, U.S. 33 and 50,

Athens, Ohio
13
particular locale may be grouped into sets with' preferred orientations
and spacing.
Partings are similar to joints but the surface is more irregular
and non-linear. Partings are recurrent separations parallel to
mineralogically defined weaknesses in a rock mass and may extend a few
inches to tens of feet (Duncan and Goodman, 1968).
Fissures are small, essentially random, planar cracks in apparently
intact rock and formed by alteration and extension fracturing of the
rock mass (Duncan and Goodman, 1968). Fissures are tenths of an inch
to several inches long (Duncan and Goodman, 1968; and Skempton, Shuster,
and Petley, 1969). Fissures can be considered a feature of laboratory
test specimens, whereas a parting is more a feature of large in situ
test blocks and small exploratory excavations (Duncan and Goodman, 1968;
and Goodman, 1976). A summary of discontinuity descriptions and assoc
iated features is presented in Table 2.1.
2.2.2 Procedure. Recently excavated slopes in the Athens area
were found to be the most accessible for mapping since the thickness of
weathered shale had not built up significantly. Once a particular
geologic member was located in a cut slope, a vertical face measuring
approximately 5.0 ft. (1.52 m) horizontally and 3.5 ft. (1.07 m) vertic
ally was cleared of loose material to expose the shale (see Figures 2.6
and 2.7). This exposure was called a window. A grid pattern composed
of 6 in. by 6 in. (15.24 cm by 15.24 cm) squares was then painted on
the vertical face (see Figures 2.8). This grid permitted the position
of each observed discontinuity (Figure 2.9) to be graphically recorded

Table 2.1
Description of Discontinuities
Typical
Item Description Dimension Reference
Fault Ruptures within a rock mass along which displace- 6 inches • Billings (1954)
ments have occurred. 500 miles Wahlstrom (1973)
Joint Divisional plane or fracture within a rock mass 6 inches Billings (1954)
along which no visible displacement parallel to 500 feet Wahlstrom (1973)
the fracture has occurred. Duncan & Goodman
(1968)
Parting Similar to a joint, but the surface is more 6 inches - Billings (1954)
irregular and non-linear than a joint. 50 feet Wahlstrom (1973)
Duncan & Goodman
(1968)
Slickenside Polished, striated surfaces resulting from friction 6 inches Billings (1954)
and movement along a fault plane. 500 feet
Breccia Sheared and crushed, subangular rock fragments Billings (1954)

which may fill the cavity of a fault plane. Wahlstrom (1973)
Gouge Thoroughly crushed and pulverized rock material Billings (1954)

found on the fault plane and formed by movement Wahlstrom (1973)
between the adjacent walls of the fault plane.
Fissure Short planar cracks of microscopic or macroscopic 1 inch - Goodman (1976)

size contained in apparently intact rock. 3 inches Skempton et al.
(1969)
Figure 2.6 Exposed Vertical Face of Morgantown Shale
along U.S. 33 and 50 in Athens, Ohio
Figure 2.7 Exposed Vertical Face of Round Knob Shale

along S.R. 682 in Athens, Ohio
Figure 2.8 Grid Pattern Painted on the Exposed Face of
Round Knob Shale in Preparation for Record
ing a Geologic "Window" Section
;«( >
* n X \
!K ‘V-
Figure 2.9 Exposed Discontinuity Surfaces in an Exposed

Face of Round Knob Shale, S.R. 682,
Athens, Ohio
17
(see Figures 2.10, 2.12, and 2.13). The thickness of gouge was also
graphically displayed.
Mapping of the discontinuities in the window consisted of three
steps. First, the discontinuities were drawn on the grid sheet to show
their locations (Figures 2.12 and 2.13). Slickensides and partings
which extended beyond the perimeter of the grid were traced until the
discontinuity terminated. Second, the strike and dip of each disconti
nuity was determined by use of a hand level and Brunton compass.
Sufficient material was removed above each discontinuity to permit the
compass and level to be placed on the discontinuity for measurement.
The strike and dip were recorded on a separate sheet (see Tables 2.3 and
2.4). Third, the character of the surface of each discontinuity was
recorded. Surface character description includes a) thickness of any
gouge or loose material, b) presence of moisture on the surface of the
discontinuity or in the gouge material, c) roughness of the surface of
the discontinuity, d) presence of a polished or dull appearance on the
surface of the discontinuity, e) presence of striations which would
indicate past movements, and f) color of the discontinuity surface or
the filling material whether that color differs from the color of the
surrounding material.
2.2.3 Results
2.2.3.1 Morgantown Shale. The thin, platey appearance derived
from near-parallel bedding planes was apparent in the Morgantown shale
(see Figure 2.6). Bedding planes were spaced at 0.125 inch (.318 cm)
to 0.25 inch (.635 cm) intervals. The strike and dip of the bedding
planes were closely aligned with the strike and dip of the regional
DISCONTINUITIES
SLICKENS1DES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
MORGANTOWN SHALE --------------- PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
U.S. 33 AND 50 --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
ATHENS, OHIO L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
STATION 6 4 4 + 5 0
WEST FACE
\8
<D
Figure 2.10 Morgantown Shale Located at Station 644+50, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio
Discontinuities in Window in Morgantown Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 644+50, Athens
Grid is located 1 foot below top of member
Feature Strike Dip Thickness of Gouge Comments
1 N 40° W 90° None Parting, irregular gray dry surface.
2 S 52° E 69° N None Parting, irregular gray dry surface.
3 S 35° E 80° N None Parting, irregular gray surface.

o
00
m
53
4 S 35° E None Parting, irregular surface.
A N 89° E 5° S Bedding planes, gray dry surface, .125 - .188 inch

average spacing.
B N 20° E 6.5° SE Bedding planes, gray dry surface, .25 inch average
spacing.
C S 89° E 7° S Bedding planes, gray shaley surfaces, .188 inch

average spacing.
20
geology. The regional strike direction is slightly east of north with
a dip of less than 1° to the southeast (Sturgeon, et al., 1958). The
shale broke horizontally along the bedding planes. The planes were not
smooth and had a dry, dull appearance. No striations were observed.
No loose material was found on the horizontal bedding planes. No dis
coloration of the bedding plane surfaces was observed. Steeply dipping
partings spaced 3.0 inches to 6.0 inches (7.6 cm to 15.2 cm) apart were
observed. These partings had rough surfaces. The locations of the
partings are shown in Figure 2.10 and described in Table 2.2.
2.2.3.2 Connellsville Shale. The orientation of partings and
slickensides observed in the Connellsville shale gave the shale the
blocky appearance of a mudstone. Both shale and mudstone are fine
grained rocks composed of clay-size and silt-size particles. However,
mudstones have a blocky appearance with no apparent bedding planes
while shales possess a platey-slab structure which is oriented approx
imately parallel to the bedding of the regional geologic formation
(Leet and Judson, 1971).
Four windows in the Connellsville shale were observed along 1-77
in Noble County and shown in Figures 2.12 through 2.15. The descrip
tions of the discontinuities are listed in Tables 2.3 through 2.6.
Over 90% of the observed discontinuities were less than three feet in
length. Over 70% of the observed discontinuities were slickensides
possessing moist, smooth surfaces. The remaining discontinuities were
partings. Only two slickensides contained some gouge material. These
slickensides are shown in Figure 2.12 as discontinuities 1 and 4. All
other discontinuities in all the windows were tight with the two
CONNELLSVILLE SHALE 21
INTERSTATE 7 7
MILE 18.0 E , MILE 17.3 E.SW.
oo
Figure 2.11 Stereographic Projection of Recorded Discontinuities

in the Connellsville Shale at Mile 18.0 and 17.3, 1-77
DISCONTINUITIES
--------------- SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
CONNELLSVILLE SHALE --------------- PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
1 -7 7 --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
MACKSBURG .OHIO L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
MILE 17.3
WEST FACE
to
Figure 2.12 Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 17.3, 1-77, near Macksburg, Ohio hO
Table 2.3
Discontinuities in Window in Connellsville Shale, West Slope of 1-77, Mile 17.3, Macksburg
Grid is located 10 feet below limestone member
1 N 58° W 38° N .088 inch Slickenside, moist polished striated red-gray

surface.
2 N 18° W 12° NE None Slickenside, polished striated red-gray surface.
3 N 55° E 16° S None Slickenside, polished red-gray surface.
4 N 65° W 15° N 1. - 1.5 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of wet soft red
shale, polished striated gray surface, small thin
plates of gray shale can be picked from surface.
5 N 5° E 67° E None Parting running parallel to face of window, not

polished.
A N 21° W 16.5° NE Bedding planes, red surface, located above

Discontinuity 4, no distinguishing spacing.
ho
to
DISCONTINUITIES
CONNELLSVILLE SHALE SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
INTERSTATE 77 PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
DEXTER CITY .OHIO L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
MILE 18.0 PLANES OR PARTINGS
EAST FACE
SCALE
20
(C M .)
Figure 2.13 Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 18.0, 1-77, near Dexter City, Ohio .p-
Table 2.4
Discontinuities in Window in Connellsville Shale, East Slope of 1-77, Mile 18.0, Dexter City
Grid is located 6 feet below sandstone member
1 N 85° W 26° N None Parting, red surface stops abruptly at Discontinuity 2.

2 N 15° E 82° NW None Slickenside, polished smooth surface, brown staining
on surface (possibly from sandstone above).
3 N 65° W 24.5° SW None Slickenside, polished striated red surface.
4 S 65° W 42.75° S None - .088 inch Slickenside, moist polished striated red and gray
surface.
5 N 68° E 13° S None Slickenside, polished smooth striated red-gray

surface.
6 S 89° W 34° S None Slickenside, polished smooth red-brown surface.
7 S 70° w 27° S None Slickenside, polished smooth red-brown surface.
8 N 65° w 23.5° S None Slickenside, polished moist striated red-gray

surface.
9 N 70° w 31° S None Slickenside, polished moist striated red-gray

surface.
10 S 50° w 62° S None Parting, red surface.
11 S 80° w 35° S None Slickenside, polished smooth red-brown surface.
12 N 65° w 32° S None Slickenside, polished smooth red-brown surface.
13 S 5° w 13° N None Slickenside, polished smooth red-brown surface.
A N 20° w 85° W None Parting, red surface forms vertical face.
B N 15° w 85° E None Parting, red surface forms vertical face.
C N 15° w 85° W None Parting, forms red vertical face.

CONNELLSVILLE SHALE DISCONTINUITIES
INTERSTATE 77
SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
DEXTER CITY, OHIO PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
MILE 18.0 BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
EAST FACE L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
N3
Figure 2.14 Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 18.0, 1-77, near Dexter City, Ohio a\
Table 2.5
Discontinuities in Window in Connellsville Shale, East Slope of 1-77, Mile 18.0, Dexter City
Grid is located 4 feet below sandstone member
1 S 72° W 31° NW None Slickenside, red polished surface.
2 N 42° E 33.5° NW None Slickenside, red polished surface.
3 N 42° E 24.5° NW None Slickenside, red polished surface.
4 N 38° W 29° SW None Slickenside, red polished striated surface.
5 N 48° W 30.75° SW None Slickenside, red polished striated surface.
6 N 33° W 28.25° SW None Slickenside, red polished striated surface.
7 S 72° W 24° SE None Slickenside, red polished surface.
8 N 49° W 30° NW None Slickenside, red polished surface.
9 N 72° W 30.5° NW None Slickenside, red polished striated surface.
10 N 11° E 15° NE None Parting running parallel to vertical face of

window, not polished, located above Discontinuity 1
N3
'kJ
DISCONTINUITIES
CONNELLSVILLE SHALE --------------- SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)

--------------- PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
INTERSTATE 77 ------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
MACKSBURG, OHIO L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
MILE 17.3 PLANES OR PARTINGS
EAST FACE
J.
i r
Figure 2.15 Connellsville Shale Located at Mile 17.3, 1-77, near Macksburg, Ohio to
co
Table 2.6
Discontinuities In Window in Connellsville Shale, East Slope of 1-77, Mile 17.3, Macksburg
Grid is located 10 feet below limestone member
A N 25° E 2° NW Bedding planes, red non-polished surface, .088 inch

average spacing.
B N 30° E 6.25° NW Bedding planes, red non-polished surface, .088 inch

average spacing.
C N 10° E 8.75° NW Bedding planes, red non-polished surface, .088 inch

average spacing.
D N 40° E 7.25° NW Bedding planes, red non-polished surface, .088 inch

average spacing.
S3
vo
30
intact rock faces in contact. Striations were present on the surfaces
of the slickensides (see Figures 2.13 and 2.14 and Tables 2.4 and 2.5,
respectively). Thin, platey material approximately .25 inch (.64 cm)
square could be picked from the surfaces of some of the slickensides.
Of particular note was the manner in which some of the slicken
sides or partings terminated. In these cases, the discontinuity
abruptly stopped at the surface of another discontinuity. This can be
seen in Figure 2.13 where discontinuity Number 1 does not extend beyond
discontinuity Number 2 and in Figure 2.14 where discontinuity Number 4
stops at the surface of discontinuity 1.
The strike and dip of the discontinuities recorded in the Connells
ville shale are stereographically projected in Figure 2.11. This plot
reveals a general trend of a strike of N + 20° E or W dipping 20° to
35° N and a strike of S ± 20° E or W dipping 20° to 35° S.
The presence of bedding planes was observed within the blocky
structure of the Connellsville shale in some of the windows. These
bedding planes did not appear to be parallel to the regional strike and
dip of the geologic formation. As seen in Figure 2.12, the bedding
planes in Area B were oriented parallel to a slickenside recorded as
discontinuity 2. As shown in Figure 2.15, four different orientations
of bedding planes were observed in the east slope at mile 17.3. In
both slopes these planes were smooth but not polished or shiny. The
variation in orientation and description of the surface of the bedding
planes suggested that these discontinuities were not actually bedding
planes but, rather, partings with parallel orientation. However, the
notation of bedding plane is retained in the subsequent text.

31
2.2.3.3 Duquesne Shale. The Duquesne shale had a blocky appear
ance. The blocks measured approximately 2.0 to 4.0 inches (5.1 cm to
10.2 cm) on the sides and 1.0 to 2.0 inches (2.5 to 5.1 cm) in height
(see Figure 2.16). Each block was tightly arranged within the mass of
the shale layer. Each block was separated from the adjacent block by
smooth horizontal and vertical partings. The unweathered shale blocks
could be extracted intact from the shale layer due to breakage along
these partings. No soft filling material was observed on the partings.
Some bedding planes had sustained noticeable weathering. These planes
averaged .088 inches (.223 cm) in spacing. Most of the Duquesne shale
which had not sustained weathering bore no evidence of bedding and
broke only along the smooth partings. None of the partings were
striated. In spite of the presence of these partings, the Duquesne
shale did not appear to slake or pull apart as easily as the Connells
ville or Round Knob shale.
In some of the windows, the blocks were bounded by partings with
parallel orientations. Three sets of strike and dip measurements
approximately describe the three sets of partings which form the six
sides of each small block. In all the windows, the vertical partings
which form the sides of the blocks are labeled as Number 1 and Number 2.
The horizontal partings which form the top and base of each block are
labeled as Number 3. In windows along U.S. 33 and 50 at station
643+62 (Figure 2.17 and Table 2.7)and station 621+50 (Figure 2.18 and
Table 2.8), it was observed that partings have distinctively different
orientations in different areas. However, no sharp boundary could be
found to separate these different areas. Therefore, the discontinuities

32
2 .0 - 4 .0 INCH
T Y P IC A L
SPACING
BLOCKS SEPARATED
BY PARTINGS
_JO
<z
BLOCKS SEPARATED
BY PARTINGS
Figure 2.16 Typical Blocky Structure of Duquesne Shale

