Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya

Mohanpur, Nadia, 741252, West Bengal

COURSE NO PSMA 502(2+1)

SUBMITTED TO PROF. A B SHARANGI

PREPARED BY

SHUBHAMOY CHAKRABORTY

M.Sc HORTICULTURE,1ST SEMESTER

DEPT. OF SPICES AND PLANTATION CROPS.

INDEX
1.INTRODUCTION

2.BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

3.AREA AND PRODUCTION

4.USES

5.COMPOSITION

 COMPOSITION OF CARDAMOM SEEDS

 MAIN COMPONENTS OF CARDAMOM VOLATILE OIL
 COMPOSITION OF CARDAMOM CAPSULE

6.CLIMATE AND SOIL

7.VARIETIES

8.PROPAGATION

VEGETATIVE

MICROPROPAGATION

SEXUAL PROPAGATION

9.NURSERY MANAGEMENT

10.PLANTING

11.SHADE MANAGEMENT

12.SPACING

13.MULCHING
14.WEEDING AND TRASHING

15.IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

16.MANURING

17.USE OF GROWTH SUBSTANCE

18.DIESEASES AND PEST MANAGEMENT

19.HARVEST AND POST HARVEST HANDLING.

20.CARDAMOM PRODUCTS

21.QUALITY ISSUES
  INTRODUCTION:
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) of commerce is the dried ripe fruit (capsules of
cardamom plant) often referred as the “Queen of Spices” because of its very pleasant aroma and taste.
It is native to the evergreen rainy forest of western ghats in South India. Cardamom is a perennial,
herbaceous, rhizomatous plant.  It is cultivated widely in tropical regions and reportedly naturalized
in Reunion, Indochaina and Costa rica

 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:

It is a herbaceous perennial having SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

underground rhizomes.The aerial pseudostem is made
Kingdom: Plantae
of leaf sheath . Infloroscence is a long panicle with
racemose clusters arising from the underground
(unranked): Angiosperms
stem,but comes up above the soil. Flowers are bisexual
,fragrant ,fruit is trilocular capsule. Flower initiation (unranked): Monocots
takes place in March-April and from initiation to full
bloom, It takes nearly 30 days and from bloom to (unranked): Commelinidis
maturity , it takes about 5 to 6 months.
Order: Zingiberales
Honey bee is the principle pollinating
agent and it increases the fruit set considerably when Family: Zingiberaceae
compared to flowers prevented from bee visit. Flower
remain open for 15 to 18 hours and pollen viability nad Genus: Elettaria

stigma receptivity are highest in the morning hours

Species: E.cardamomum
  Area and Production :

In India, area under cardamom has been fluctuating over the years. It was 93,950 ha during
1982-83 and remained static for three years (1984- 1985 to 1986-87), then it shot up to
1,05,000 ha in 1987-88. The area came down to 73,590 ha during 1996-97 and has
remained more or less static till 2004-85. The production has gone up from 2,900 mt during
1987-88 to 11,420 mt in 2004 - 05. During the period, the productivity has increased from
almost 41 kg/ha to 208 kg/ha. Cardamom cultivation is confined to three South Indian
states namely, Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In 2004-05, Kerala has 56 per cent of area
and contributes 75 per cent production; Karnataka with 37 per cent of area and 16 per
cent production, while Tamil Nadu has per cent of area and contributes 9 per cent
production .
 India has been the world’s largest cardamom producer until 1979-80, when
Guatemala came to the picture as the major competitor and world leader in
cardamom production. Presently, 90 per cent of world trade in cardamom is from
Guatemala.

 The other cardamom producing countries are Tanzania and Sri Lanka in small
quantities and the production level in these countries is around 125 mt
(Tanzania) and 75 mt (Sri Lanka) per year (Ravindran, 2002).

 Uses:

The major use is for the preparation of ‘gahwa’ – a strong cardamom

coffee concoction which is a symbol for hospitality among Arabs.

 Apart from this cardamom is widely used as a flavouring material in whole and ground
form.
 In Asia, it can add a lingering sparkle to every kind of dishes both traditional and
modern.
 In Scandinavian countries it is used in baked goods and confectionaries. In Europe and
North America it is an ingredient in curry powder and in some sausages products.
 Cardamom oil and oleoresin has applications in flavouring processed foods, cordials, and
liquors and in perfumery and in Ayurvedic medicines.
 Nanasombat and Wimuttigosol (2011) noticed thatEssential oils of bastard cardamom,
were determined for their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. respectively. These
oils contained high amount of total phenolics (51.54-140.9 micro g gallic acid
equivalents/mg oil).
  Using of cardamom in tea ,it will be aromatic as well as medicine of diarrhea and
dysentery.
 Clinical observation on effect of cardamomum combined with western medicine in
promoting recovery of gastrointestinal function after abdominal surgery in 39 patients.
(ChenLiang and XiaoDong,2011)

 Use of insecticides can have disruptive effects on the environment. Replacing the
chemical compounds in these insecticides with plant materials, however, can be a safe
method with low environmental risk. In the current study, chemical composition and
insecticidal activities of the essential oil from cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum L.
(Maton) (Zingiberales: Zingiberaceae) on the adults of three stored product pests was
investigated. Results indicated that essential oil of E. cardamomum toxic to the bruchid
beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), the red flour
beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), and the flour moth,
Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae. The major constituents of cardamom
were identified as 1,8-cineol, alpha -terpinyl acetate, terpinene and fenchyl alcohol.
(Abbasipour;et al ,2011)

 Two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch is the major pest of various plants
worldwide. Now the control is dependent on the use of chemical pesticides. Plant
compounds are recently known as biopesticides. Essential oil of Elettaria cardamomum
was researched on repellent and oviposition inhibition of T. urticae. The LC50 values of
fumigant toxicity of this oil on adults and eggs of the two spotted spider mite were 7.26
and 8.82 micro L/L air, respectively. Also LT50 value of essential oil at 45 micro L/L air
was 23.86 h and LT50 value of essential oil at 60 micro L/L air was 9.01 h. In addition,
different concentrations of the essential oil of E. cardamomum significantly affected
oviposition deterrence and repellency of adults. The results of this study indicated that
essential oil of E. cardamomum may be considered as a biopesticide to control two
spotted spider mites. (Fatemikia et al 2003)

 Andrade et. al., (2014) reported the anti microbial activity of essential oils.

 Composition: Composition cardamom (seeds,) :

Spices are considered as rich source of bio-active antimicrobial compounds and are
indispensable components of Indian cuisines since ancient times.
Organic extracts of all three spices showed good antibacterial activity against all the test
strains, which was found to be comparable with standard antibiotics. Minimum inhibitory
 concentration for aqueous and organic seed extracts ranged from 25 to >50 mg/ml and 2 to 50
mg/ml respectively.
Inhibitory activity of all the extracts was found to be increased when used in combination.
This synergistic effect supports the use of these spices in combination. Quantitative
phytochemical analysis showed the presence of 2.30 - 7.8% alkaloids, 5.7 - 26.2% flavonoids,
11.0 - 33.0% tannins, 0.60 - 3.8% saponins. Conclusion: Antibacterial efficacy shown by these
spices and their combinations provides a scientific basis and thus, validates their traditional
uses as homemade remedies. Isolation and characterization of different phytochemicals may
further yield significant antibacterial agents. (Nomita et al 2014)

The composition of cardamom varies slightly with the variety, region and age of the product.

Components  Percentage  Components  Percentage

 Moisture  7-10  Volatile oil  5.5-10.5

 Total ash  3.8.-6.9  Alkalinity of ash  0.4-.2.4

 Water soluble ash  1.3-.5.05  Acid insoluble ash  13-3.0

Crude fibre  6.7-12.8  Crude protein 7.0-14.0

Starch  39.0-49.9  Calcium  0.3

 Phosphorus  0.215  Sodium  0.015

 Potassium  1.2  Iron  0.012

(Pruthi,1987)

Vitamins (mg/1OOg)

 Main components of cardamom volatile oil :

Main components of cardamom volatile oil are listed below. The volatileoil is extracted
from the seeds and the husk hardly gives only 0.2 per cent oil.

Vit A( Thiamine) 0.18 Vitamin C 12.0

Vit B 2 (Riboflavin) 0.233 Vitamin A 173IU/100mg

Niacin 2.3

(Pruthi;1987)

 Composition of cardamom capsules:

Components Percentage Components Percentage

 Moisture 20.0 Protein  10.2

 Ether extract 2.2 Volatile oil  7.4

 Mineral matter (total 5.4  Crude fibre  20.1

ash)

 Carbohydrate 42.1 Calcium  0.13

Phosphorus 0.16 Iron 5mg/ 100mg

(Pruthi ; 1987)

 Main components of cardamom volatile oil

Main components of cardamom volatile oil are listed below. The volatile oil is extracted
from the seeds and the husk hardly gives only 0.2 per cent oil.
Components Percentage

 1,8 Cineole  38.8  49.0

 a-terpenyl acetate 24,8  24.7

 B-pinene  8.2  

 Linalool  5.7  5.8

 Sabinene  4.2  1.4

 Limonene  4.0  0.9

 a-pinene  2.3  0.4

Terpinen4-oI  2.0  1.9

 Geranyl acetate  0.8  

 Geraniol  0.2  2.5

Nero  0.9
-
 B caryophyllene 0.4
Gopalkrishnan (1994) Vanyar and Bandyapadhyay. (1995)
 
Besides the usual terpene hydrocarbon and alcohols as minor compounds and the
dominance of 1,8 cineole and alpha-terpinyl acetate, it is significant that methyl eugenol
-

also has been identified (Lawrence, 1979). The basic cardamom aroma is produced by a
combination of the major components, alpha-terpinyl acetate and 1,8-.cineole.

 Climate and Soil:

 Climate :

Cardamom is highly sensitive to elevation and the wrong choice of cul tivar or
location can severely affect the growth and productivity. The optimum altitude for growing
cardamom is 600 to 1500 MSL
The ‘Malabar’, types productive under lower elevations of 500-700 MSL. The other two
cardamom types, ‘Mysore’ and ‘Vazhukka’ are suitable for cultivation in lower altitudes ie.
700 MSL and below
In Guatemala, cardamom is grown at varying altitudes, ranging from 90 to 1200 m above
MSL.
Cardamom is very sensitive to temperature fluctuations (Jacob et al., 1995). In
India, optimum growth and development is observed in the warm and humid conditions at
a temperature range of 10-35°C (Anon, 1976).
The upper temperature limit is usually around 31-35°C. It is noticed that rate of spread of
‘katte’ disease is more during summer than in rainy season and cold conditions result in
low capsule setting. Thus, extremes of temperature and wide diurnal variations arc not
conducive for healthy growth of cardamom plants.
In hills, especially removal of canopy cover may lead to adverse effect on soil temperature
than in the plains. Under shade less condition, elevated soil temperature (36°C) and the
strong wind movement increases evapotranspiration and the soil dries up quickly. All these
inter related changes in microclimate would affect the growth and the development of
cardamom (Murugan et al., 2000).