DISCONTINUITIES
--------------- SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
DUQUESNE SHALE --------------- PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
U.S. 33 AND 50 --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
ATHENS,OHIO PLANES OR PARTINGS
STATION 6 4 3 + 6 2
WEST FACE
FACE, FACE
FACE FACE,
.FACE
lFACE
FACE
.FACE
FACE,
jjjy
’'TN
face)
U>
Figure 2.17 Duquesne Shale Located at Station 643+62, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio
Table 2.7
Discontinuities in Window in Duquesne Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 643+62, Athens
Grid is located 3 feet above base of member
1 Face N 45° E 62° N None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 4 in. typical spacing.
2 Face N 60° W 87.5° SW None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 3 in. typical spacing.
3 Face N 34° E 47° S None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1 to 1.5 in. typical spacing.
1 Face N 46° E 85.75C’ S None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 3 in. typical spacing.
2 Face N 40° W 86.5° s None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 3 in. typical spacing.
3 Face N 40° E 14° S None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1 in. typical spacing.
1 Face N 25° W 84.5° s None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1 to 2 in. typical spacing.
2 Face N 44° W 89° S None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1 to 2 in. typical spacing.
3 Face N 70° W 34.5° s None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1.5 in. typical spacing.
1 Face N 45° E 63.5° s None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 3 to 4 in. typical spacing.
2 Face N 5° W 17° SW None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 2 in. typical spacing.
3 Face N 60° W 21° S None Partings, smooth wet red surface, 1 to 2 in. typical spacing.
to
4N
DISCONTINUITIES
DUQUESNE SHALE SLICKENSIDES (IDEN TIFIED BY NUMBERS)
U.S. 33 AND 50 PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
ATHENS, OHIO BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
STATION 621 + 50 PLANES OR PARTINGS
WEST FACE
PACE
FACE,
PACE
face)*£3
Figure 2.18 Duquesne Shale Located at Station 621+50, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio LO
Ul
Table 2.8
Discontinuities In Window In Duquesne Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 6214-50, Athens
Grid is located 1 foot below top of member
1 N 5° W 39.5° SW None Partings, red surface.
2 N 14° E 33.75° SE None Partings, red surface.
3 N 7° W 1° SW None Partings, red surface.
A
1 Face N 35° E 89° SE None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
2 Face S 72° W 14° SW None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
3 Face N 20° E 6.75° NE None-.088 inch Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
B
1 Face N 52° E 84.75° SE None Partings, smooth red surface.
2 Face N 12° E 72° SW None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
3 Face N 10° W 2.25° SW None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
1 Face N 22° E 88.5° SE None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
2 Face N 44° W 13° NE None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
3 Face N 12° E 5.75° SE None Partings, smooth shiny red surface.
u>
CTi
37
which form the sides of these blocks were not interpreted as being
joints.In addition, each set did not extend over an area larger than
2.0 ft. (0.6 m) by 1.0ft. (0.3 m) as shown in Figure 2.17.
Partings observed in the windows showed three prominent orienta
tions (see Figures 2.19 and 2.20). Over half of the near-horizontal
partings had a dip of less than 20° with no general trend found for the
strike. One trend forthe near-vertical partings was a strike of
N 40° E, plus or minus 10°,with dip angle to the south exceeding 60°.
Another less prominent orientation for the near-vertical partings was a
strike of N 40° W, plus or minus 10°, with a dip angle to the south
exceeding 60°.
2.2.3.4 Round Knob Shale. There are more observable discontinui
ties in the Round Knob than in the Morgantown, Connellsville, and
Duquesne shale. In all the windows, the Round Knob member contained
slickensides and moist, smooth partings. Chunks of the Round Knob
member could be loosened along these discontinuities.
The slickensides and partings found in the Round Knob were, on the
average, longer and wider in extent than those of the Connellsville,
Morgantown, and Duquesne. The slickensides which contained seams of
gouge material averaged over three feet in length. As with the
Connellsville, the discontinuities would abruptly terminate at the
surface of another discontinuity and rarely pass through it.
Over half of the observed discontinuities were slickensides.
These sections are shown in Figures 2.28 to 2.32 with the descriptions
listed in Tables 2.9 through 2.13, respectively. The surfaces of the
slickensides were moist and smooth. Exposed slickensides observed

DUQUESNE SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENSt 0 H I0
STATION 643 + 62

in the Duquesne Shale at Station 643+62, U.S. 33 and
50, Athens, Ohio
DUQUESNE SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS, OHIO
STATION 621 + 50 W
oo

in the Duquesne Shale at Station 621+00, U.S. 33 and
50, Athens, Ohio
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS, OHIO
STATION 6 4 2 ♦ 6 7 W
6 4 4 +70 W
632+76W N
> io%B
52 DISCONTINUITIES
Figure 2.21 Contour Plot of Stereographic Projections of Recorded
Discontinuities in the Round Knob Shale, Athens, Ohio
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS .OHIO
STATION 6 4 4 + 70

ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS, OHIO
STATION 6 3 2 + 7 6

ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS .OHIO
STATION 642 + 67

ROUND KNOB SHALE 44
U.S. 33 AND 50
ATHENS, OHIO
STATION 6 4 2 + 67 a 6 4 4 + 70 W

in the Round Knob Shale Stations 642+67 and 644+70,
U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio
45
along U.S. 33 and 50 at station 621+00 in Athens are shown in
Figure 2.2. Striations were evident on many of the slickensides in all
windows. Figure 2.27 shows the polished, striated surface observed on
some of these slickensides.
Gouge material was observed along approximately 40% of the slicken
sides. The gouge material was arranged in thin, flat platey sheets
approximately .25 inch square (.62 cm) and .088 inch (.224 cm) thick.
This is seen in the description of discontinuity Number 1 shown in
Figure 2.28 and described in Table 2.9 and in the description of dis
continuity Numbers 1 and 3, shown in Figure 2.29 and described in
Table 2.10. The gouge material found in all of the slickensides was
moist.
As the thickness of the slickenside increased, the color of the
gouge and slickenside surface were more likely to be associated with
the color of the overlying rock strata. This was noted at station
642+67 along U.S. 33 and 50 (Figure 2.8) where discontinuities la, lb,
2, 4, 5, and 6 possessed gouge with the same gray color as the gray
Ames shale which directly overlays the Round Knob. Also, at station
632+76 along U.S. 33 and 50 (Figure 2.30) discontinuities 1, 7, 8, and
9 were slickensides with surfaces or gouge having the same gray color
as the overlying gray Gaysport shale. The exception at this section
was the large pocket of red, soft, and wet gouge found in the lower
right portion of this window.
Most of the partings were steeply-dipping or near-vertical and
were smooth and moist. These partings possessed no gouge or filling
material and were tight. Examples of these partings are

Figure 2.26 Exposed Discontinuity Surfaces in an Exposed
Face of Round Knob Shale. Taken along U.S.33
and 50 in Athens, Ohio.
Figure 2.27 Slickenside Surface in a Core

Specimen of Round Knob Shale
DISCONTINUITIES
PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
ROUND KNOB SHALE BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
U.S. 33 AND 50 L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
ATHENS, OHIO
STA. 6 4 4 + 7 0
WEST FACE
EXTENDS
2 .0 F T .
BEYOND
BORDER
-3 0
SCALE
-20
© ®
(C M .)
-10
EXTENDS
1.0 F T.
BEYOND
BORDER
Figure 2.28 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 644+70, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio
Table 2.9
Discontinuities In Window in Round Knob Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 644+70, Athens
Strike Dip Thickness of Gouge Comments
N 80° W 37.5° S 1.0 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of gray shale arranged in
thin plates parallel to slickenside surface, extends
2 feet into slope.
2 N 50° W 31.75° S .5 inch Slickenside, same as Discontinuity 1, extends 4 ft. into slope.
3 N 52° E 35° S .25 inch Slickenside, very smooth planar surface, gouge comprised
of gray shale.
4 N 66° E 20.25° S .25 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of gray shale.
5 N 27° W 24.75° E .125 inch Parting.
6 N 86° W 30.5° S .25 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of wet gray shale, slickenside
surface is moist.
7 N 15° W 75° NE None Parting, red smooth surface.
8 N 78° W 54° N None Parting.
A N 86° E 42.5° S Bedding planes, red rough surface, .25 in. average spacing.
B N 78° E 9.5° S Bedding planes, red surface, .068-.125 in. average spacing.
C N 15° W 24° E Bedding planes, red surface, .125 in. average spacing.
D Bedding planes, oriented parallel to Discontinuity 1,
.25 in. average spacing.
E Bedding planes, oriented parallel to Discontinuity 4,
F Bedding planes, oriented parallel to Discontinuity 2,
■t-
00
discontinuities

PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
ROUND KNOB SHALE BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
U.S.33 AND 50 PLANES OR PARTINGS
STATION 6 4 2 + 6 7
WEST FACE
©
EXTENDS
2 FT. BEYOND
BORDER
EXTEND S
2 FT.
BEYOND
BORDER
-SO 12
co
o
®
(
OAt -20 >
J* r-
r- m
nil
o'
S •10
I
Figure 2.29 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 642+67, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio +•
Table 2.10
Discontinuities in Window in Round Knob Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 642+67, Athens
la N 17° W 35° SW .5 in. Slickenside, gouge comprised of gray shale arranged in thin
plates parallel to slickenside surface, extends 3 ft. into slope.
lb N 17° W 35° SW .75 in. Slickenside, same as Discontinuity la.
2 N 43° E 32.5° S .25 in. Slickenside, gouge comprised of gray shale which is wet and
slippery.
3 N 64° W 33.75° SW 1 in. Slickenside, gouge comprised of soft wet gray shale arranged
in thin plates parallel to slickenside surface.
4 N 16° W 25° W .25 in. Slickenside, gouge comprised of red and gray shale arranged in
thin plates parallel to slickenside surface.
5 N 42° W 25.25° E 1. inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of wet gray shale.
6 N 60° W 21° SW .125 inch Slickenside, striations of gray shale on surface, gouge com
prised of gray shale.
7 N 70° W 75.25° N None Parting, dry red surface
A N 75° E 31° S Bedding planes, red surface, .25 inch average spacing.
B N 10° W 13.25° NE Bedding planes, red surface, .125 inch average spacing.
C N 60° E 7.25° N Bedding planes, red surface, .125 inch average spacing.
D N 20° E 22.25° W Bedding planes, red surface, .125 inch average spacing.
E Bedding planes, oriented parallel to Discontinuity 1,

.125 inch average spacing.
Ln
O
DISCONTINUITIES
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 AND 50 --------------- SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
ATHENS,OH 10 --------------- PARTINGS (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)
STATION 6 3 2 + 7 6 --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
WEST FACE L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
GOUGE
MATERIAL
Figure 2.30 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 632+76, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio m
Table 2.11
Discontinuities in Window in Round Knob Shale, West Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 632+76, Athens
Grid is located 4 feet below top of member
Strike Dip Thickness of Gouge Comments
N 35° E 23° S 1. inch Slickenside, wet surface, gouge comprised of gray and red
shale.
2 N 80° W 28° NE .125 inch Parting, extends 6 inches into slope.
3 N 50° E 24° SW None Parting.

4 N 85° W 70° S None Parting, gray surface.
5 N 75° E 33.75° N .25 inch Slickenside, wet surface.
6 N 45° E 10° S .088 inch Parting, gray surface.
7 N 50° E 57.5° S .088 inch Slickenside, gray surface.
8 N 25° E 37.75° S .5 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of gray shale.
9 N 25° E 37.75° S None Slickenside, gray surface.
A N 30° E 17.5° NW Bedding planes, red surface, .125-.25 inch average spacing.
B N 80° W 24.5° N Bedding planes, red surface, no distinguishing spacing.
C N 90° W 29.25° S Bedding planes, red surface, .088 inch average spacing.
D Bedding planes, oriented parallel to Discontinuity 8,
.25 inch average spacing.
Ln
N5
i
DISCONTINUITIES
ROUND KNOB SHALE SLICKENSIDES (IDENTIFIED BY NUMBERS)

S.R. 682 --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
ATHENS, OHIO L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
STATION 19+50 PLANES OR PARTINGS
EAST FACE
-3 0 12
COI <0 I
oB o J®
JkH-20 >\
m m I
of
SS-IO z|
Figure 2.31 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 19+50, S.R. 682, Athens, Ohio Ln
U)
Table 2.12
Discontinuities in Window in Round Knob Shale, East Slope of S.R. 682, Station 19+50, Athens
Grid is located 4 feet below top of member
1 N 85° E 32° N .088 inch Parting, surface stained with wet brown material.
2 N 5° E 41° W .088 - .125 in. Slickenside, red polished surface, gouge comprised of brown
material.
3 N 45° E 28° N .088 - .25 in. Slickenside, surface not polished, gouge comprised of soft
wet brown material.
4 N 31° E 15° N None - .088 in. Slickenside, moist polished red surface.
5 N 42° E 35° S None Slickenside, red polished surface.
6 N 70° E 31° S None Slickenside, polished brown surface.
7 N 89° W 13° S None Bedding plane, red smooth surface.
8 N 60° W 77° SW None Slickenside, moist polished red surface.

9 N 45° W 14.5° SW None Slickenside, polished red surface.
10 N 22° E 83° NW None Parting, dry red surface
11 N 26° W 36° SW .088 - .125 in. Slickenside, gouge comprised of brown material, red polished
surface.
12 N 85° E 29° S .088 inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of brown material, red polished
surface.
13 N 50° W 12.25° SW None Parting, brown wet surface.
14 N 82° W 69° S None Parting, red and brown irregular surface.
15 N 9° W 27.25° W None Slickenside, red polished surface.
16 N 34° E 61° S None Parting, red irregular surface.
17 N 55° W 76° SW None Parting, red surface.
18 N 1° W 65° W None Parting, smooth non-polished surface.
19 N 18° W 54° E None Parting, smooth non-polished surface, located within dashed
line.
Ln
■e*
DISCONTINUITIES
--------------- SLICKENSIDES (IDEN TIFIED BY NUMBERS)
ROUND KNOB SHALE --------------- BOUNDARY OF AREAS (IDENTIFIED BY
U.S. 33 AND 50 L E T T E R S ) CONTAINING BEDDING
PLANES OR PARTINGS
ATHENS, OHIO
STATION 6 2 1 + 0 0
NORTH FACE
<_n
Figure 2.32 Round Knob Shale Located at Station 621+00, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio Ln
Table 2.13
Discontinuities in Window in Round Knob Shale, North Slope of U.S. 33 and 50, Station 621+00, Athens
Grid is located 5 feet below coal seam
1 S 72° W 41° S None Slickenside, polished gray surface.

2 N 4° E 16° E None Slickenside, polished gray surface.
3 N 28° W 30° NE .25 - 1. inch Slickenside, gouge comprised of soft, wet, gray-red shale,
bottom surface is polished and wet.
4 N 45° E 30° NW None Slickenside, smooth polished moist gray surface.
5 N 70° W 19° N None Slickenside, moist gray-red surface.
6 N 56° E 31° NW .088 inch Slickenside, small plates of gray shale can be picked from
the moist polished surface.
7 N 87° E 31° N None - .085 in. Slickenside, moist polished red-gray surface.
8 N 90° W 21° N None Slickenside, 2 inches deep into slope face, gray polished
surface.
9 N 28° E 41° NW None Slickenside, 6 inches deep into slope face, moist polished
striated red-gray surface.
10 N 39° E 31.5° NW None Slickenside, 9 inches deep into slope face, moist polished
striated red-gray surface.
11 S 75° W 16° S None Slickenside, moist polished gray surface.
12 N 89° W 16° S None Slickenside, moist polished gray surface.
13 N 45° E 34° NW .088 inch Slickenside, small plates of gray shale can be picked from
the moist polished gray surface.
14 N 65° W 31° N None Slickenside, moist polished red-gray surface.
15 N 89° W 34° N None Slickenside, polished gray surface.
16 N 89° W 31° N None Slickenside, moist polished striated red-gray surface.
17 N 85° W 19° N None Slickenside, 12 inches deep into slope face, gray polished
surface.
l/i
O'*
57
discontinuities 1, 10, 14, and 17 found in the window along S.R. 682
at station 19+50 (see Figure 2.31 and Table 2.12).
The orientation of the slickensides and partings possesses a weak
regional trend. Figure 2.21 shows the density contours of the stereo
graphic projections of the slickenside and parting orientations. Two
general partings orientations are observed from this contour plot. One
is a strike of S 70° E to N 30° E dipping 20° to 40° north. The other
trend is a strike of S 20° E to N 30° E dipping 20° to 40° south.
The recorded window section along U.S. 33 and 50 at station 621+00
was located in a gray Round Knob member (see Figure 2.32 and Table 2.13).
The type, length, number, and orientation of discontinuities were not
different from those in red Round Knob shale.
In some of the windows in the Round Knob, bedding planes could be
observed within the chunks of shale bounded by discontinuities. The
bedding plane orientations in adjacent chunks within the shale were not
related to each other or to the strike and dip of the regional geology.
Bedding planes with lengths exceeding 6 inches (15 cm) often closely
paralleled the orientation of an adjacent parting or slickenside.
It is believed that these bedding planes were not actually bedding
planes but, rather, partings which exhibited a prominent orientation.
These partings are similar to those found in the Connellsville shale.
2.3 Conclusions
Bedding planes, partings, and slickensides were found in the
shale members. In the gray Morgantown shale, bedding planes were
found to be positioned roughly parallel to the regional geologic dip.
A few partings of random orientation intersected the bedding planes.

58
In the red shale members slickensides and partings were identified.
The orientation of these discontinuities bore no correlation with the
orientation of the regional geologic dip.
Discontinuities which were described as bedding planes in the red
shale are considered to be closely spaced partings with a preferred
orientation. Their orientation in one area was usually different from
that in an adjacent area. These areas were often separated by slicken
sides or partings. Fissures were not observed in any of the windows.
The Round Knob member contained a larger quantity of observable
slickensides and partings than the other members which were studied.
Slickensides comprised a higher percentage of the observed discontinu
ities in the Round Knob member than in the other members. The Round
Knob shale also tended to break apart most easily along the slicken
sides and partings during hand excavation when compared with the other
members. For these reasons, it was felt that the influence of discon
tinuities on the strength of shale could best be studied by laboratory
strength tests of the Round Knob shale.

CHAPTER III
Tests on Small Samples
3.1 Purpose
A testing program was designed to establish relationships of stress
versus displacement for the Conemaugh shales. Once a relationship was
established, it was possible to ascertain the influence of discontinui
ties on the relationship. The direct shear test was chosen, because
the deformation is restricted to a thin zone in the test. This makes
the test suitable for studying the stress-displacement relationship
along a specified slip surface.
Samples of the Round Knob member were used for testing, since the
field investigation revealed that it contained the largest quantity of
observable discontinuities. Also, samples of the shale were easily
obtained from recent excavations.
3.2 Shale Sampling and Specimen Preparation
3.2.1 Sampling. Block samples of the Round Knob shale were cut
from recent excavations at station 19+50 along S.R. 682 and station
31+50 along U.S. 33 and 50 near Athens by use of chisels and a chain
saw.
Core samples of the Round Knob member were obtained from an older
cut slope along 1-70 at 165 feet (54 m) right of the centerline at
(S)
mile 188.9. Core samples were obtained by use of a Christensen^
59
60
double-tube core barrel with a liner placed inside the core barrel
for sample support.
3.2.2 Specimen Preparation. Several test specimens were obtained
from the blocks and cores. In the early stages of the testing program,
test specimens were cut from the block using a 14-inch (35.6 cm)
diameter, diamond-edged, circular sawblade made by the Metal Carbide^
Corporation. Water was used for lubrication. An attempt was made to
cut the specimens so that they fit exactly into the shear box, which
measured 2.38 inches by 2.38 inches by 1.0 inch (6.0 cm by 6.0 cm by
2.5 cm). The use of the water as a cutting fluid, however, rapidly
degraded the surface of the sample. The outer portions of the sample
softened and expanded so rapidly that the sample did not fit snugly
into the shear box after the cutting process was completed. The depth
of softening within the sample increased with the length of time between
cutting and mounting in the shear box. The stress-displacement rela
tionships of these samples appeared to be strongly influenced by the
depth of softening. Consequently, the results of these tests were
judged unreliable and an alternative procedure for sample preparation
was sought.
Two problems had to be addressed. First, water had to be elim
inated from the cutting process. Second, the sample had to fit snugly
within the shear box ring. The need for a cutting fluid was eliminated
by using a 14-inch (35.6 cm) diameter, carbide-tipped, circular saw
blade made by the Metal Carbide Corporation2’.

(R) With the carbide-tipped
blade, the sample could be cut to the approximate size, of the shear
box. Since the sample did not fit tightly within the shear box, gaps
61
existed between the specimen and shear box. The undersize specimen was
placed within the shear box and the gaps were filled with a grout
(Goodman, 1970, and Kenty, 1970). Since the red shale reacted with
water, it was also necessary to select a grout which hardened quickly.
Randustrial^ F-183 Submersible Bolt Anchor compound was selected as the
grout material.
In the final procedure, specimens were prepared by grouting the
shale sample in a mold. The mold was sized to yield samples which fit
snugly into the shear box. Specimens were cut to allow a gap of approx
imately one-quarter inch between sample and shear box to facilitate
placement of the grout. The entire specimen, except the shear zone, was
painted with a urethane varnish to preserve the moisture content and
provide a proper bonding surface for the grout. The mold accommodated
spacers of varying thickness that were used during sample grouting to
keep the grout from the shear zone. When the grout hardened, the ends
of the specimen were cut off with the carbide saw. A ready-to-mount
specimen was obtained by removing the mold and spacers.
3.3 Testing Program
The specimens were initially subjected to a consolidation pressure
equal to the in-situ overburden pressure which existed before the slope
was excavated. This procedure was designed to provide closure of any
discontinuities which opened due to excavation. The specimens were
inundated after the consolidation pressure was applied. Next, the
consolidation pressure was reduced to simulate unloading due to exca
vation.
62
Direct shear tests were performed at a controlled rate of dis
placement. The rate of displacement should be slow to minimize devel
opment of excess pore pressures and permit drainage of the shear zone.
In tests performed on Ohio River area claystones, Mellinger and Kenty
(1971) used a shear rate of 0.003 inch per minute to insure full drain
age of the specimen. A shear rate of approximately 0.003 inch per
minute (0.00013 cm/second) was used in the present tests. Shearing
displacements exceeded 0.2 inches (0.5 cm) in all tests.
At the cessation of testing, the shear box and sample were removed
from the testing apparatus. The upper and lower halves of the box were
pulled apart. The position of discernible discontinuities were noted,
and cross-sections of the shear surface were obtained.
3.4 Results
3.4.1 General. Stiff fissured clays and clay shales usually show
a strain-softening relationship when tested in direct shear. The
relationship (see Figures 3.1a) is characterized by three distinct
segments. The initial loading relationship in portion number one of
the curve resembles a linear-elastic relationship in which a constant
(K^) relates shear stress to displacement. This relationship holds
until the peak shear strength (x ) is attained. In portion two of the
curve, the reduction in strength from the peak shear strength value is
related to additional displacement by the constant -K^ • This rela
tionship continues until portion three of the curve is reached. In
portion number three, additional displacement yields little reduction
in strength. The strength attained in portion three may be the residual
strength (x ) if no reduction in strength is realized with further

63
cr
<
in
x
m
HORIZONTAL D ISPLA C EM EN T
a) Stress-displacement relationship for strain-
softening material
(/)
CO
u
Q£
I-
0)
Q£
ak
<t
Id
X
V)
HO R IZO N TA L D IS P L A C E M E N T
b) Stress-displacement relationship for elastic-

perfectly plastic material
Fig. 3.1 Typical Stress-Displacement Relationships

64
displacement. The strength in portion three may be somewhat higher
than the residual value if complete particle orientation has not been
attained on the shear surface (Skempton, 1970). The displacement
required to develop complete particle orientation on the shear surface
is several times greater than the displacement required to develop an
irregular connection between minor shear surfaces. Skempton (1970)
describes the strength of a specimen exhibiting this irregular shear
zone as the fully softened strength (Tg).
If a sample of shale is sheared along an existing failure plane,
an elastic-perfectly plastic relationship shown in Figure 3.1b may be
obtained. This may be approximated by a linear-elastic relationship
which extends until an ultimate strength is attained. When the ulti
mate strength is attained, no further change in strength is realized
with displacement.
3.4.2 Characteristics of Shear Surfaces
3.4.2.1 Slickenside Specimens. Specimens containing known
slickensides were sheared with the slickenside aligned along the shear
zone of the testing apparatus. Observations of the sheared slickenside
after completion of the tests revealed the presence of highly polished,
smooth surfaces over the majority of the sample area. Some loose,
platey-shaped material was noted on the surface. Removal of these
plates revealed the continuation of the slickenside. Very few irreg
ularities were noted on the slickenside as seen in the cross-sections
taken through the sample after testing (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). Vertical
partings were noted in both the upper and lower halves of the specimens.
The samples could be easily pulled apart along these partings. These
65
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. 33 8 50 D IR E C T IO N OF SHEAR
STATION 31+50 B
O’n s . 515 TSF (4 9 .3 4 k N / m 2)
TOP
P O L IS H E D
© - SURFACE, ■©
SLICKENSIDE
^ ° L,SH^ / P O L IS H E D -nJ
' .^ V E R T IC A L
\ PARTING
P O LIS H ED \
S U R FA C E , _
SLICKENSIDE SLOPES^
• $ BOTTO M
& & Z ////7 W .

SECTION l - l
d>
PLAN OF TO P SHEAR SURFACE
DENOTES PARTING
DENOTES BOUNDARY BETWEEN
DIFFERENT AREAS ON SHEAR
e SURFACE
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZE
POLISHED
v V ' VERTICAL TOP
\ P A R T IN S POLISHED
X [ surface, 7Z773
X \S U C K E N GROUT
X SIDE ////
S N
PO LISHED
SLOPES N S URFACE,
DOWN', SLICKENSIDE GROUT
l
© — fPOLISHEDl
-< D B O TTO M
SECTION 2 - 2
PLAN OF BOTTOM SHEAR SURFACE

i 2
-I
S C A L E (IN C H E S )
2 .4
S C A LE (C M )
Fig. 3.2 Shear Surface of Slickenside
Specimen, Round Knob Shale
66
ROUND KNOB SHALE - SLICKENSIDE DIRECTION OF SHEAR
U.S. 33 8 50
ST A T I O N 31 + 50
On = 2 .0 0 T S F (l9 l.6 0 k N /m 2)
f / / f J't',
SMOOTH,HARD,
YELLOW-ORANGE DENOTES PARTING
SURFACE. DENOTES BOUNDARY BETWEEN
SURFACE
0- ' SMOOTH,. VERTICAL
PARTINGS
L"Q (0(0 • * TYP. NON-POLISHED
§2-21 SMOOTH» \ SURFACE TOP
S "* I SLICKENSIDE
to 0-0 I ---
3/ N
(O, ' i
J f'ULISHEDi
SLIGHT
DEPRES
SION
BOTTOM
PLAN OF TOP OF SHEAR SURFACE SECTION I-1
SMOOTH
AND
P O LIS H E D ,
SLICKENSIDE
©-
PLAN OF BOTTOM OF SHEAR SURFACE
Fig. 3.3 Shear Surface of Slickenside

Specimen, Round Knob Shale
67
partings were not noticed on the surfaces of the sample before
testing.
3.4.2.2 Intact Specimens. After testing intact specimens,
observations of the sheared specimen revealed the presence of partings
aligned both parallel and perpendicular to the shear surface. All
specimens were easily pulled apart along vertical partings (see
Figures 3.4 and 3.5). These partings did not occur at regular spacings
indicative of bedding planes. The shear surface of most of the speci
mens contained at least one parting with an approximate length of 1.5
inches (3.8 cm) and width of .5 inch (1.3 cm). Partings noted on the
shear surface after testing did not extend across the entire sample.
Partings with orientations not parallel to the shear zone were also
noted. In some cases, the shear surface followed a parting that made
an angle of 30° to 45° with the general direction of the shear surface.
In a few specimens, the partings were observed on the side of the
samples before testing (for example, see Figure 3.6). In these
instances, the parting was aligned as best as possible with the open
ing of the shear box. After testing, however, the configurations of
the shear surfaces were similar to those of samples with no initially
visible partings. Even those partings which were identified before
testing did not extend across the entire sample.
Fissures were not visible on the sides of any specimen before
testing, but after the failed samples were separated the failure sur
face showed small planar features identifiable as fissures. The
fissures were not all aligned parallel to the shear zone. The fissures
were .1 to .3-inch (.3 cm to .8 cm) long fissures approximately .05 to

68
ROUND KNOB SHALE D IR EC TIO N OF SHEAR
STATE ROUTE 68 2 D
STATION 19+50 , / ' 7 L
a n = .5 1 4 TSF (49.24 k N /m )
TOP
PA R TIN G DIPPING
7 6 ° TOWARD D
.2 3
V E R T IC A L
PAR T IN G
.V E R T IC A L
.. Sf>OTH f T T ^ P A R T IN G
P A R T IN G 8 «* V V
BOTTO M
SECTION 8-1
V E R T IC A L
PARTING
■
A - o
TOP
PLAN TOP OF SHEAR SURFACE

— — d e n o t e s pa r t in g
-— denotes b o u n d a ry b e t w e e n
SURFACE ^ ------ -V E R T IC A L PARTING B O T TO M
SECTION 2 -2
FLAT
-- ®
R A IS E O S H U M P
(S E E \ TOP
NOTE N
VER TIC A L SMOOTH

P A R TIN G NOT |
POL SHED SMOOTH
VERTICAL
/f 'l .'IM PARTING f * ~ PARTING
IRREGULAR .
FISSURED \
SURFACE ^
B O TTO M
SECTION 3 -3
PLAN BOTTOM OF SHEAR SURFACE

o i 2
d
SCALE ( INCHES)
Fig. 3.4 Shear Surface of Specimen, Round Knob Shale
(Note 1: Undulating surface consisting of small fissures)
69
DIRECTION OF SHEAR
ROUND KNOB S H A L E
S T A T E ROUTE 6 8 2
S T A T I O N 19 * 5 0
z
o-n = 2.0 TSF (191.6 kN /m ) Trrrr»i //
A
.P A R T IN G SLOPES TO FACE
AT 3 0 ° TO HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
PARTING
POLISHED
PARTING
s l o p Es- ^.Z^
HARD, g \
/ NOT .V \ ^
'§ H A R D ,\V j
P O LIS H E D /
l-j NOT \ \ /
<D- P O L IS H E D W
-©
V 1
i^ d B
VERTICAL BOTTOM
PARTING
SEC TIO N I-I
VERTICAL VALLEY
PARTING
// s / s s s /
POLISHED
PARTINGS
SLOP
BOTTOM
V E R T IC A L PARTING
SECTION 2 -2
' DENOTES POLISHED FISSURE
OBSERVED ON SHEAR SURFACE
DENOTES PARTING
DENOTES BOUNDARY BETWEEN
SURFACE =L
SCALE (IN C H E S )
— I'
SCALE (CM )

(Note 1: Undulating surface consisting of small fissures)
D 70
ROUND KNOB SHALE
STATE ROUTE <*682
STATION 19 + 50 w j>> ^ 71v *>
On = .514 TSF (4 9 .2 4 kN /m 2)
DIRECTION OF SHEAR
V IS IB L E PARTING
V
c
BEFORE TESTING
AFTER TESTING
SCALE ( I N C H )
DENOTES PARTING
2 4
—L-AT.ffW.t-J
SCALE ( C M )
Fig. 3.6 Edge View of Small Specimen Before and

After Testing, Round Knob Shale
71
•15-inch (.1 cm to .4 cm) wide. Small areas of the shear surface
(.25 inch to .5 inch square) contained clusters of these fissures
which were not polished. Approximately 25% to 50% of the shear surface
contained fissures. The percentage of the shear surface containing
fissures was independent of whether a parting was seen before or after
testing. The partings and fissures formed an irregular and undulating
shear surface. Fissures appeared to be connected by sheared intact
material. In a few samples, polished smooth fissures less than 0.5 inch
(1.3 cm) long were noted. These smooth fissures were not always
oriented parallel with the shear zone (see Figures 3.5 and 3.7).
Usually, these smooth fissures were covered with loose, soft material
on the shear surface. This loose material could be easily removed with
a knife to reveal the smooth fissure. The large number of fissures
observed in the specimens after testing made it impossible to isolate
the effect of fissures on strength.
Considerable softening of the material within the shear zone
occurred in all specimens. Loose material was found at all places on
the shear surface but particularly along the edges of the sample.
Bedding planes were not detected on the shear surface after test
ing. However, the results of the mapping indicated that beddings
planes are often oriented parallel to slickensides. Any anisotropy
associated with either the slickenside or possible bedding planes was
studied by testing two adjacent specimens taken next to a slickenside.
One specimen was oriented in the shear box such that the shear zone
was parallel to the slickenside. The other specimen had the shear zone
oriented perpendicular to the slickenside.