Cardamom requires overhead shed. Moderate rainfall areas with filtered natural shed
are very useful for the cardamom cultivation.Rainfall ranges from 2000-2500 mm.In
Guatemala the rainfall is moreover suitable than India (2000-5000 mm) and distributed
throughout the year (Krishna 1997).
Sunil et al (2010) reported that an experiment was conducted during 1991 to 2001 at the
Regional Agricultural Research Station Ambalavayal, Kerala to determine the effects of weather
parameters on the yield of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum). During vegetative stage in
the first yeat of planting, and panicle emergence, maximum temperature had strong positive
correlation for capsule yield. Whereas during flowering stage, in the second year after planting,
maximum temperature negatively influenced the final capsule yield.
  Soil :
Well-drained soils rich in organic matter, forest loams rich in phosphorus and
potassium and deep light textured lateritic soils with a pH range of 4.6 to 6.5 and plenty
of humus are good for the crop. It is mostly grown as a pure crop in the tower portion of
undulating valleys.

Water logging and excessive moisture accumulation is injurious to plantation,

there fore sloping land with good drainage should be preferred.

Cardamom soils are usually acidic and therefore, application of lime at 5000-
7500 kg is recommended particularly in Kerala and Karnataka to increase the pH upto
6.0 (Shanmugavelu and Madhava Rao, 1997)

 VARIETIES:

Elettaria is a small genus with 3-4 species in East and South-East Asia. The
cultivars are grouped as ‘Malabar’ (prostrate panicles), ‘Mysore’ (erect panicles) and
‘Vazhukka’ (semi erect panicles), based on the adaptability, nature of the panicle, shape
and size of fruits.

Selection of cardamom is highly location specific in their agro-ecological requirements.

The improved selections are much superior to the local clones with regard to yield,

MC 3 a new small cardamom variety has been released for the hill zone of Karnataka.
(Dushyanthakumar et al)

 Salient features of Cardamom varieties:

Average
yield
Variety Source
(dry_kglha
Suitable areas
)

Adoptive to all cardamom growing areas of

Indian Institute of Spices Karnataka, Wayanad in Kerala and Lower Pulneys in
IISR
Suvasini
Research (ICAR), Calicut , 745 Tamil Nadu and highly suitable for High
Kerala Production Technology by following intensive agro
practices

PV.1 KAU. Cardamom 260 All cardamom tracts of Kerala and Karnataka
Research Centre.
 Pampadumpara.
idukki. Kerala

Indian Cardamom
Research Institute
ICRI I (Spices Board). 325 South ldukki zone of Kerala
Myladumpara, ldukki.
Kerala

Indian Cardamom
Research
ICRI 2 Institute (Spices Board). 375 Vandanmettu and Nefliampathi zones of Kerala
Myladumpara, ldukki.
Kerala

Indian Cardamom
Research
Institute (Spices
ICRI 3 439 Hill zones of Karnataka
Board).
Myladumpara, Iduklü.
Kerala

Indian Cardamom
Research
Institute (Spices Board).
ICRI 4 455 Lower Pulneys in Tamil Nadu
MyIadampara, Idukki.
Kerala

Indian Cardamom
Research
Institute (Spices Board).
ICRI 5 1543 Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu

MyIadampara, Idukki.
Kerala

MUDIGERE
UAS ,BANGALORE 275 Malnad of Kerala
1

MUDIGERE Traditional Cardamom growing hilly tracts of

UAS ,BANGALORE 476
2 Karnataka
  Characteristic features of biotic and abiotic tolerant varieties

Averageyiel
Variety Characteristic features Reference
d

IISR It is highly suitable for planting In valleys and Venugopal and

847 kg/ha
Avinash rhizome rot prone areas Prasath. (2006)

Recommended to moderate rainfall with moderate 643 kg/ha

I1SR Venugopal and
to high shaded mosaic (cardamom mosaic virus) —_______

VIJETHA Prasath, (2006)

infected areas

1886 kg/ha
Moderately tolerant to major pests (thrips and Madhusoodanan et
ICRI 6 (potential
shoot borer) al; (2006)
yield)

Mudigere- Mad husoodanan et

Tolerant to hairy caterpillar and white grubs 275 kg/ha
I al., (2002)

Madhussodanan at
PV -2 Tolerant to thrips, capsule rot and clump rot 982 kg/ha
al. (2002)

 Propagation:

Cardamom propagated through suckers or seedlings.However the latter

method is preferable in order to check the viral disease ‘katte’. (Pattanshetty et al. 1983)
obtained average green capsule yield of 207g/clonal plant two years after planting in
comparison to 170 gm/adult plant of the seedling population.

Bejoy et al (2010) reported that an efficient and repeatable

micropropagation protocol has been established for Amomum hypoleucum, a lesser
known threatened medicinal plant of the family Zingiberaceae.