72
ROUND KNOB SHALE
DIRECTION OF SHEAR
I.R. 70
MILE 188.9 B
On = 1.03 T S F (98.67 k N /m 2 ) A Z ZI
PLAN OF TOP OF S H E A R SURFACE
1 . TOP
GROUT
> ■“*>
I DEPRESSED/
* AREA W I T H / h®
R OU GH S
( SURFACE, ' A BOTTOM
\S O M E POLISHED /
v ->FISSURES/
SEC TIO N 2 -2
1 '
¥
ACCUMULATED
LOOSE GRANULAR
TOP
7 ^
)
1 RAISED X
A
' '
BOVJS^ fjSsv)«e BOTTOM
HD
S E C TIO N l-l
• — DENOTES PARTING
— DENOTES BOUNDARY BETWEEN
SURFACE
PLAN OF BOTTOM OF SHEAR SURFACE
NOTE : NO PARTINGS DISCERNABLE BEFORE T E S T IN G 0 I

SCALE (INCHES)
I2 4
S CAL E (CM)

73
Observation of the shear surfaces of both specimens did not reveal
any flat unpolished surfaces typical of bedding planes. Instead, both
samples contained an appreciable amount of fissures parallel to the
shear zone with a number of partings perpendicular to the shear zone
(see Figure 3.8). The random occurrence and unequal spacing of the
fissures and partings did not resemble bedding planes.
3.4.3 Stress-Displacement Curves
The results of the tests performed on slickensided specimens are
summarized in Table 3.1, and the stress-displacement relationships are
shown in Figure 3.9. The stress-displacement curves are similar to
that of Figure 3.1b. The results of tests on the intact shale are
summarized in Table 3.2, and some of the stress-displacement relation
ships are shown in Figure 3.10. Shearing of the intact specimens pro
duced a stress-displacement relationship similar to the one shown in
Figure 3.1a.
The value of is taken as the slope of the line passing through
the peak shear strength (t ) and the origin. The value of K„ is taken
P *•
as the slope of the line passing through x^ and through a point where
the reduction of the value of xg with further displacement becomes
small. The particular value of had to account for the sharp reduc
tion of strength past x^ and the low value of xg which was attained.
In all the tests on intact shale, it was noted that the sharp reduc
tion of post-peak strength quickly leveled off at displacements of
.1 cm to .15 cm. This displacement was higher for tests conducted at
higher normal pressure. Therefore, to calculate it is assumed

74
DIRECTION OF SHEAR
ROUND KNOB S H A L E
S.R. 682 C
S T A T I O N 19 + 50
Oh = 0 .5 TSF ( 4 7 . 9 k N / m Z )
7777777^
A
PARTING DIPS 4 5 ° SMOOTH

TO FACE “ B " ' TOP PARTING
ZZZZZZZZZz;
7 /P 7 ^
IRREGULAR SURFACE
S M A L L \ FISSURES
V APPA RENT
Z ;
.'RAISED, IRREGULAR,. /
/ SURFACE ✓
PARTING — -«■/ (POSSIBLE FISSURES) PARTING
DIPS 4 5 ° \ VERTICAL* BOTTOM
TO FACE "D" tpAfTVj'
,* i .• '• INDENTATION
/
V
PARTING
SEC TIO N hi
/
/
G > # ? -> # ............. /
/ d e n o te s p a rtin g
ZZZ^ — DENOTES b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n
VERTICAL
cal\
PARTING SURFACE
PLAN OF TOP S H E A R S U RF AC E
PARTING DIPS 4.
4 5 ° TO FACE ”c '
0 —
hump
VERTICAL 2.
P A R T IN G
VERTICAL
PARTING
J
"v
PL A N OF B O T T O M O F SHEAR SURFACE
Fig. 3.8 Shear Surface for Specimen Aligned Perpendicular

to Slickenside, Round Knob Shale
Table 3.1
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Slickenside Specimens
a T A Water
n r r K1
Content
tsf (kN/m^) tsf (kN/m^) Inches (cm) ’t/ft3 (kN/m3) % Location
.52 (49.3) .10 (9.6) .019 (.049) 61.0 (19200.) 12 U.S. 33 and 50, station 31+50
tf tl ii it it It
1.98 (189.7) .41 (39.3) .025 (.064) 195.1 (61300.) 16
It II it it it It
2.00 (191.6) .58 (55.6) .052 (.132) 134.1 (42200.) 11
II II ii it ii It
3.46 (331.5) .85 (81.4) .029 (.074) 351.7 (110500.) 10
Ln
CrN = .5 T S F ( 4 7 .9 k N / m 2 )
(Tn =2 0 T S F (191.6 k N / n ? )
- -58
.0 4 .0 8 .12
HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT (IN .)
■I (C M ) -2 -3
Fig. 3.9 Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Tests

on Slickenside Specimens, Round Knob Shale
Table 3.2
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Specimens
i
§ n
K„
L
w
<D -W
u
CO
o o 4J G U
.3 f.... 3. « a) o
tsf(kN/m3) tsf(kN/m3) In. (cm) tsf(kN/m3) In. (cm) t/ft3 (kN/m3) t/ft (kN/m ) ^ u i-i Comment before Testing
.52 (49.8) 1.72 (164.8) .022 (.055) .75 (71.9) .058 (.148) 954.0 (299900.) 317.0 (99600.) 3 * Parting along shear zone
.51 (48.9) 1.61 (154.2) .022 (.055) .69 (66.1) .055 (.140) 893.1 (280700.) 329.2 (103500.) 3 * Parting along shear zone
.50 (47.9) 1.16 (111.1) .022 (.055) 1.04 (99.7) .140 (.355) 643.1 (202100.) 12.2 (3800.) 3 *
.45 (43.1) .39 (37.4) .070 (.177) .38 (36.4) - 67.1 (21100.) — 3 *
2.05 (196.4) 1.93 (184.9) .036 (.090) 1.33 (127.4) .059 (.150) 652.3 (205000.) 304.8 (95800.) 3 * Aligned parallel to known
parting
2.03 (194.5) 2.67 (255.8) .028 (.071) 1.64 (157.1) .063 (.160) 1163.6 (365800.) 347.3 (109200.) 3 *
1.98 (189.7) 3.08 (295.1) .037 (.093) 1.27 (121.7) .063 (.160) 1008.9 (317100.) 823.0 (258700.) •4 *
1.03 (98.7) 2.09 (200.2) .039 (.098) .99 (94.8) .057 (.144) 649.2 (204100.) 728.5 (229000.) 8 **
1.65 (158.1) 1.79 (171.5) .035 (.089) 1.38 (132.2) .068 (.173) 612.6 (192600.) 149.4 (46900.) 9 ** Parting along shear zone
2.50 (239.5) 2.27 (217.5) .032 (.082) 1.92 (183.9) .060 (.152) 844.3 (265400.) 152.4 (47900.) 12 • ** Parting along shear zone
3.02 (289.3) 3.15 (301.8) .043 (.110) 2.08 (199.3) .062 (.157) 871.7 (274000.) 698.0 (219400.) 13 **
* S.R. 682, Sta. 19+50
** 1-70, Mile 188.9

... CTn z .51 T SF ( 4 8 . 9 k N / t r ? )
300
-3 .0 8 — <rN = .52 T S F ( 4 9 . 8 k N /m 2)
_ CrN= 2 . 0 5 T S F f1 9 6 . 4 k N / m 2 )
— CTn = I S S T S F d B S . T k N / m 2)
200 •
— 1 .72
1. 6 /
100
'.05
.0 4 .0 8
(CM)
Fig. 3.10 Stress-Displacement Relationships for

Small Tests, Round Knob Shale
00
79
that xg is attained at displacements between .1 cm to .15 cm. is
then taken as the slope of the line passing through this point and x^.
From the definition given in Figure 2.6, a slickenside represents
a zone of previous movement. Since a zone of previous movement exists
on the shear surface of the slickensided specimens, a fully developed
zone of failure is present. Since no irregularities exist on the shear
surface that could be removed with continuing displacement, the maximum
strength attained in these tests is the residual strength. As seen in
Figure 3.9 and Table 3.1, the value of increased with increasing
normal pressure also. The presence of the vertical partings appeared
to have no contribution on either the value of or the residual
strength.
For the intact specimens, x^ and xg were influenced by the presence
of partings and fissures on the shear surface. The value of shear
stress at large displacements shows a tendency to continue to decrease
with continued displacement. The value of xg shown on Figure 3.10 and
in Table 3.2 represents the resistance measured at the end of the test
(approximately 0.3 cm total displacement). This value of t was

s
fairly constant for samples sheared at the same normal pressure. This
is believed to be due to the fact that a continuous failure zone existed
across all the specimens at the end of the tests and that the config
uration of the shear surface at that displacement was about the same.
However, the values of t are well above the values of x obtained from
s r
the samples of known slickensides (Figure 3.9 and Table 3.1).
The peak shear strength (x ) varied widely for tests performed at
the same normal pressure. Figure 3.10 shows the results of two intact
80
2
specimens sheared at approximately 2.0 tsf (191.6 kN/m ). The x
P
value of one test is two-thirds the value of the other. The variation
in Tp for specimens sheared at the same normal pressure appears to be
the result of the variations in the density of partings and fissures
found on the sample shear surface after testing. Samples with lower x
P
appeared to have a closer spacing of fissures, a higher number of smooth
polished fissures, and more partings aligned with the shear zone.
The values of and are also dependent on the number of part
ings and fissures, because K. and K„ varied as the value of x varied.

1 z p
The value of depends on the value of x^ , because, for intact speci
mens sheared at the same normal pressure, the displacement required to
develop the peak shear strength was fairly constant (see Figure 3.10).
The value of was dependent on the shape of the stress-displacement
curve. Since the post-peak strength of all samples leveled off at dis
placements of .1 cm to .15 cm, the value of was most sensitive to the
value of x
P
The individual effects of fissures on the peak strength cannot be
accurately isolated since partings and smooth polished fissures exist
in the same specimens. However, due to the size of fissures, an indi
vidual fissure does not control the strength like a parting or slicken
side does.
Partings which lie outside the shear surface, such as vertical
partings, have no obvious effect on x^ . Partings, visible before
testing, have no effect on strength, unless the parting forms part of
the failure surface. Partings that form part of the shear surface tend
to reduce the peak shear strength of the specimen.

81
The results of the two tests performed on specimens aligned
parallel and perpendicular to a known slickenside are shownin
Figure 3.11. It was expected that a reduction of peak strength would
be observed in the specimen with the shear plane oriented parallel to
the slickenside. The results of the two tests show that orientation
does not have an effect on the stress-displacement curve. Observation
of the shear surface did not reveal the flat unpolished surfaces typical
of bedding planes. The incidence of fissures and partings, not sample
orientation, appeared to control the shape of the curve.
It is concluded that the number of fissures and partings observed
in the samples after testing are closely related to the strength. Since
the dimensions and spacings of these discontinuities are small, the
strength of the small samples includes their effect. Some of the
fissures and partings may be present in the interior of the sample but
were not visible before testing. Those samples that were observed to
have partings before testing have noticeably lower strength. These may
be samples with partings of larger dimensions which were visible before
testing.
There is no clear cut evidence that samples with partings visible
before testing are distinctly different from the other samples. Hence,
the two types are considered together. The range in strength of all
samples is considered to reflect the number and size of fissures and
partings.
3.4.4 Strength Characteristics
Results of the tests performed on the slickenside specimens and
the intact specimens are shown in Figure 3.12. It can be seen from
CTH= . 5 T S F (4 7 .9 k N / m 2)
SHEAR ZONE ALIGNED P A R A LLE L

TO SLICKENSIDE
SHEAR ZONE ALIGNED PERPENDICULAR
TO SLICKENSIDE
200 »
1.16
100 * 1 .0 4
.3 9 38
05
.0 4 .0 8
HO R IZO N TA L D IS P L A C E M E N T (IN .)
(C M )
Figure 3.11 Stress-Displacement Relationships for Small Tests, Round Knob Shale.
Specimens Aligned Parallel and Perpendicular to a Slickenside.
00
ro
A PEAK SHEAR S TR E N G TH ; BLOCK S A M P L E -IN T A C T ,
STATE ROUTE 6 8 2 , STATION 1 9 + 5 0 , A T H E N S .
4 0 0 ■■
4 .0 FULLY S O F T E N E D SH E A R S T R E N G T H , BLOCK
° S A M P L E -IN T A C T , STA TE ROUTE 6 8 2 , STATION
1 9 + 5 0 , A TH E N S .
n RESIDUAL SHEA R S T R E N G T H ,B L O C K SAMPLE -

S L IC K E N S ID E , U.S. 3 3 8 5 0 , STATION 3 1 + 5 0 ,ATHENS.
300 n PEAK SHEAR STR ENG TH , CORE S A M P L E -IN T A C T

3 .0 u 1 - 7 0 , M IL E 1 8 8 .9 .
. FULLY SOFTENED SHEAR STRENG TH, CORE SAMPLE

IN T A C T , 1 - 7 0 , M IL E 1 8 8 .9 .
0 P A R T IN G NOTED BEFORE T E S T IN G , PARTING

P ALIGNED W IT H SHEAR ZONE.
OP
•P
100 1.0
.4 7
1.0 2.0 3 .0 4 .0
NORMAL STRESS (TSF)
±
100 200(kN/rrr) 300 400
00
Fig. 3.12 Direct Shear Test Results for Small Tests, Round Knob Shale 10
84
Figure 3.12 that at all normal pressures the strength of slickensides
is 'considerably lower than the strength of intact material.
For the slickensides, the effective angle of internal friction
(<j>') is 14° with no observable effective cohesion (c1).
These strength characteristics are similar to the residual strength
characteristics described by Skempton (1964). Skempton states that the
loss of effective cohesion (c') is due in part to the orientation of
clay particles in the direction of shear. The polished and striated
surfaces described in 3.4.1.1 and shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 are
evidence of particle orientation.
For all intact samples, the peak shear strength criteria are
defined as (f)^ = 33° and c^ = 1.22 tsf (116.9 kN/m^). Samples with part
ings observed before testing and aligned along the shear surface had
peak strengths which were lower than those of specimens without ini
tially observable partings. This holds at normal stresses exceeding

2 2
1.0 tsf (95.8 kN/m ). Below a normal stress of 1.0 tsf (95.8 kN/m )
the effect of initially observable partings on the value of x^ was
insignificant.
All the intact specimens display a reduction in shear strength
with further displacement once x^ is attained. The strength of the
samples at the completion of testing was higher than the strength of
the slickensided specimens at the same normal pressure. The strength
values of all the intact specimens at this fully softened state are
r\
defined by <J>* = 23° and c' = .47 tsf (45.0 kN/m ). The fully softened
s s
strength of the intact specimens did not appear to be sensitive to the
presence or absence of initially observable partings.