Hemavathy et al (2010) reported that Tissue culture technology is used

for selection and rapid multiplication of elite clones of cardamom

 Vegetative method:

Planting material from rhizomes are collected by uprooting from 2 or 2.5

year old clumps. Nadagauda et al (1983) studied clonal multiplication of Cardamom
(Elettaria Cardamomum.) by tissue culture.
 Vegetative propagation is favored over seed propagation as the latter ensures
large scale commercial production of true-to-type planting materials of high-yielding
lines. The suckers free from pests and diseases are generally used for vegetative
propagation.

 Micropropagation:

Vegetative buds are taken and they are clonally multiplicated. 6 auxilary
shoots can be produced 30 days within the culture

Advantage : 1. high rate of multiplication

2.uniform plant

3.disease free planting material

Disadvantage: costly method and after getting plants field evaluation is needed.

 Sexual method:

Propagation by seed is the most common and widely prevalent method among planters.
A large number of seedlings can be raised however ,progeny is highly variable with no
uniformity yields. Seeds from well ripened fruits ,plants producing compact panicles
should be selected and dried. Sulekeri and Kologi(1997) observed the viability of
cardamom seed collected in December and sown in the following September and
reported 26 percent germination in capsule seed.1 percent in extracted stored seed and
60% in freshly extracted seed.

Ankegowda et al (2012) reported that on an average, 1 kg fruits contain 900-1000

capsules with 10-15 seeds per capsule and 1 kg of seed capsules are required to get
about 3000-5000 seedlings. To plant 1 acre, 1/2 kg seed capsules are required to raise
nursery.

 NURSERY MANAGEMENT

Cardamom is propagated either through seeds or vegetative

means and being a cross-pollinated crop the seedling population is not uniform. Only 35
per cent of the plants are good yielders in a plantation raised from seedling population
(Krishnamurthy et al., 1989).

Hence, vegetative propagation is normally adopted for

multiplication of elite clones. Vegetative propagation can be either through suckers or
tissue culture .
 Initially the seeds can be collected from any elite plantation
even if they are not grown organically. However, the methods followed for raising
seedlings should confirm to the organic standards. If rhizomes are to be used as planting
material the plantation should have been following organic methods of production at
least one year prior to collection (Anon, 1998).

Seeds are collected from fully ripe capsules preferably from second
to third round of harvest in September and are then washed in water and sown immediately or
mixed with wood ash and dried for 2 to 9 days in room temperature. Storage of seeds results in
loss of viability and delay in germination. Immediate sowing resulted in maximum germination.
Germination was highest (71.8 per cent) when sown in September.

Gradual decline in germination (56.7, 51.0, 46.4, 34.1, 32.5 and

29.6 per cent) was observed when sown on 1” August, 15 August, 30” August, 14” September,
29’s’ September and 14th October, respectively (CPCRI, 1982).

Cardamom seeds sown immediately after harvest (September)

germinated uniformly, and seedlings were ready for transplanting at the end of 10 months. The
ideal sowing season has been reported to be November - January for Kerala and Tamil Nadu and
September for Karnataka
The low temperature prevailing in the cardamom growing area
reduces germination per cent and prolongs days taken for germination

Germination is significantly correlated with maximum and

minimum temperature prevalent in the area .The cardamom seeds fail to germinate at
temperature less than 15°C and greater than 35°C. Germination was optimum at 30°C (70.9-
73.0% RH). The highest per cent of germination was observed under ambient temperature
during September-October (Siddagangaiah et al., 1993).

Ankegowda (2012) reported that mulching of seedbeds influences

germination. The beds covered with paddy straw recorded highest germination (40%), when
seeds were sown in September and was on par with dry leaves of rose wood (37%), goose berry
(37%) and wild fern (38%). There are also reports that mulching with coir dust, paddy straw or
goose berry leaves enhances germination.

Seedlings of four to five leaf stages from the primary nursery beds
are generally transplanted in the secondary nursery at a distance of 20 to 25 cm or in polythene
bags (20 x 20 cm). In Karnataka, where seeds are sown during August September, transplanting
-

in the secondary nursery is done during November January. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, seedlings
-

from primary beds are transplanted to secondary nursery beds at a spacing of 20 x 20 cm

during June-July. Rate of mortality was high when transplanted in second leaf stage and can be
minimized by transplanting at the four-five leaf stage (Ankegowda, 2003).
 Acid treatment of seeds should he avoided, treatment of seeds with
Trichoderma culture (50 ml spore suspension for 100 g of seed) is desirable as a prophylactic
measure for managing nursery rot diseases (Anon, 1998).

At the time of preparation of beds, incorporation of VAM multiplied

in recommended organic medium is to be incorporated. For raising poly bag seedlings
(preferably high-degradable poly bags), potting mixture may be prepared by using 3:1:1 soil rich
in organic matter, well rotten cow dung or vermin compost and sand. VAM and Trichoderma
can also be added to the potting mixture (250 g mixed with 25 kg of well rotten cow dung). If
growth of the seedlings is not adequate, spraying vermin wash once in a month is desirable (20
ml per plant). The diseases in the nurseries may be managed by regular surveillance and
adopting phyto sanitary measures. Restricted application of Bordeaux mixture 1% may be taken
up to control rot disease at the initial stage itself. Changing the nursery site is benefited to ward
off pests and diseases and for vigorous growth of seedlings (Anon, 1998).
Suckers from elite clones can be used for establishing plantations
capable of high productivity. Plants raised from suckers come to bearing earlier than suckers.
Suckers should not be used in areas where ‘katte’ and other virus diseases (such as Kokke
kandu and Niligiri necrosis) are common.

 Planting:

Kariyawasam et al (1998) reported that Before planting this perennial

spice plant (which grows only under shade and does best in cool and humid conditions at high
altitudes), the villagers remove part of the overstorey, and clear the understorey of the forest.
Nearly a quarter of the cardamom area has been cultivated for >100 yr, and another tenth for
>50 yr, but the most destructive growing is done by commercial exploiters at Kalupahana,
where 615 ha were leased out in 1960.

The suitable season and depth of planting of Cardamom suckers in heavy rainfall areas. Suckers
were planted in June, July and August on the surface of 9 inch in depth.

Suckers planted in august survived best. However in low rainfall areas it may be planted in
June July.

Pattanshetty and Prasad studied that the optimum age of Cardamom seedling for
transplanting ,at the age of 8-9,20-21,32-33,44-45 months and concluded that 20-21 months
old seedlings are economical and better planting material.

Seedlings are transplanted in pits with a size of (503)cm filled with compost and top soil at a
spacing of 1.5-2.0 m either way. While planting ,healthy seedlings are uprooted from the
nursery, clumps separated and over grown roots trimmed .The rhizomes or suckers are planted
5-8 cm deep and the soil are pressed well. They are planted in the pits in such a way that the
taller tiller stand s in the centre with the smaller ones on the sides. It is also ensured that the
tillers are made to lean towards the soil to prevent wind damage .The seedlings are tied with
wooden stalks to prevent it from being dislodged by the strong winds and monsoon rains .After
planting leaf mould is spread to serve as a thick mulch.

 Shade:

A field study was conducted in the Western Ghats of peninsular

India (in Kerala) to test two hypotheses on the floristic attributes of the cardamom hill
reserves (CHR). The traditional system of cardamom production here represents a
unique agroforestry system which involves growing a sciophytic commercial crop under
the shade of trees in the natural forest, with little or no reliance on external inputs.
(Kumar 2000)

As cardamom is grown luxuriously in natural forest canopy

provision of shade and its regulation is necessary in its plantation

Diospyros ebenum yielded 41-50 % more than under Mimusops

elangi, Lagestroemia lanceolate or Artocarpus intigrifolia.The other common shades used are
Cadrela tone,Acrocarpus frainifolium and Erythrina lithosperma.

 Spacing
Spacing should be decided based on variety and duration of crop in the
field.

‘Mysore’ and ‘Vazhukka’ types are vigorous and need wider spacing. ‘Malabar’
types need closer spacing as comparatively smaller plants.

Korikanthimath and Venugopal (1989) reported higher yield in cardamom

seedlings planted at 2 x Im in hilt slopes and 2.1 x 2.lm in flat lands. The trench method
of planting with a spacing of 2 x 1 m resulted in better growth and yield (Siddagangaiah
et al., 1998a).

In spacing trial conducted at Yercaud, Tamil Nadu, it was found that close
spacing (1 x I and 1.5 x 1.5 m) recorded higher yield than wider spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m
and 2 x 2 m. In general, ‘Mysore’ and ‘Vazhukka’ types planted at a spacing of 3 x 3 m or 2.4
x 2.4 m in high rainfall or irrigated areas. A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m or 2 x 2 m is suitable for
cardamom growing areas of Karnataka (Anon. 2003).

 Mulching :
Fallen leaves of the shade trees are utilized for mulching. Sufficient mulch
should be applied during November December to reduce the ill effect of drought which
-,

prevails for nearly 4-5 months during summer.

 Mulching is a practical solution for conserving soil moisture and has been
acclaimed as the most important cultural operation for the overall improvement of soil and
yield of cardamom.

Chakravarthy (2008) reported that mulching (for small areas, usually <0.25 ha)
and trapping substantially reduced feeding damage by squirrels. Integrated efforts are needed
to protect crops like cardamom while sustaining ecologically important rodents like squirrels.
Ankegowda et al (2010) reported that mulching for cardamom and mulching for black pepper are to
be done preferably before 43rd week (22-28th November) to conserve moisture and reduce the
evaporation.

 Weeding and trashing :

Clean weeding is to be limited to the plant bases (50 cm) and the
inter rows are to be maintained by slash weeding (Anon, 1998).

The weeded materials should be used for mulching. Trashed materials and fallen leaves
may also used for mulching. Trashing the dry leaves, leaf sheaths and removal of yielded
old suckers along with rhizomes may be carried out once in a year

 Irrigation management

Korikanthimath et al(2005) reported that The performance of cardamom under low

elevation, partial shade and assured irrigation conditions in Karnataka, India, was evaluated
from 1993-94 to 1997-98.

Madan and Gowda (2007) reported on the Economic viability of soil and water
conservation technology in cardamom based cropping system.

In order to overcome the dry spell during summer, it is necessary to irrigate the crop
to get maximum production as it helps in initiation of panicles ,flowering and fruitset.

Cardamom is generally grown as a rainfed crop and cardamom tracts of India

experience a dry spell of about 5-6 months.