85
3.5 Conclus ions
Frequency of smooth fissures and partings was higher in the shear
zone of specimens after testing than in the windows. These discontin
uities were observed after the sample had been sheared.
Observation of the shear zones of the various samples indicated
that the presence of fissures, partings, and slickensides had an effect
on the shape of the stress-displacement curves. As the number of smooth
fissures within the shear zone increased, there was a reduction in the
value of Tp and ^ • The incidence of partings and smooth fissures
had little effect on the value of t . The effect of individual fissures

s
on the stress-displacement relationship could not be isolated. It was
not possible to determine the influence which bedding planes have on the
stress-displacement relationship.
Fissures and partings were noted in the windows of the Duquesne,
Connellsville, and Morgantown shales. It is, therefore, felt that
fissures and partings affect the stress-displacement relationship of
these shales in a manner similar to the effect in the Round Knob shale.
Consequently, the shape of a general stress-displacement relationship
for sheared intact specimens of these other shales should be similar
to the strain-softening relationship exhibited by the red Round Knob
shale (see Figure 3.1a). The values of x , xg , K^ and ^ for these
other shales, however, are not necessarily identical to the x , x , K-

p s i.
and K 2 values obtained from tests on the red Round Knob shale.
CHAPTER IV
Tests on Large Samples
4.1 Purpose
Tests on small samples of Intact shale displayed a strain-
softening relationship. The stress-displacement relationship for
larger specimens was sought for comparison with those of the smaller
specimens. It was felt that the use of a larger specimen would afford
additional insight into the relation between the discontinuities and
the stress-displacement relationship.
4.2 Large Direct Shear Apparatus
Since no equipment capable of handling specimens larger than
2-3/8 inches by 2-3/8 inches (6.0 cm by 6.0 cm) was readily accessible,
it was necessary to construct a special direct shear loading system to
handle larger specimens. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Mellinger
and Kenty, 1971) successfully used an in-situ direct shear apparatus
capable of accommodating 12-inch by 12-inch (30.5 cm by 30.5 cm)
samples of shales along the Ohio River. The direct shear reaction frame
design used by Mellinger and Kenty was adapted for the laboratory
apparatus, built for the Ohio State University Rock Mechanics Labora
tory.
The Ohio State University large shear device was designed to
accommodate an 11.0-inch by 11.0-inch by 8-inch (27.9 cm by 27.9 cm by
20.3 cm) specimen. Normal pressure was applied to the sample by means
86
87
of a hydraulic jack and the normal force measured by a load cell
(Figure 4.1). The horizontal shearing force was applied by a hydraulic
ram which acts along the axis of the reaction frame through the shear
zone of the specimen. The stroke of this ram was controlled through
a servo system to produce a constant deformation rate on the specimen.
The servo control system protects the sample from a sudden release of
stored system energy when the peak shear strength of the material is
suddenly surpassed. The shear force was recorded by means of a load
cell mounted on the end of this ram. This apparatus is shown in
Figure 4.2.
4.3 Shale Sampling and Preparation
Large block samples of the Round Knob member were obtained from a
recently cut slope at station 31+50 along U.S. 33 and 50 in the Athens,
Ohio area. The large blocks were difficult to extract from the slope
by digging and chiseling without disturbing the shale along the dis
continuities. Mellinger and Kenty (1971) successfully cut and shaped
block samples of a fissile shale located along the Ohio River using a
chain saw. At the Athens site, use of the chain saw to extract the
specimen minimized disturbance of the discontinuities within the block.
Blocks were cut smaller than the shear box to allow grouting around the
sample in the shear box.
Samples were transported from the field to the laboratory in
doubly-wrapped plastic bags and were imediately coated in the laboratory
with urethane varnish to prevent changes in the moisture content and
provide a good bond surface for the grout. After the varnish dried,
the specimens were placed within the shear box. Randustrial F-183
88
HIGH PRESSURE
OIL GAUGE
H P P 'H IG H
FLUID
PRESSURE
ENER PACV ' GENERATOR
HYDRAULIC
JACK
HIGH PRESSURE
V E R T IC A L R E A C T IO N
YOKE - T E S T APPARATUS
LEBOW
LOAD BRIDGE
CELL LOAD CELL S IG N A L
NORM AL
FORCE T O
SHALE
SPEC IM EN
E LE C TR O N IC
BRIDGE
U N IT
VARIAN
S T R IP
CHART
RECORDER
Figure 4.1 Hydraulic System for Applying Normal Force to

Sample in Large Shear Apparatus
Figure 4.2 Direct Shear Apparatus. Maximum Sample Size,
11.0 in. x 11.0 in. (27.9 cm x 27.9 cm)
90
bolt anchor compound was used to fill the space between the sample
and box sides. As in the small tests, a .25-inch gap in the grout
was maintained along the opening between the upper and lower halves
of the shear box.
4.4 Testing Program
The initial stress of the sample was restored by initially sub
jecting the specimens to the overburden pressure which existed on the
shale before the slope was excavated. The normal force was applied
through the hydraulic jack, and the shear zone was inundated with
water. Before shearing, the normal force was reduced to a chosen
value lower than or equal to the overburden pressure.
The rate of deformation was established from the work of Gibson
and Henkel (1954) for triaxial specimens with only radial drainage
permitted. The rate is based on the sample size and the coefficient
of consolidation. A coefficient of consolidation of approximately

2
0.0007 cm per second was obtained by Green (1980) from consolidation
tests of Round Knob shale. It was estimated that a deformation rate
of 0.00036 inch per minute (0.000015 cm per second) would allow 90%
of the excess pore pressures developed during shearing to be dis
sipated.
A total of four large samples were tested. One sample was tested
at the deformation rate of 0.00036 inch per minute with the remaining
three sheared at 0.00018 inch per minute.
4.5 Results
4.5.1 Characteristics of Shear Surfaces. Observations of the
shear plane did not reveal an increase in the frequency of partings or

91
fissures over those observed in the small tests. The large specimens
contained more discontinuities than the small tests due to the larger
area of specimen. Some smooth polished fissures and loose material
were noted on all shear surfaces (Figure 4.3). The shear surfaces
were not planar but had undulations similar in proportion to those
of the small samples (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). Since the types of dis
continuities found on the shear surfaces of the large specimens were
similar to those of the small specimens, no detailed plan views of
the shear surface of large specimens after testing were sketched.
4.5.2 Stress-Displacement Curves. Strain-softening behavior
was displayed in three out of four of the shear tests. The fourth
test did not attain a peak shear strength. Examination of the shear
surface after testing this fourth sample did not reveal exceptionally
large numbers of smooth partings or fissures but disclosed a large
percentage of the shear zone as softened. This sample was extracted
from the field from a position below a known slickenside. However, it
was not possible to detect any relation between this softening and the
slickenside. Because the nature of fissures and partings on the shear
surface of this specimen was similar to that of the other samples, the
results from this specimen were not discarded.
The tabulated values of K,, K_, T , and T from the three

1 2 p s
samples with strain softening behavior are listed in Table 4.1. The
stress-displacement curves are displayed on Figure 4.6. When compared
with the values obtained from the small shear box tests (Table 3.2),
values of from the large tests are approximately 60% of those
obtained in the small tests. As in the small tests, appeared

Figure 4.3 Shear Surface of a Specimen of Round Knob Shale
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. ROUTE 33 8 50
STATION 31 + 50
.4 8 9 TSF (4 6 .8 5 kn /m 2)
SEC TION I - I
SMOOTH AND
POLISHED
SMOOTH AND
P O LIS H ED
S H IN Y LOOSE
SMOOTH AND
POLISHED
SECTION 2 - 2
o:
< SCALE
kJ
SMOOTH AND I (IN .)
P O L IS H E D W
U.
O
2
O
f-
o
SECTION 3 -3 Ul
c
Q
Fig. 4.4 Shear Surface, Round Knob Shale

PLAN
ROUND KNOB SHALE
U.S. ROU TE 33 8 50
ST ATION 31 + 50
On = 2.0 TSF (191.6 k n / m 2 )
nUi
-j
<
o 2
ui
-j
]
c <
(O o
(O
SECTION I - I
K SCALE
(IN .)
IU
x
OT
U.
O
z
o
I-
o
til
e
Q J0
PLAN
Fig. 4.5 Shear Surface, Round Knob Shale
Table 4.1
Stress-Displacement Relationships for Large Intact Specimens
an t
p
A
p
t
s
A
s
K,
1
K.
2
Water
„ _
o o o 1 1 3 3 Content
tsf (kN/m ) tsf (kN/m ) Inch (cm) tsf (kN/m ) Inch (cm) t/ft (kN/m ) t/ft (kN/m ) % Location
.5 (47.9) 1.34 (128.4) .028 (.071) .39 (37.4) .060 (.152) 574.2 (180500.) 348.1 (112600.) 9 U.S. 33 and 50,
Station 31+50
2.0 (191.6) 3.40 (325.7) .070 (.177) 1.05 (100.6) .214 (.545) 584.0 (183600.) 194.5 (61100.) 11
M
It
3.5 (335.3) 3.72 (356.4) .098 (.249) 1.35 (129.3) .210 (.534) 455.7 (143200.) 253.9 (79800.) 13
VO
Ln
400
trN= .3 T S F (4 7 .9 JfN /m 2)
<TN « 2 . 0 T S F (191.6 J tN /m 2)
3.72
{T n s 3 . 5 T S F (3 3 5 .3 fr N /m 2)
3 .4 0
CTn = 3 .5 T S F (333-3 k N /m ^ )
300
200
2 jOI
ro 1.34 1.33
100 1.03
38

.A--
.3 1.0 (CM) 1.5
VO
Figure 4.6 Stress Displacement Relationships for Large Tests, Round Knob Shale O'
97
sensitive to the number of discontinuities found on the shear
surface. The difference in between large and small tests is
attributed to the increased displacement required to achieve in
the large tests. The values of are also lower in the large
tests, and this is also attributed to higher values in the large
tests.
4.5.3 Strength Characteristics. The peak shear strength of the
large samples is slightly higher than the average of the small
specimens (Figure 4.7) but, except for one test, falls within the
range of peak shear strength values of the small tests.
The fully softened shear strengths for the large tests are lower
than those of the small tests. This can be attributed to the larger
displacements induced in the large tests. Thus the T values are closer
s
to the values of the small slickensided specimens than the Tg of
the small tests. In general, the fully softened parameters for the
r%
large test were (j)^ = 18.5° and c^ = .19 tsf (18.20 kN/m ) compared
with the values of (J)1 = 23° with c^ = .47 tsf (45.03 kN/m^ and
d)* = 14° with c' = 0.0 for small tests,

r r
4.6 Conclusions
The shape of the stress-displacement relationship from the large
tests was similar to those from the small tests on intact specimens.
The strengths of the large specimens were within the range of
strengths for the small tests. As noted on the shear surface of small
specimens, softened zones were present on the shear surfaces of large
specimens. The values of and were affected by sample size,

Q PEAK SHEAR S TR ENG TH ;B LO C K SAMPLE * IN T A C T ,
U.S. 3 3 8 5 0 , STA TIO N 3 1 * 5 0 , ATHENS
& FULLY SOFTENED SHEAR S TR E N G TH ; BLOCK

S A M P L E -IN T A C T , U.S. 3 3 8 5 0 , STATION 3 1 * 5 0 ,
ATHENS
4 .0
PEA K SHEAR STR E N G TH PAR AM ETERS
- S M A LL SHEAR T E S T S
30C -
3.0
(A
Z
tn
>
x
FULLY SOFTENED SHEAR S TR E N G TH PARAMETERS

- SM ALL SHEAR TESTS
FULLY SOFTENED SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

- LARGE SHEAR TESTS
RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

IOC - |.o
-S M A L L SHEAR T E S T S
1.0 2.0 3 .0 4 .0
N O R M A L STR ESS (T S F )
i ■____________ :
____ I------- ,
----- K—
100 2 0 0 Q f N / m 2) 3 0 0 400
Figure 4.7 Direct Shear Test Results for Large Tests, Round Knob Shale oo
99
primarily because larger displacements were required to attain these
strengths in the large tests.

CHAPTER V
Stress-Displacement Model
5.1 Purpose
It is desired to use the strain-softening stress-displacement
relationship in the study of the stability of cut slopes. Skempton and
Hutchinson (1969) report the successful use of residual strength
parameters to model the strength of slip surfaces within known land
slides. These parameters reflect the strength along a continuous
fully-developed shear zone similar to the slickensides with a stress-
displacement relationship shown in Figure 3.1b. However, in cut slopes
which have not failed, the material cannot be successfully modeled with
the residual strength parameters.
Intact material in cut slopes is believed to exhibit the stress-
displacement relationship shown in Figure 3.1a. To apply this strain-
softening stress-displacement relationship to the study of cut slope,
it is necessary to develop a mathematical description for this
relationship.
5.2 Available Models
Stress analysis of strain-softening materials has been investi
gated. In a study of the progressive failure of a single layer bonded
to a rigid base, Christian and Whitman (1969) developed a one
dimensional model for evaluating the bond strength exhibited during
removal of the lateral confinement of the single layer. Initiation
100
101
and propagation of a plastic slip surface in the bond depended upon the
magnitude of lateral unloading, the elastic properties of the layer
material, and the strength properties of the bond material. Palmer and
Rice (1973) studied the reduction of strength from peak to residual
levels within a small shear band by use of the J-integral. The
J-integral was used to calculate the energy available for growth of the
shear band. This energy was compared with the shear resistance of the
shear band at the band tip to determine the magnitude of shear band
propagation. Prdvost and Hoeg (1975a, 1975b) developed a plasticity
model which included softening. The model used a critical state
boundary surface (Schofield and Wroth, 1968) along with the normality
rule of plasticity to compute volumetric strains. In addition to the
volumetric yield surface, a second yield surface was introduced.
Irrecoverable shear strains, which occur from the beginning of the
deformation process, were calculated using this second yield surface
along with the normality rule. This additional yield surface was
permitted to increase in size, for the case of strain-hardening, or
decrease for the case of strain-softening.
5.3 Model Characteristics
5.3.1 General. The Christian-Whitman model was chosen for the
present investigation because the relationships were simple. It was
felt that if the stress-displacement relationship of a point on a slip
surface could be defined, then the behavior of an entire slip surface
could be evaluated. Before applying this relationship to cut slopes,
the strain-softening relationship was applied to direct shear tests.

It is assumed that each point of the slip surface possesses the
strain-softening relationship shown in Figure 5.1. The slip surface is
assumed to be a plane as shown in Figure 5.2 with deformation confined
to the small shear zone located between the upper and lower halves of
the shear box. The shear zone is located at a constant distance h
from the top of the sample. In response to a stress (aQ ) applied to the
vertical surfaces of the sample, a displacement (u) is initiated at
various locations (x) along the shear surface. At the vertical surface
of the sample, x is zero (see Figure 5.2). Symmetry is maintained about
the centerline of the sample. For a sample of length ~Z , the centerline
corresponds to x = -%/2. The shear stress (x) at a point (x) along the
shear surface is a function of displacement as shown in Figure 5.1 and
given by the equation
(5.1)
5.3.2 Elastic Relationship. As seen in Figure 5.1, before the
peak shear strength has been attained, shear stress x is related to
displacement u by the linear elastic relationship
(5.2)
By substituting the relationship for x , given in Equation 5.2, into
Equation 5.1, the relationship of u to position x is obtained and
given by the equation

103
CO
CO
hi
a.
i-
co
cc
<
UJ
X
CO
HORIZONTAL DISPLA C EM EN T (u)
Fig. 5.1 Strain-Softening Stress-Displacement Relationship

104
Fig. 5.2 Model Geometry for Direct

Shear Test Specimen
105
The general solution of u from this differential equation is
IS is
u = c± e Eh + c2e- Eh (5.3b)
where and c2 are arbitrary constants.
Boundary Conditions. At the vertical surfaces of the sample, x equals
zero, and the relationship for strain is
j 0
du ° /c /\
S ■T (
5-4
)
Equation 5.4 is substituted into the first derivative of Equation 5.3b
to evaluate constant c^ in terms of c ^ a n d this yields
cl ' c2 + <’oJwi <5 ‘ 5 >
Also, to maintain symmetry about the centerline of the sample and
satisfy equilibrium, o q applied over h of the sample must be resisted
by the t developed over half the shear surface length (5-/2) (see
Figure 5.3), or
ah ?
° / xdx (5.6)
- 1/2
By substituting Equation 5.2, 5.3b and 5.5 into Equation 5.6, and
integrating Equation 5.6, the constant c 2 is obtained:
ao J m ^ (l/2 - e ^ E h 4/2)
c2 = = ---- (5.7)
* /2 -e
l 5 Z/2)
106
"fy2 0
Fig. 5.3 Distribution of Shear Stress in Elastic Region

for Direct Shear Test Specimen
107
By combining Equations 5.3b, 5.5 and 5.7, u in the linear elastic range
is given by the equation
x
u a
(
o
(5.8)
When x has attained the peak shear strength at x = 0
u at x=0 is
C
(5.9)
The applied stress required to attain at the vertical surface is
obtained from Equation 5.8 and 5.9 and given by the equation
5.3.3 Strain-Softening Relationship. In the strain-softening
portion of the relationship, x is related to u by
(5.11)
The particular solution for u is obtained by combining Equations
5.1 and 5.11

108
S( / 5 X) ++ CA
u = c3 cos [ J ^ X J
c4 sin
sin(1 5 x) + k^ + ^k^
[J^ x I (5#12)
where and are arbitrary constants.
Boundary Conditions. By equating the relationship for strain, given in
Equation 5.4, with the first derivative of Equation 5.12, the constant
c, is obtained
4
m fo fish
c4 = lEf j —K„ (5-13)
If t has reached C^ at a location xq (see Figure 5.4b), then
x at -Z/2 < x < xq is governed by the elastic relationships given in
Equations 5.2, 5.8, and 5.10. For xq < x < 0 , t is governed by strain
c
softening relationships. Knowing that at u equals x equal x ,
X ^
a general solution for c^ can be determined in terms of xq from
Equations 5.12 with Equation 5.13
c3 ■ - -
T M -ta1n^5 x)
Jk^ Eh xo/ - K j s
ecV
Juih*oj (5.14a)
If x has passed C at all locations along the shear surface
(see Figure 5.4a), then x at any x is governed by the strain-
softening relationships in Equations 5.11 and 5.12. Constant c^ is
then determined by combining these equations with Equation 5.6
/
Eh
C3 =^cos\ i f A/ 2) - JsS- - v- - — r (5.14b)
K 0 sin
By equating the total applied force with the sum of x in the elastic
and strain-softening portions of the shear surface (Eqn. 5.6), a rela
tionship for total force in terms of xQ is developed.

OJ 109
I
I
II II
X II
X X
y.y.y,
a) Entire length in post-peak region
b) Portion of length in post-peak region
Fig. 5.4 Distribution of Shear Stress in Strain-Softening

Region for Direct Shear Test Specimen
The value of xq can be obtained from Equation 5.15 through successive
approximation. The constant c^ is then obtained from Equation 5.14b
with this value of xq . Displacement u is obtained from Equation 5.12
using the appropriate values of c^ and c^ .
When t has attained the residual shear stress level C , dis-

r
placement is given by
C C _C
U = + '£ K™r (5.16)
Since x equals at x equalling zero, Equation 5.16 can be used
with either Equation 5.14a or 5.14b to obtain the value of the applied
stress o0r required to attain at the vertical surfaces of the sample.
5.3.4 Material Properties. Values of and which are listed
in Table 3.2 for the small direct shear tests and in Table 4.1 for the
large tests are shown in Figure 5.5 in relation to sample size. Values
of and obtained from the tests will, hereafter, be referred to
as K™ and K™ to signify a measured quantity.
As seen in Figure 5.5 there was some variation in the value of
as sample length varied. This variation was studied by comparing
stress-displacement curves for large and small shear surface lengths,

.1 .9 8 111
250 800
.1 .0 3
•o .3 .0 2
t
200 > S
t:600|»
«o £ (M
o
150 >
IO
400 »
.2 .0 3 0 .5
^ 100 0.5 : P
3.5
2.0
200 *
50 2 .5 . P
1 .6 5 *P
0.5
203
P DENOTES PARTING
350 ALIGNED AL0NQ SHEAR
SURFACE BEFORE
1.96
1000 TES TIN G
30 0 :*• NORMAL STRESS (T S F)
30?. NOTED BESIDE PARAMETER
.2 .5 VALUE
P
250 » 800
10
l-
u.
103 0.5
2 0 «
I.65,p
600 • 2.0
0i3. •
E_
IO 2C
* 10
ISO .3 . 5
400
(JfN/fn
100
200 -
50
4 8
SHEAR SURFACE LENGTH (IN I
Figure 5.5 Stiffness Parameters from Shale Tests

112
and these curves were calculated using the material model described in
Sections 5.3.2 and 5.3.3. Identical material parameters were used for
both shear surface lengths, and these parameters were derived from
2
tests conducted at a normal pressure of 2.0 tsf (191.6 kN/m ). As noted
in the summary of small tests, the xg of intact specimens was not as low
as the x^ of slickensided specimens. Since the residual stress is
supposed to represent the strength along a failure surface, it was felt
that x was more representative of resistance on the failure plane than
x . Therefore, the C value used in this exercise was the x from the
s r r
slickenside tests. As seen in Figure 5.6, the computed value of K^ was
lower when the shear surface length was increased. This also shows
that, for the same set of material parameters, the A^ from large tests
should be greater than the A^ for small tests. The plots of stress-
displacement relationships for small tests, shown in Figure 3.10, and
for large tests, shown in Figure 4.6, verify that A^ is greater for
large samples.
It was desired to establish the material model parameters (K^, I^,
C , C ) necessary to generate stress-displacement relationships

P r
comparable to the laboratory test results for small and large Round
Knob specimens. A representative range of E for Round Knob shale
was obtained from the results of K -consolidated triaxial tests

o
(Kulatilake, 1981). The results indicated that E ranged between 750.0
tsf (71850. kN/m2) and 1500.0 tsf (143,700. kN/m2).
Laboratory test values of K^ , K™ , x , and xr could not be used
directly in the model in place of parameters K^, C^, and Cr »
because the curves did not match well with laboratory curves. E values
113
of 1000.0 tsf (95800. kN/m2) and 2000.0 tsf (191,600 kN/m2) were used
with the model to calculate curves for both large and small samples.
As seen in Figure 5.7a, a value of 1143.0 t/ft3 (359,250. kN/m3),
a K„ of 792.5 t/ft3 (249,100 kN/m3), and a C of 3.2 tsf (306.6 kN/m3)

2 p
were required to produce a curve which reasonably fits the laboratory
curve for a small test. These model parameters were somewhat higher
in value than the corresponding values obtained from the test curve.
2
For the large sample to fit the x^ of 3.4 tsSf (383.2 kN/m ) at the
2
normal stress equalling 2.0 tsf (191.6 kN/m ), a of 4.6 tsf (440.7
2
kN/m ) was needed in the model (see Figure 5.7b). This value of was
greater than the value of required to fit the curves of small samples.
However, this was due to the abnormally high x^ value obtained in this
particular large sample. For comparison, one should use the average
value of Xp for the range of strengths in the large test at a normal

2
stress of 2.0 tsf (191.6 kN/m ). This is approximately 2.8 tsf (268.2
2
kN/m ), as seen in Figure 4.7. As seen in Figure 5.6, the of
3.2 tsf (574.8 kN/m2) fits the x^ of 2.8 tsf (268.2 kN/m2 )using a
of 1143.0 t/ft3 (359,250. kN/m3) and a K 2 of 792.5 t/ft3 (249,100.
kN/m3) .
The results of these comparisons reveal that the small tests pro
vide a better estimation of parameters than the large test. The K™,
K ? , and x are closer in value to the K- , K„ and C for small tests

2 p 1 2 p
than those derived from large tests. This is because the model is
developed to represent the strain-softening behavior at a point, and
the small shear test specimen simulates point behavior better than the
large test.
M O DEL PARAMETERS MODEL PARAMETERS
-L A R G E SPEC IM EN -S M A L L SPECIMEN
I = 7 .9 IN .(20.1 CM) ft a 2 .0 IN . ( 5 .1CM)
h = 3 .0 IN . ( 7 .6 CM) h = 0 .5 IN. (I.3 C M )
Cp » 3 .2 T S F (3 0 6 .6 k N /m 2) Cp = 3 .2 T S F (3 0 6 .6 k N /m 2)
Cr = 1.3 T S F (J 2 4 .5 k N /m 2) Cp = 1.3 T S F (124.5 k N /ir f2)
K, = 1143. T / F T 3 (3 5 9 3 0 0 .k N /w2) K, = 1143. T /F T 3 (3 5 9 3 0 0 .k N /m 2)
Kg = 7 9 3 . T / F T 3 (2 4 9 f0 0.k N /m 2) Kg = 7 9 3 . T /F T 3(2 4 9 I0 0 . kN/w?)
E = 2 0 0 0 . TSF (191600. k N /m 2 )
E= 100 0 . T S F (9 5 8 0 0 . k N / m 2)
400fl»
4 *
300 >
CO SMALL,
I? / ^
CO / A' —
X'
C
O
%v ■\ x
200 Ul
oc.
I- ' ■ / /^ L A R G E Y\ •
<0
r
K '//•
< \'
Ul
lOOfr » I. •
/
■J
.0 4 .08 .12
(CM) .2 .3
Figure 5.6 Comparison of Strain-Softening Relationships Computed

from Model for Small and Large Shear Tests
LAB O R ATO RY TES T 115
M O D E L, E = 2 0 0 0 . T S F (1 9 1 6 0 0 .k N /m 2 )
400s- M O D E L, E = 1 0 0 0 . T S F (S S S O O .frN /m ^
MODEL PAR AM ETERS-SM A LL T E S T

Cp = 3 .2 TSF (3 0 6 .6 k N/ro2 )
Cp= I.3 T S F (124.5 k N / h P )
300
K, = H 4 3 .T /F T 3 (3 5 9 3 0 0 . k N /m 3 )
cT*
K2= T 9 3 .T /F T 3 (2 4 9 1 0 0 . k N /m 3)
S?
w
200 •
100
.0 4 .0 6
H O R IZO N TA L D ISPLACEM ENT (IN .)
■* — — — — ------
.1 (CM) .2 .3
a. Small shear test, £ = 2 . 0 in. (5.0 cm), h = .5 in. (1.3 cm)
400
300
«\P
200
MODEL PAR AM ETERS-LA RG E T E S T

100 » = 4 . 0 T S F ( 3 8 3 . 2 k N /m ? )F O R E=2000.TSF
Cp = 4 .6 T S F ( 4 4 0 . 7 k N /m T )F O R E = I0C0.TSF
Cr = I . 3 TSF ( 1 2 4 . 5 k N / n r )
K, = 1143. T /F T ® ( 3 5 9 3 0 0 . k N / n p
793. T / F T (2 4 9 1 0 0 . k N /m 3)
.0 4 .0 8
H O R IZ O N TA L D IS P L A C E M E N T (IN.)
I i,r,^ _/» ... ft
.1 (CM) .2 .3
b. Large shear test, £ = 7 . 9 in. (20.0 cm), h = 3 . 0 in. (7.5 cm)
Figure 5.7 Comparison of Strain-Softening Relationships

Derived from Lab Tests and Model
116
5.3.5 Infinite Slope. The stress-displacement relationships can
be applied to a slip surface of infinite length, such as that found
in a cut slope (see Figure 5.8). The stress relief (a ) of excavation

o
occurs over a layer of material with height (h) and modulus (E). The
shear stress x at any point x along the bond surface is again given
by Equation 5.1.
Boundary Conditions for Elastic Relationship. The displacement (u)
approaches zero as the distance from the vertical surface increases.
For this condition to be valid in Equation 5.3b, the constant must
equal zero. Knowing this, Equation 5.4 is then used to evaluate
constant c^ . This yields the relationship for u for the elastic
region
u = T
°o JfhE
f- e
JEh X (5.17)
When x has attained the value at. x=0 , u is given by Equation 5.9.
By substituting Equation 5.9 into Equation 5.17, the value of a0p is
given by
a = C J K^h
K xh (5.18)
op P N 1
Boundary Conditions for Strain-Softening Region. For the strain-
softening region, x and u are again given by Equations 5.11 and 5.12.
By applying the boundary condition given in Equation 5.4 to the rela
tionship for u given in Equation 5.12, c^ is again given as in Equa
tion 5.13. The relationship for u in terms of the constant c^ is

117
U
X
Fig. 5.8 Model Geometry for Infinite Slope

then given by
u = cos (5.19)
If t has reached C at a location x along the slip surface

P o
(see Figure 5.9), the constant c^ is obtained in terms of xq by com
bining Equations 5.9 and 5.19 for x = xq
a
o
c (5.20)
3 E
The total force applied to the infinite layer is the product of
oq and h . The resisting force contributed by the cross-hatched
portion of the x-x relationship in Figure 5.9 is obtained by substitut
ing Equation 5.18 into Equation 5.17, and integrating Equation 5.17 for
x, < x < x . The force contributed by the strain-softening region

1 o
(the shaded portion in Figure 5.9) is thus equal to the lefthand
quantity in the following relationship:
x
o
xdx o h (5.21)
o
o o
By substituting the relationship for x , Equation 5.11, into Equa
tion 5.21, and integrating Equation 5.21, the force contributed by the
strain-softening region can be obtained in terms of xq :

119
Fig. 5.9 Distribution of Shear Stress along Bond

Surface, Residual Strength Not Attained
120
Through successive approximation, xq is obtained from Equation 5.22.
The constant is then evaluated from Equation 5.19. Displacement in the
strain-softening region is expressed as
When t has attained Cr , displacement is given by Equation 5.16.
The value of aQr is obtained by combining Equations 5.16 and 5.23 for
the condition in which x = C at x = x . In this case the value of

r o
xq represents the distance along the slip surface over which the strain-
softening portion governs the stress-displacement relationship.
Boundary Conditions for Residual Stress. After the stress has decreased
to the residual strength, x remains constant with additional displace
ment. Therefore
x = Cr (5.24)
for any u . Combining the relationships for x from Equations 5.1 and
5.24, a particular solution to Equation 5.1 is found to be
C x2
U = ~kh + C5X + C 6 (5*25)
where c,. and c^ are arbitrary constants.
The relationship for strain at the vertical surface of the slope,
which is given by Equation 5.4, is used in Equation 5.25 to evaluate

121
the constant c^ , yielding
a
c6 = T <5 *26>
From Figure 5.10, it is seen that the value of x i s proportional to the
difference between a and a

o o
r
Coo - °o)h
*r ^ ----- (5.27)
r
The constant c,. is obtained by combining Equations 5.25, 5.26, and 5.27
yielding the relationship for displacement in the residual stress plateau
C x2 C C C a C (0o a
_ £ + _E _ J L _ r r x + ( 5 . 2 8 )
u ' i k r + ' Kx K2 K2 E . (a -a )h 2E \ E
o o 1
r
Details of a mathematical derivation are presented in Appendix A.
5.3.6 Computer Program. The mathematical model has been programmed
onto the Amdahl 470 computing system. The computer program enables the
stress distribution along a potential slip surface to be obtained when
the geometry of an excavation is known. It was necessary to develop
the computer program since the solution of the post-peak stress-
displacement relationship requires the use of iterative methods to obtain
the value of xq . This program incorporates the Newton method of approx
imation when solving for xq . An initial value of xq (XINIT) must be
supplied as a data input parameter to initiate the iterative solution
routine.
122
Fig. 5.10 Distribution of Shear Stress along Bond

Surface, Residual Strength Attained
123
Cut slope geometry and material properties are required for
modeling. The material parameters required are the modulus (E), peak
shear strength (Cp )> residual shear strength (Cr) , and slope of the
stress-displacement relationship in the elastic region (K^) and strain-
softening portion (K^)• The required cut slope parameters are slope
height (h) and average horizontal stress relief (o q ).
5.4 Application of Theory m d Test Results to Slope Stability
The test results may be used with the infinite slope model to in
vestigate the stability of cut slopes. It is desired to estimate the
progression of a failure surface and the value of average shear stress
along a potential slip surface.
The geometry of the cut slope is described by the slope height (h)
shown in Figure 5.11a. The average stress relief (o q ) is a function of
h and the coefficient of at-rest earth pressure (Kq ) • In an actual cut
slope, depicted by Figure 5.11b, the horizontal stress relief is related
to the overburden pressure (^v ) by K q . From the geometry shown in
Figures 5.11 a and b, the stress relief (o q ) is related to the over
burden pressure at the toe of the slope (a ) by the expression
K a
o v
a = — (5.29)
o 2.
with a given by a = yh (5.30)

vt Vt
3
and are obtained from Figure 5.7 as = 1143.0 t/ft
(359,250. kN/m3) and K 2 = 792.5 t/ft3 (249,100. kN/m3). The xp and xr
are functions of normal pressure. Shear strength parameters used in the

2 o
example are d)* = 33°with c* = 1.47 tsf (140.8 kN/m ) and <j>'= 14 with
P P r
124
Fig. 5.11 Model Geometry for Cut Slope

125
c’ = 0 .
r
The value of K q in shale varies greatly. Green (1980) studied
several Pennsylvanian shales in Southeastern Ohio. He found that K was

o
related to overconsolidation ratio and varied from 0.5 in the Duquesne
shale to 1.2 in the Round Knob shale. In a study of the horizontal
unloading of valley walls in slopes containing Bearpaw shale, Peterson
(1958) found that a K q in excess of 1.0 existed in Bearpaw shale forma
tions. Since the value of K varies with shale formations, several K

o o
values were used to study the same example. The value of modulus (E)
2
was varied in this study from 750.0 tsf (71850. kN/m ) to 1500.0 tsf
2
(143,700. kN/m ) as this was the range of E presented by Kulatilake
(1981) for K Q-consolidated tests. Table 5.1 lists the input parameters.
The effect of stress relief (o q) on the progression of the slip
surface, in cut slopes of various height (h), was studied. The slip
surface is defined as the portion of the failure surface over which the
post peak strength holds. The slope height controls the normal stress
on the failure plane, thus establishing and C^. . Figure 5.12 shows
the slip surface length computed by equation 5.22, for oq equal to a0r ,
and equation 5.27 for different values of Kq , h, and E. As seen in
Figure 5.12, the length of the slip surface increases for a given h as
K increases. As K . for the material increases, a increases. Also,

o o o
as shown in Figure 5.12, an increase in E results in a decrease in
slip surface length. The length of the slip surface is also related to
the average shear stress along the slip surface. This average shear
stress is the resistance mobilized in the residual strength and strain-
softening portions of the failure surface divided by the slip surface