Increased denudation of forests, deterioration in forest ecology, coupled with erratic

trends of rainfall, leads to aridity effects, adversely affecting cardamom production (Rethinam
and Korikanthimath, 1985). Since the roots of cardamom are shallow, moisture at the root zone
does not last long and hence it is essential to irrigate the crop during January to May

Irrigation at 75 per cent available soil moisture (ASM) recorded favourable growth
parameters compared to 25 per cent ASM .
 Further, it was reported that, higher level of irrigation produced maximum capsules
and weight compared to irrigation at lower levels.

Cardamom irrigated at 25 per cent ASM and 75 per cent ASM produced 2.01 and
2.14 times more capsules than those without irrigation. The yield computed on hectare basis
was 1832 kg and 1977 kg in plants irrigated at 25 and 75 per cent ASM respectively as against
856 kg in plant without any irrigation.

Sprinkler irrigation (25 mm rain) once in 12 days recorded higher yield

compared to sprinkler irrigation once in 15 days and control (IISR, 2004). Drip irrigation
daily @ 8 litres/plant from l5lbJanuary onwards recorded significantly higher yield and
this was followed by sprinkler irrigation once in 12 days (IISR. 2004).

 Manuring:

Kumar et al (2009) reported that Field experiments were conducted for seven years
(2000 to 2007) to assess the efficacy of FYM in integrated nutrient supply on yield and nutrient
content of cardamom. Treatments consisted of FYM and fertilizers applied in 25, 50, 75 and 100
per cent in combinations. Results revealed that application of 100% organic manure in the form
of FYM enhanced capsule yield by 34.1 per cent over control. As the proportion of inorganic
nutrient application increased, the response of yield also increased.
Application of 100% inorganic RDF yielded 188.81 kg/ha followed by 75% inorganic
RDF+25% FYM (144.14 kg/ha). Nutrient content study of two years revealed that potassium
content in the leaf was higher followed by nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients content in
organic treatment was minimum while that of 100% RDF applied plots was maximum.
A fertilizer dose of 75 kg nitrogen ,75kg Phosphorus and 150 kg K2O per ha is
recommended under irrigated condition for high yielding plantations.
Being a perennial crop sucker production is throughout the year initiation of panicles
and development of capsules spread over a period of eight to nine months in a year . A steady
absorption and utilization of plant nutrients take place throughout the life cycle of cardamom
and hence a regular application of nutrients should be followed for higher yields .

Application of compost or farm yard manure @ 5 kg/pLant/year in May-June is

recommended (Anon, 1997).

Parthasarthy et al (2010) reported about the integrated nutrient management in

cardamom.

Application of 3 - 4 t of well rotten cattle or sheep manure apart from 30 kg each of

N, P205 and 40 kgs K2O /acre greatly enhanced the yield in cardamom .
 Thimmarayappa et al., (2000) reported that integrated nutrient management with
25% organic manure +75 % inorganic fertilizers and 50 % organic manure +50 % inorganic
fertilizers also recorded yields at par with 75 % organic manure + 25 % inorganic fertilizers.

Field studies in cardamom has shown that application of recommended NPK nutrients
as organic fertilizers (50 per cent each as FYM and neem cake + 50 percent P each as bone meal
and rock phosphate + 50 per cent K as wood ash) as effective in increasing the yield and quality
of cardamom (Sadariandan and Hamza, 2006).

Application of organic manures such as neem cake @ 1 kg or poultry manure/farmyard

manure/compost/vermicompost @ 2kg per plant is recommended once in a year during May-
June. Mussorie rock phosphate or bone meal may be applied based on soil analysis (Anon,
1998).

 Use of growth substances:

Pattanshetti (1983) suggested that sucker production is increased with

treatment of 225 ppm ethrel.

Nair and Vijayan (1975) reported that IAA treatment at 25,50,75,100 PPM
on 3rd year old cardamom plant has no significant effect on the production of the pseudostem
panicles or green pods.

Gurumurthy et al (1990) obtained good result with ethrel treatment in the

cultivar MUDIGERE 1.

 DISEASES AND PEST MANAGEMENT :

 Fungal diseases
Major fungal diseases causing considerable crop loss arc ‘azhukal’ (capsule rot),
rhizome rot (clump rot), seedling rot (damping off), Leaf blight, leaf blotch and
nursely leaf spots.

 Capsule rot (Azhukal disease)

Azhukal is a local term meaning rotting in Malayalam. Besides capsules (fruits), disease
can also be seen in other parts of plant such as leaf, panicle, inflorescence and rhizome.
The disease is particularly important in Kerala (Idukki and Wynad districts) with losses
upto 30% (Nambiar and Sarma, 1974). Large circular or irregular water soaked lesions
on leaves or capsules are the first visible symptoms. These lesions enlarge and affected
portions rot. In some instances long lesions extending over the entire length of the leaf
were observed. The exposed portions of tender, unopened leaves remain rotted and
decomposed without opening within 2 to 4 days. The leaves become shredded and
remain attached to the pseudostem. Infected capsules show water soaked spots, which
enlarge and turn grayish brown. Such affected capsules rot and drop down prematurely
during rains emitting foul smell (Thomas et al., 1991a; 1989; Thomas and Bhai, 2002).

From the capsules, infection spreads to panicle and whole inflorescence is

affected (Alagianagalingam and Kandaswamy, 1982). Plzytoplillsora meadi and P.
nicotianae var nicofianac are the primary fungi associated with the disease (Nair, 1979;
Bhai, 1998). Associations of P. palniiz’orn, Pytisiuns vexans and a Fusariurn sp. have also
been reportcd (Radha and Joseph, 1974; Nambiar and Sarma, 1976).