Table 5.1
Parameters for Study of Cut Slope Geometry Using Strain-Softening Model

and Geometry of Figure 5.11
Average ov K K T T
h on Slip Surface p i 2 p r
K
ft. (m) tsf (kN/m2 ) 0 tsf (kN/m2) t/ft 3 (kN/m3) t/ft3 (kN/m3) tsf (kN/m2) tsf (kN/m2
16.4 (5.0) .5 (47.9) .5 .25 (24.0) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 1.8 (172.4) .13 (12.5)
16.4 (5.0) .5 (47.9) .7 .35 (33.5) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 1.8 (172.4) ^ .13 (12.5)
16.4 (5.0) .5 (47.9) 1.0 .5 (47.9) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 1.8 (172.4) .13 (12.5)
16.4 (5.0) .5 (47.9) 1.3 .65 (62.3) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 1.8 (172.4) .13 (12.5)
41.0 (12.5) 1.25 (119.8) .5 .67 (64.2) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.3 (220.3) .31 (29.7)
41.0 (12.5) 1.25 (119.8) .7 .93 (89.1) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.3 (220.3) .31 (29.7)
41.0 (12.5) 1.25 (119.8) 1.0 1.33 (127.4) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.3 (220.3) .31 (29.7)
41.0 (12.5) 1.25 (119.8) 1.3 1.73 (165.7) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.3 (220.3) .31 (29.7)
65.6 (20.0) 2.0 (191.6) .3 .6 (57.5) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.8 (268.2) .5 (47.9)
65.6 (20.0) 2.0 (191.6) .5 1.0 (95.8) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.8 (268.2) .5 (47.9)
65.6 (20.0) 2.0 (191.6) .7 1.4 (134.1) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.8 (268.2) .5 (47.9)
65.6 (20.0) 2.0 (191.6) 1.0 2.0 (191.6) 1143. (359300.) 793. (249100.) 2.8 (268.2) .5 (47.9)
126
127
1.6
1500. TSF (143700. k N /m )

1000. TSF (9 5 0 0 0 . k N /0 ^ )
7 5 0 . TSF ( 7 l 9 0 0 . k N / n ? )
50 100 (50 200 250 300 350

L E N G T H OF S L IP S U R FA
FACE (F T .)
• « ■ ■ « « • ■ * «
20 40 60 Un) 80 (0 0 (20
Figure 5.12 Effect of Slope Height, E , and

KQ on Length of Slip Surface
128
length. Figure 5.13 shows the relation between the average shear stress
and the slip surface length for different values of h . As seen in
Figure 5.13, the average shear stress approaches the residual strength
as the slip surface length increases.
An idealized slope representing the excavation along U.S. 33 and 50
in Athens, Ohio, at station 31+50 (Figure 2.4) was also studied. In
this section the Round Knob shale located at the base of the cut
possesses a much greater tendency to expand upon unloading than do the
overlying shale members. The general geometry of the slope cross sec
tion is shown in Figure 5.14. Total height of the slope (H) is 17.0 m.
To study the effect of K q and shale member height (h) on the length of
the slip surface, the ratio of'h/H and the value of K q were varied for
the given slope height of 17.0 m. The slope face was excavated at a
2:1 slope, so and Cr> for the slip surface, were calculated using
the overburden pressure obtained from equation 5.29. Figure 5.15 shows
slip surface length as a function of h/H for different values of K q .
As seen in Figure 5.15, the slip surface length increases as the ratio
of shale member height (h) to slope height (H) increases.
The factor of safety of the Athens slope was also investigated for
various combinations of h/H and K q . The factor of safety was calcu
lated using the Morgenstern-Price (1965) stability analysis. Figure
5.16 shows the factor of safety as a function of h/H for different
values of K . In general, the factor of safety for the slope decreases

o
with increasing h/H and increasing K q .
129
E = 1 0 0 0 . T S F C 9 5 8 0 0 . k N / m 2)
m
m
60- «
<\i .6 ■
ui
20 £.2 »
Vp (h = 5.0 m)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

LENGTH OF SLIP SURFACE (FT.)
• » « • * .* i " * * * *
20 40 60 (m) 80 100 120
Figure 5.13 Effect of Slope Height on Average Shear

Stress and Length of Slip Surface
OVERBURDEN
M A TER IA L
i> p = 3 3 ° H E IG H T ( h ) OF
SHALE MEMBER
C ' - 1 .4 6 T S F SHA LE MEMBER
VARIES
P LA S TIC S L IP SURFACE POST-
THICKNESS OF SLIP
& .= 14° PEAK
PLANE = . l m
ZONE
X. VA R IE S o
1 .77 TS F
Fig. 5.14 Idealized Cross Section for Stability Analysis of Cut Slope
130
at Station 31+50, U.S. 33 and 50, Athens, Ohio
131
H = 5 6 . FT. (17. m).

E « I0 0 0 .T S F (9 5 8 0 0 . k N / r n )
f p = 3 3 ° , Cp = I.4 7 T S F (I4 0 .6 k N /m 2)
k = l4 ° ,C i= O .O T S F
l.Or
SLOPE
HEIGHT (H)
50 100 200
LENGTH OF S L IP SURFACE (F T .)
■ 1
10 20 30 ( n>) 40 50 60
Figure 5.15 Effect of Strain-Softening Member Thickness in

a Cut Slope on Length of Slip Surface
i
132
H = 5 6 . FT. (17m)
E * IOOO. TSF ( 9 5 8 0 0 . k N / m )
■9*
OF S A F E T Y
t
FACTOR
SLOPE
HEIGHT (H)
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Jh
H
Figure 5.16 Effect of Strain-Softening Member Thickness

on Factor of Safety, Athens Cut Slope
133
5.5 Conclusions
The strain-softening model can be used to evaluate slip surface
progression caused by slope excavation. The length of the elastic,
strain-softening, and residual strength portions along the slip surface
can be estimated. The model may be used to estimate the total length
of the slip surface which is developed when a horizontal stress is
relieved by excavation.
CHAPTER VI
Conclusions
The mapping of geologic discontinuities in shale and the use of
the one-dimensional strain-softening material model provide a valuable
and rational step toward understanding progressive failure of slopes.
Furthermore, this approach lends itself to the modeling of other
materials with material parameters obtained from direct shear test
results.
Field mapping of geologic discontinuities found in the Morgantown,
Duquesne, Connellsville, and Round Knob shales in Southeastern Ohio
revealed that all members possessed partings. The red shales also
possessed slickensides. Of the shale members surveyed, the Round Knob
shale contained the greatest quantity of partings and slickensides with
some slickensides extending over 4.0 feet (1.3 m ) . Because of the
large quantity of discontinuities, the Round Knob shale was selected
for the direct shear tests to study the effects of the discontinuities
on the stress-displacement relationship of shales.
Results of direct shear tests on small (2.0 inches by 2.0 inches,
5.0 cm by 5.0 cm) and large (8.0 inches by 8.0 inches, 20.3 cm by 20.3
cm) intact samples of Round Knob shale revealed a strain-softening
134
135
stress-displacement relationship shown in Figure 3.1a. This rela
tionship was defined by a stiffness in the elastic portion and a
stiffness in the strain-softening portion.
The peak shear strength and fully softened shear strength for the
small tests were within the range of test values obtained from the large
tests. Variations in x^ were associated with variations in the quantity
and spacing of fissures and partings. The values of xg appeared less
sensitive to the presence of fissures and partings. Fissures were not
noted in the field mapping but were noted on the shear surface of all
test specimens. An increase in the quantity of partings and fissures
oriented parallel with the shear surface resulted in a decrease in the
values of and for both small and large tests. Although was
lower for the large tests than for the small tests, no difference in
partings or fissures was noted between large and small tests. This
effect of sample size on and was studied by means of the strain-
softening model. The results of the testing program indicated that
partings and fissures were fully accounted for in the small specimens.
Shear tests on slickensided specimens of Round Knob shale resulted
in maximum shear strengths below the fully softened strengths obtained
for tests of intact specimens. Examination of the slickensided specimens
after testing revealed smoother shear surfaces than those of sheared
intact specimens.
Following the developments of Christian and Whitman (1969), a one
dimensional mathematical model, described in Chapter 5, was developed
which modeled the stress-displacement relationship mobilized along the
shear surface of a direct shear test specimen. The one-dimensional

136
model incorporated the strain-softening relationships by simulating
material behavior at a point along the shear surface. Shear stress
mobilization was evaluated by examining the strain-softening relation
ship at various points along the shear surface. Comparisons of
laboratory stress-displacement relationships with computed curves for
both small and large direct shear tests indicated that the strain-
softening relationship for a point on the shear surface was better
represented by the results of the small direct shear tests than results
of large shear tests. Using identical strength parameters, computed
curves for large tests displayed lower values of than the computed
curves for small tests. Lab test results also yielded lower values of
for large tests than for small tests, indicating that sample size
affected the stiffness value .
By changing some boundary conditions, the stress-displacement
relationship was used to model an infinite slope with a slip surface
initiated at the base of the cut due to removal of lateral confinement.
The strain-softening model was then used to investigate progressive
failure of a cut slope. Progression of a slip surface into the cut
slope was found to increase as slope height, K q , and E increased.
When the strain-softening member comprised only part of the cut slope
height, the slip surface length increased and the factor of safety
decreased with the increase in the ratio of member thickness to slope
height.
This study has identified the discontinuities found in the red
shales and has outlined testing procedures that account for these
discontinuities. The strain-softening behavior of the shales has

137
been Incorporated into the Christian-Whitman (1969) model and used to
investigate the progressive failure of an existing slope in Athens,
Ohio.
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APPENDIX A
Strain-Softening Model
142
143
STRAIN-SOFTENING STRESS-DEFORMATION RELATIONSHIP
It is desired to develop the relationship for the shear stress (x)
developed along the bond of an infinite layer with height (h) due to a
stress relief (o q) . The geometry of this layer is shown in Figure A.l
with displacement (u) and location (x) referenced to the free vertical
surface of the layer. Strain (e) at any point along the layer is re
lated to stress by a modulus of relaxation (E) of the bond material
through the relationship
da(x)_ _ F dja
dx " E . 2
dx
The total resistance developed along the bond must equal the total amount
of stress relief. Therefore,
da = ^ dx CA.2)
Subbing (A.2) into (A.l) yields a general relationship for shear stress
(x) at any location (x) along the bond
T ' E& ) h
Rigid-Plastic Relationship
Rigid- plastic stress-deformation behavior may be represented as
in Figure A.2. As seen in Figure A . 2, x equals a constant peak shear
stress value (C) at displacements (u) in excess of zero. Subbing this

144
Fig. A.l Geometry for Infinite Layer Model
c—
Fig. A.2 Stress-Displacement Relationship for

Rigid Plastic Behavior
145
condition into equation (A.l) yields
iL-LL _ JL , 4)
,2 Eh
dx
Integration of equation (A.4) yields
du C , /» cn
dx Eh C1 ( 5
where is a constant of integration. Integrating equation (A.5)
yields
Cx2
u = + c.jX + c2 (A. 6)
where c2 is a constant of integration. At the front edge of the infinite
layer (i.e., at x = 0), strain ( ^ ) is known from
ju
d cfo
(A. 7)
dx - E
Applying equation (A.7) to equation (A.5) yields the constant

0
o
(A. 8)
C1 " E
Subbing into equation (A. 6) yields
u = e K“ + "F X + °2 (A,9)
For equilibrium at any point along the bond (i.e., at any negative x ) ,
t must equal the product of the change in stress (da) and h . At u = 0 ,
da = a . Therefore,
o
-a h
o
x = (A. 10)
T
-a h
But t = C, so x = — (A. 11)
(j
146
Applying equation (A. 11) to (A. 9) at u = o yields the constant
o2h
C2 = 2 EC (A. 12)
With and c3 evaluated, the relationship for u in a rigid-
plastic relationship is expressed by
„ 2 ax a 2h
Cx . o o ,.
U 2Eh E 2EC (A. 13)
Linear-Elastic Relationship
Linear-elastic stress-deformation behavior may be represented as in
Figure A.3. For u greater than zero, t is a function of theslope (K)
by
t = Ku (A. 14)
Applying equation (A.14) to equation (A.3) yields
fdxl - f = ° (A*15)
A general solution for u is given by
nr _nr
u = c 3e ^ Eh + c4e * Eh (A.16)
where c^ and c3 are arbitrary constants to be evaluated. Observing
x
equation (A. 16) it can be noted that the e ,JJ1‘ decreases in value as
x increases negatively (x -> - 00), and e - S ' increases in value as x
increases negatively (x -*--00). In this physical model shown in Fig. A.l,
u approaches zero as x increases negatively. Therefore, for equation
(A. 16) to be valid

C4 = 0 (A. 17)
147
Fig. A.3 Stress-Displacement Relationship for

Perfectly Elastic Behavior
Fig. A.4 Stress-Displacement Relationship

for Strain-Softening Behavior
148
The relationship for strain (equation A. 7) still holds at x = 0.
Applying this and equation (A. 17) to equation (A.16) yields the constant
C1 ~ yKE °o (A. 18)
Therefore, the displacement in a linear-elastic relationship is given by
r -
fh
P x
VEh 1Q .
U = 0o V KE 6 ( A * 19)
Elastic-Plastic Strain-Softening Relationship
Strain-softening stress-deformation behavior may be represented as
in Figure A . 4. In zone 1 of the relationship, displacement is similar
to that of the linear-elastic model with
K
°o [eiT V Eh x
u = Ti|iE[ e (A-20)
When t has attained the peak shear stress (Cp ) at the front edge
of the infinite layer (i.e., at x = 0 ) , then u at this point may be
obtained from equation (A.14)
Cp
U = (A. 21)
K1
If equation (A. 21) is applied to equation (A.20), the level of stress
relief (o q ) required to achieve the Cp level at x = 0 is obtained and
given by
CTop = CP (A.22)
with Oq indicating this particular value of stress relief. Subbing

149
equation (A. 22) into equation (A.20) yields the relationship for dis
placement when t = Cp
u = =£ e (A.23)
K1
In zone 2, when x has not reached a value of C,,, displacement (u)

K
is the summation of the displacement obtained in zone 1 (u ) and the
o
displacement (Au) (shown in Fig. A,5). The displacement (Au) within the
zone 2 portion of the relationship is given by
T"CP
Au = — — (A. 24)
2
Since total displacement (u) is the summation of u and Au, a relation-

o
ship for x is obtained in terms of u and u
o
t = K2 uq - K2 u + Cp (A. 25)
^p
It can be seen from Figure A . 5 that u = — . Therefore,
o ^
K2CP
t = - K 2 u + Cp (A. 26)
Subbing equation (A. 26) into (A.3) yields a general relationship for u
in zone 2
,2 K 9u C„ K0Cp
d u 2 P , 2 P . _7.
. 2 Eh Eh K-Eh (A. 27)
dx 1
The particular solution of equation (A. 27)
k2 \ / /K2 \ C C
u = c5 c o s ^ ^ x j + c6 sin [ J — XJ + -P + _P (A. 28)
2 1
where and are arbitrary constants.

150
AU
c
p
u
'0
u
Fig. A.5 Displacement in Strain-Softening Portion
C p
U,0
Fig. A.6 Illustration of Location (x) in

Strain-Softening Portion
151
The relationship for strain at x = 0 given in equation (A,7) still holds.
Applying equation (A. 7) to equation (A. 28) at x = 0 yields a value for
one of the constants
c6 - T - jif (A-29>
Subbing equation (A.29) into (A.28) yields
U = C 5 COSG e £ X) + " # /!“ sin( H ^ + K^ + (A-30)
Referencing Figure A.6, the value of uq when x = Cp is known. The loca
tion (x) of this point within the layer is conveniently termed x q . If
the value of u^ at x = x q is applied to equation (A.30), the constant c,.
found in terms of x
o
- % /ST , |i 2 CP ____I I 2 x
C5 = T f e t
an\
VEh 7- Kl
"2
S
eCWEh °) <A'31)
Additionally, the area under the x vs. t curve (Figure A.7) equals
the product of oq and h . The area under the shaded portion is thus,
xi
t dx (A.32)
°oh - j
x
Inserting equation (A. 19) into (A.32) for u = 0 yields
0 - /
r
e
IS. (A.33)
K1
Equation (A.33) can only be satisfied if x^ is an infinitely negative
value. Therefore, when x = If^u, equation (A.32) yields
a h - (K,u) dx (A.34)
o 1
x
o
152
c
p
u
0
u
Fig. A. 7 Displacement in Residual Strength Portion
Fig. A.8 Illustration of Location (x) in

Residual Strength Portion
153
Inserting equation (A. 19) into (A.34) yields
(A. 35)
°oh “ -f ^CP e h * dx
x
o
Equation (A.35) is equal to the summation of x over the region on the
x vs. x curve (Fig. A.7) from x= 0 to x = x q . If equation (A.35) is
set equal to the summation of x over this region, the resultant re
lationship is
X
X
a h - (Cp e ' Eh ) dx = x dx (A.36)
o
Shear stress (x) between x = x q and x = 0 is given by equation (A.25).
If equation (A.25) is subbed into (A.36) then
K? x
Eh
" J (Cp e ) dx = (u K„ - uK„ + C„) dx (A. 37)
o L L P
x
o
If the values of (equation A.31), uq , and u are inserted into
equation (A.37), then the value of xq is found in the relationship
( K a h
xo fih 1 / 2 x0) Eh x o
sm (A.38)
J k7 cosV l h °)~ IK„
Since x q is the only variable in equation (A.38) is x q , x q is best
approximated using numerical techniques, c^ is then evaluated from
equation ( A . 31) using this xq value. Subbing the relation for equation
(A. 31) into (A.30) yields displacement within zone 2 of

When t has attained the residual shear stress level (C^), Au is
given by
CR " CP
Au = - - - - ■ (A.40)
2
CP
Using equation (A.40) and the fact that u = — , displacement (u) is
O
given by
Cp Cp - C
u = y -+ — (A.41)
1 2
Since t = C^(Ax x = 0 ) and u is given by equation (A,41), the value of
xq is now obtained through the relationship
CR - °o i ? CP ^ ( i l b o j <A-42)
If O q is placed in terms of xq in equation (A. 38) and xq is again solved
through numerical methods, the value of stress relief (e0g) required
to achieve the residual shear strength plateau and be obtained when CD is

K
known. Displacement (u) is obtained from equation (A.39) for a = o
o R
In zone 3, t has achieved the residual shear strength plateau and
T = CL at x = 0 (Fig. A . 8). Referring to Figure (A.8), the cross-hatched
area under the x vs. x curve is given by product of o0 and h with
the shaded area given by the product of Aa0p and h .When u = u^ ,
A^total e9ua^-s ° o r • When u = u^ + Aup , ^atota^ equalsthe summation

of oQ^ and AOp . Therefore
Act = a
total - o.o r (A.43)
When u is greater tha , x equals Cr and is given by
_ S CP ~ CR
(A.44)
U ! = K]_ K2
It is also known that

4% h
x. "1 (A.45)
With Aa given by equation (A.43) and a obtained from (A.42), x- is

Op o r 1
given by
( °R - V h
(A. 46)
X1 =
CR
Displacement (u) is given as in the rigid-plastic model with
T ' CR aS
°EX
(A.47)
Tih + C7X + c8 ” u
Applying equation (A. 7) to equation (A.47) yields
a
o
(A.48)
c8 ~ E
At u = u ^ , x is known from equation (A. 46) and c j is evaluated to be
a -a
Or O
R
(A. 49)
C7 = (a -a )h 2E
K1 K2 ' K2 ~ E Or o
Displacement (u) in the residual shear plateau region is thus given by

APPENDIX B
Computer Program
156
REAL Kl,K2»KKl»KK2yKK3
DIMENSION X(20)»Y(20)»XN(20)>DX(20)»EX(20)»PEXCS(20)»CS(20 ) t
IF'CSEX(20)»S S (20),PSS(20)»FX0(20)»PFX0(20)»U(15)»TAU<15 ) t
2PEAK(15)>DXN(15)yXE(20)»DXTAUE<20)»UE(20)>TAUE<20)»XR(20)»
3RSEC<20)»REX <20 > >RSN <2 0 ) fRTN <20)»PR S E C <20)»P R EX SN<20),
4PRTNSN<20)»F X 0 R (20 >»P F X 0 R <20)rX R N (20)»D X R N (20)»D X R (20)
READ (5*499) NMAX
N = 0
10 READ (5>500) H»E*CP*CR*K1»K2rSIG0yXINIT*IMAX
WRITE <6»850) HfE*CP>CRyKl»K2ySIG0»XINITfIMAX
KK1 = K1/(E*H)
KK2 = K2/(E*H)
KK3 = K2/K1
EK1 = E/(K1*H)
RT1 = SQRT(KKl)
RT2 = S B R K K K 2 )
RT3 = S Q R K K K 3 )
RTE1 = SQRT(EKl)
B = (<SIG0*H)/CP)
ooooo
LINEAR ELASTIC RANGE
CHECK TO SEE IF SIGMA 0 EXCEEDS PEAK SHEAR LEVEL
PRINT1999
II = 1
SIGOP = CP * RTE1
IF (SIGOP - SIGO) 80*80*70
ooo
DISPLACEMENTS DEFINED BY SIGMA 0
70 SIGE = (SIGO/E) * (1/RT1)

PRINT2000
JJ = 1
GO TO 90
ooo
DISPLACEMENTS DEFINED BY SIGMA P
80 SIGE = CP/K1
PRINT2010
JJ = 2
90 XE(II) = 0.0
XEINCR = -H/20
DXTAUE(II) = 0.0
PRINT2020
100 CONTINUE
n n n
CALCULATE DISPLACEMENTS AND SHEAR FORCE
UE(II) = SIGE * EXP(RT1*XE(II>)

TAUE(II) = UE(II) * K1
WRITE(6»2050) X E d I ) , U E d I ) , T A U E d I )
IF d l . E Q . l ) GO TO 101
D X T A U E d I ) = TAUE(II - 1) - TAUE(II)
TOL = 0*02
IF (DXTAUE(II)*LE.TOL) GO TO 120
101 II = II + 1
X E d I ) = X E d I - 1) + XEINCR
GO TO 100
C
C TOTAL SHEAR FORCE IN ELASTIC RANGE
C
120 TAUETT = SIGE * K1 * d / R T l )
WRITE<6,2070) TAUETT
IF (JJ.EG.l) GO TO 50
GO TO 11
1999 F0RMAT(/,17X,34H# # # L I N E A R E L A S T I C ,
1 15HR A N G E U #,/)
2000 FORMAT(/,2X >36HPEAK SHEAR STRESS LEVEL NOT EXCEEDED,//,
1 2 X ,39HDISPLACEMENTS AND SHEAR FORCE IN LINEAR*/,
2 2X*36H ELASTIC RANGE A FUNCTION OF SIGMA 0,/)
2010 FORMAT(/*2 X »32HPEAK SHEAR STRESS LEVEL EXCEEDED,//,
1 2X,39HDISPLACEMENTS AND SHEAR FORCE IN LINEAR,/,
2 2X,36H ELASTIC RANGE A FUNCTION OF SIGMA F t / )
2020 FORMAT(/,6 X ,1H X ,9 X ,1HU *7 X ,3H TA U)
2050 F0RMAT(/»1F10.2,2F10*4)
2070 FORMAT(/,2X,40HT0TAL SHEAR RESISTANCE IN LINEAR ELASTIC,
1 8H RANGE =,F10.4»//>
11 CONTINUE
C
C CHECK TO SEE IF SIGMA 0 IS GREATER THAN SIGMA R
C
PRINT949
I = 1
BR = CR/CP
IF (I - 1) 115,121,115
121 X R d ) = XINIT
PRINT1940
PRINT950
115 CONTINUE
RSECd) = d/<C0S<RT2*XRd)>>>
R E X d ) = RT3 * E X P < R T l * X R d ) >
R S N d ) = SIN <RT2*XR (I ))
R T N d ) = TAN(RT2*XR(I))
PRSECd) = RT2*RSECd)*RTNd)
PREXSNd) = RT2*REXd)*CQS(RT2*XRd))+RSNd)*d/RT3)*REXd>*RT2
P R T N S N d ) = RT2#RTNd)*(C0S(RT2!i(XRd)))+RT2)|tRSN(I)JC(RSECd)**2)
FXORd) = RSECd)+REXd)*RSNd)-RTNd)*RSNd)-BR
PFXORd > = PRSECdHPREXSNd)-PRTNSNd)
C
C CALCULATION FOR ROOT X
C
X R N d ) = XR (I)- (FXOR (I )/PFXOR (I))
DXR(I) = ABS(XRN(I)-XR(I))
WRITE(6»1000) Ii»XR(I) »FXOR(I)»XRN(I) >DXR(I)
IF(DXR(I)*LE.0.001) GO TO 140
IF(I.EQ.IMAX) GO TO 135
I = 1+1
X R (I ) = XRN(I-l)
GO TO 115
135 URITE(6f1010)
GO TO 50
C
C CALCULATE SIGMA 0 R
C
140 CES = <CP/H)*(1/RT1)*EXP <RT1*XR <I ))*COS(RT2*XR <I ))
CSIN = (CP/H)*(1/RT2)#SIN(RT2*XR<I))
SIGOR = CES - CSIN
WRITE<6 1>1500) SIGOR
IF(SIGOR-SIGO) 190*190»16
190 SIG = SIGOR
URITE(6f1510)
XN(I) = XR(I)
GO TO 40
949 FORMAT < / A 1 5 X > 2 5 H * # * P O S T P E A K »
1 16HR A N G E * * * , / )
1940 F0RMAT(/*8Xr22HS0LUTI0N FOR SIGMA 0 R*/)
1500 F0RMAT(/*5X»20HSIGMA 0 (RESIDUAL) =»F10.3»/)
16 PRINT1941
1 = 1 - (1-1)
IF (1-1) 15»20>15
20 X(I) = XINIT
PRINT950
15 CONTINUE
EX(I) = EXP(RT1*X<I))*(1/RT1)
CS(I) = C0S(RT2#X(I))
SS(I) = SIN(RT2!KX(I))*(1/RT2)
PEXCS(I) = RT1*EX(I)*CS(I)
PCSEX(I) = (SO RT(K2 / K 1 ))#RT1#EX(I )# R T2 #SS(I )
PSS(I) = C0S(RT2DtX(I))
FXO(I) = EX(I)*CS<I)-SS(I)-B
PFXO(I) = PE XC S(I )-P CSEX(I )- P S S (I )
XN(I) = X(I)-(FXO(I)/PFXO(I))
DX(I) = ABS(XN(I)-X(I))
WRITE (6>1000) I»X(I)»FXO(I)»XN(I)rDX(I)
IF (DX(I).LE.0.001) GO TO 36
IF (I*EQ«IMAX) GO TO 35
I = 1+1
X(I) = XN(I-l)
GO TO 15
35 WRITE (6»1010)
GO TO 50
C
C CALCULATION OF Cl» USED TO ESTABLISH
C DISPLACEMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES IN POST
160
C PEAK RANGE
C
36 SIG = SIGO
40 Cl = (-‘nG/E)*(l/RT2)*TAN(RT2*XN(I))-(CP/K2>*<l/C0S(RT2*XN(I)))
WRITE (6?1100) Cl
M = 1
XD = 0.0
TAUTOT = 0 . 0
PEAK(N) = (<K2*CP)/K1)+CP
DXN(N) = XN(I)/10.0
PRINT960
49 U(M) = C1*C0S(RT2*XD)+(SIG/E)*<1/RT2)*SIN<RT2*XB)+(CP/K2)+<CP/K1)
TAU(M) = PEAK(N)-(K2*U(M))
URITE(6>1200) XD?U(M)?TAU(M)
IF (H.EQ.l) GO TO 59
TAUTOT = TAUT0T+(<TAU(M)+TAU<M-1))/2>*ABS<DXN(N))
59 XD = XD+DXN(N)
M = M+l
IF (M-ll) 49>49>39
39 URITE(6>1300) TAUTOT
IF(SIG.GE.SIGOR) GO TO 112
GO TO 50
112 CONTINUE
C
C RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH PLATEAU
C
C ESTIMATE PROGRESSION OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION
C
PRINT1950
XI = <<SIGOR-SIGO)*H)/CR
X1AB = ABS(Xl)
WRITE(6>300) X1AB
1941 F0RMAT(//>2X?23HSIGMA 0 R NOT EXCEEDED>/»
1 2 X >32HDISPLACEMENTS DEFINED BY SIGMA 0>/)
1510 F0RMAT(//>2X>19HSIGMA 0 R EXCEEDED?/>
1 2 X >34HDISPLACEMENTS DEFINED BY SIGMA 0 R>/)
1950 FORMAT(//»5X»35H# * * R E S I D U A L S H E A R»
1 24H P L A T E A U * * *>/)
300 F0RMAT(/>2X>40HPR0GRESSION OF PLASTIC FAILURE SURFACE =>
1 F10.3 >/)
499 FO RMAT(15)
500 F0RMAT(7F10*3>/?F10.3>I5)
850 F0RMAT('1'>10X>19HC0NTR0L INFORMATION?
1 /?2X?37HSL0PE HEIGHT (H) =?F10.3>
2 />2 X ?37HM0DULUS OF ELASTICITY (E) =?F10.3?
3 /?2X?37HPEAK SHEAR STRENGTH (CP) =?F10.3?
B / ?2X?37HRESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH (CR) =?F10.3?
4 /?2X ?37HPRE-PEAK SLOPE (Kl) =>F10.3>
5 /? 2X ?37HP0ST-PEAK SLOPE (K2) =?F10.3?
6 /?2X?37HAPPLIED HORIZONTAL STRESS (SIGMA 0) =?F10.3?
8 /?2X?37HINITIAL VALUE OF X (XINIT) =?F10.3?
9 /?2X?37HMAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITERATIONS =?5X?I5?/)
161
950 F0RHAT(/»4X»lHI»5Xf4HX<I)r4X»6HFX0(I)»5X»5HX N(I) f 5X»5HDX(I)»/)
960 FORMAT(/* 6 X »1HX»1 0 X »1HU»8 X »3H TA U»/)
1000 F0RMAT(/»I5»4F10<4)
1010 FORMAT<//>2X>36HMAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITERATIONS REACHED f /)
1100 FORMAT(///»2X»4HC1 =»F10<4>
1200 FORMAT(/»3F10*4)
1300 FORMAT<//»2X»44HT0TAL SHEAR RESISTANCE FOR POST-PEAK RANGE =»
1F10*3»/)
50 N = N + 1
IF (NMAX-N) 51 .<51 >10
51 STOP
END
END OF DATA

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IN F O R M A T IO N TO USERS

The following explanation o f techniques is provided to help you understand

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2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an

4. For any illustrations that cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by xerography,

Williams, Richard Lynn

PROGRESSIVE FAILURE OF RED CONEMAUGH SHALE

The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1982

1. Glossy photographs or pages______

2. Colored illustrations, paper or print_____

3. Photographs with dark background

4. Illustrations are poor copy______

5. Pages with black marks, not original copy______

6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page______

7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages

8. Print exceeds margin requirements______

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Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

Richard Lynn Williams, B.S.C.E., M.S.C.E., P.E.

The Ohio State University

Reading Committee: Approved by

The author wishes to express his appreciation to his adviser,

T. H. Wu, for his guidance and supervision throughout this research.

constructive comments concerning the strain-softening model; to Kevin

Lynch, research assistant, for assisting in the direct shear testing

program; to Gene 0. Johnson, then geologist with the State of Ohio,

Department of Transportation, for his guidance and supervision prior to

the mapping of the discontinuities; and to the Civil Engineering Depart­

ment Workshop personnel, E. Egbert and A. Bernardo, for fabricating the

shear test apparatus. The author also appreciates the assistance of

Haynes for drafting most of the figures.

The author also wishes to acknowledge the Department of Civil

their financial support. Further gratitude is extended to the Federal

Highway Administration and the Ohio Department of Transportation for

sponsoring the project for which this research was conducted.

The writer also wishes to expresshis sincere appreciation to his

August 3, 1 9 5 1 ............ Born - Dayton, Ohio

1970 - 1973 ............... Co-op civil engineer, Southwestern

1974 ....................... B.S.C.E., University of Cincinnati,

1974 -1975 ................. Teaching Assistant, Georgia Institute

1975 ....................... M.S.C.E., Georgia Institute of Tech­

1975 - 1978 ............... Research Associate, Department of

1978 - Present ............ Geotechnical Engineer, R. S. Fling and

LIST OF F I G U R E S ................................................ vii

II. Geology and Rock S t r u c t u r e .............................. 6

2.1 Introduction ...................................... 6

III. Tests on Small S a m p l e s .................................. 59

IV. Tests on Large S a m p l e s .................................. 86

V. Stress-Displacement Model .............................. 100

5.1 P u r p o s e ............................................ 100

A. Strain-Softening M o d e l .............................. 142

B. Computer Program ..................................... 156

Description or Discontinuities ................. 14

Observed Discontinuities in the Morgantown Shale,

Observed Discontinuities in the Connellsville Shale,

Observed Discontinuities in the Connellsville Shale,

Observed Discontinuities in the Connellsville Shale,

the mapping of the discontinuities; and to the Civil Engineering Depart

1975 ....................... M.S.C.E., Georgia Institute of Tech