Control:

The spraying of 1 % Bordeaux mixture is recommended to control the disease

.Since the occurrence and spread of ‘azhukal’ disease is directly correlated to
weather conditions, an integrated disease management strategy involving plant
sanitation and biological methods are more suitable. Plant sanitation including
removal and destruction of diseased plant parts and regulation of shade in
plantations are to be carried out before the onset of monsoon.

The first round of prophylactic fungicidal application should be done before the
onset of monsoon, usually in May. Since water stagnation aggravates disease,
better drainage in the plantation should be assured. Plant sanitation coupled
with timely application of Bordeaux mixture (1%) two to three times per year
effectively controls the disease (Thomas et aL, 1989).

Application of biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma viride and T. I:nrzinnum

twice during May and July with one kg of multiplied biocontrol agent in carrier
media having a cfu of 23.X l(Y/ g was successful in the management of the
disease under field conditions (Bhai el al., 1993; Bhai, 1998).
 Rhizome root rot :
Sivakumar et al (2012) reported about the rhizome rot disease of the small
cardamom.
1. The first visible symptom is yellowing of foliage and premature death of older
leaves.
2 Rotting develops at the collar region which becomes soft and brown coloured.
3. The affected shoots fall off emitting a foul smell.
4. In advanced stages all the affected shoots fall off from the base.
5. Rotting extends to the rhizomes and roots.
6 . Rotten rhizomes become soft, dark brown in colour and emit a foul smell .

 Control:

Rhizome rot resistant variety, IISR Avinash is recommended for planting in disease prone
areas.
Shade regulation and proper drainage should be provided in the plantations during rainy
seasons.
Trashing and cleaning of the plant basin are to be carried out during May, before the
onset of monsoon.
Prophylactic foliar spraying with Bordeaux mixture (1%). 
Trichoderma viride or T. harzianum can be mass multiplied on suitable carrier media and
applied to plant basins @ 1 kg during May and September–October. If the soil is drenched with
COC or other fungicides, Trichoderma should be applied only after 15 day

 Chenthal or Leaf blight:

 This disease also locally known as ‘chenthal’ was first reported from
ldukki district of Kerala (George et al., 1976).

Disease appears post monsoon and becomes severe during

summer. The symptoms of the disease appear as elongated water soaked lesions on the
abaxial surface of young leaves. In advanced stages, the lesions become brown to dark
brown with a pale yellow halo. The leaves wither resulting in wilting of pseudostems.
The disease affected gardens present a burnt appearance. Flowers produced after
disease incidence fail to form capsules (Thomas and Bhai, 2002)

Though Corynebacterium was reported earlier (George and

Jayasankar, 1977), detailed investigations carried out in later years showed that
Colletotridwrn gkteosporioides is the pathogen responsible for the disease
(Govindaraju et a!., 1996). Providing adequate shade in the plantation and mulching
the plants to conserve soil moisture etc. ensure disease control to a certain extent.
Spraying of Bordeaux mixture (1%) was found to limit the further spread of infection
(Govindaraju et al., 1996).

 Leaf blight

In recent years, leaf blight caused by foliar infections by Phytoplithora

meadii and Colletotrichum glocosporides is gaining importance. The disease appears
during mid-monsoon, becomes severe during late monsoon periods (October-
November) and declines by March. The symptoms develop as brownish spots and
patches on the leaf lamina, often extend to large continuous areas and finally these
portions or the entire affected leaves shred and dry. The disease is found only in
certain localities. It has been observed that intermittent rain and continued mist
formation in plantations favours the incidence and spread of the disease. The
disease can be controlled by one or two rounds of Bordeaux mixture spray (1%).
  Nursery leaf spot :

1. Minute water soaked, round to oval shaped spots appear on the leaf lamina.
2. The spots are dull white in colour which later has a depressed necrotic centre.
3. Several minute dark pinheads like structures containing fruiting bodies of the fungus can be
seen in the lesion areas.
4. In the advanced stages this central portion dries off leading to the formation of a shot hole.
5. Numerous such lesions develop and ultimately the entire leaf dries off and perishes.

 Management:

1 Sow the seeds in August-September, to ensure sufficient growth of seedlings, so that they
2 develop tolerance to the disease.
3 Avoid exposure to direct sunlight from top or sides.
4 The practice of raising nurseries continuously on the same site may be avoided.
Prophylactic spraying with fungicides such as Mancozeb (0.2%) may be given. First spray is to be
given during March-April, depending on the receipt of summer showers and subsequent sprays
may be undertaken at fortnightly intervals. Depending on the severity of the disease, two to
three rounds of spraying may be given.
5 Destroy severely affected leaves in order to prevent its spread to the healthy ones.

 Viral diseases:
 Katte or Marbel disease is a serious virus mosaic disease affecting the progress of
Cardamom industry in india.

Rao and naidu (1974) reported 14 aphid vectors are responsible for the transmitting
katte disease of Elettaria cardamomum .

It was further reported by Rao and naidu (1974c) that seeds from the Cardamom did
not carry the virus but they germinate very poorly.

Siljo et al (2012) reported Occurrence of Banana bract mosaic virus on cardamom

The most efficient vector is Pentalonia nigronervosa

Viswanath et al studied the disease in 14 gardens of india.

The virus affect the plant show almost parallel pale green discontinuous streaks running
from the mid rib to the margins of the leaf. Ultimate death of the rhizome occurs.

 Control:

Saju et al (2000) reported about the Perspectives on the eco-friendly management of

viral diseases in cardamom.

1.Affected plants should be uprooted and destroyed immediately

3. Proper plant sanitation

4. Steps are taken to improve ‘katte’ resistant lines through mutation .

 Pests:

Among the pests , thrips ,shoot capsule borers ,aphids ,nematodes are
considered to be the major pest.
  Cardamom thrips (Scirtothrips cardamomum Ramk)

The cardamom thrips is the most destructive pest of cardamom and was
first described from Anamalai hills and later from other cardamom growing areas

The pest causes 10-90% damage to the crop in various areas. The adults
and larvae lacerate and feed on leaves, shoots, inflorescences and capsules.
When pamcles are infested, it results in shedding of flowers and immature
capsules.

The population of thrips is generally high during

summer months and declines with the onset of rains. The Mysore and Vazhukka
types of cardamom are highly susceptible to thrips infestation. The pest
infestation was also higher with closer spacing (Chandrasekhar and Balu, 1993).
Varieties and thrips attack Persistence of thrips infestation is the major
handicap for organic cultivation. Variations in the adherence and persistence of
bracts around the flowers and in fruits and variations in the length of pedicle
play a determining role to thrips injury .

Jasvir et al (1999) reported Seasonal population of cardamom thrips (Sciothrips

cardamomi (Ramk.)) on three cultivar types of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum
Maton.

 Shoot and capsule borer (conogethes punctifrails Guen..)

The shoot and capsule borer is a serious pest in nurseries as well as in the
main plantations. The larvae bore into pseudostems and feed on the internal
contents leading to the formation of ‘dead heart’ symptom. When panicles are
 attacked, the portion ahead of point of entry dries off. The larvae also bore into
the capsules and feed on the seeds resulting in empty capsules. The pest is
prevalent throughout the year but higher incidence is pronounced during the
months of January-February, May-June and September-October.

 Root grub (Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby) :

Root grubs are major pests of cardamom in nurseries and main

fields and widely distributed in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Karnataka,
the pest is generally serious in primary and secondary nurseries causing 16 to
38% seedling mortality (Thvagaraj et al., 1991). In plantations, infestation is
observed twice a year (March-April and August-October).

The grubs feed and damage roots and portions of rhizomes;

some times the entire root system is eaten away. The infested plants turn yellow
and are stunted; severely infested plants die. Crop losses of 29-66% have been
reported (Varadarasan, 1995).

 Nematode:

Nematode (Meliodogyne incognita ) infestation has been noticed in some

cardamom plantation .the infected plants stunted growth with symptom like
narrow leaves or small leaves with clustered appearance.

Application of Neem cake found to be help ful regarding this matter.

Application of Temik @25-50gm/clump is recommended.

  Rodents

Squirrels and rats also caused extensive damage in the cardamom plantations
during 1969-71.Shooting ,trapping clean culture are recommended as remedial
measures .

 HARVEST AND POST HARVEST HANDLING

Cardamom suckers or seedlings start bearing two years after planting. Panicles
appear from the base of plant from January onwards and the flowering is from
April to December, which may extend further. Peak flowering is observed during
June to August and fruits mature in about 120 days after flowering. Fruits have
tri locular capsules containing 15-20 seeds and on maturity seed turn black in
colour. The Indian cardamom is known for its rich colour, flavour and aroma.

 Time and stage of harvesting

Due to staggered and prolonged flowering, cardamom capsules mature and ready for
harvesting successively at 10-15 days intervals over an extended period of 8 months
(August to March).

Generally harvesting is carried out at an interval of 15-30 days and completed in 8-9
rounds. Fruits (capsules) that are fully matured and retaining dark green colour of rind
(peel) with black coloured seeds are ready for harvesting.

Harvesting at over ripe stage leads to loss of green colour and capsule splitting during
curing. Per cent recovery of dry capsules varies from 20-24 % in ripe capsules, 18-20 %
in physiologically mature stage and 14-16 % in immature stage.

Hence it is ideal to harvest cardamom at physiologically mature stage (green colour rind
and black colour seeds). After harvesting, the freshly harvested capsules need to be
cleaned from dirt.

Cardamom capsules arc cured by reducing the moisture content from 80 % to 8-12 % in
an optimum temperature by retaining green colour to the maximum extent. Curing is
generally undertaken in two methods.
  Curing

1.Sun drying
Cardamom capsules are directly dried under the sunlight and generally require
5-6 days. This practice is followed only in some parts of Karnataka. The
disadvantages of this method are, not dependable during rainy season and also
not possible to obtain good green colour cured capsules.

2.Conventional curing

The most commonly adopted method for curing cardamom and requires a
structure fitted with furnace, flue pipes, chimney, ventilators etc. It is a masonry
structure consisting of two apartments, a curing room and a furnace room.

Curing room is a tall one provided with veiling at the roof and fitted with wire
gauge on the beams at the middle of the room parallel to the ground floor,
making the room in to two compartments.

Flue pipes having a radius of about 25 cm made by galvanized iron sheets are
provided in the ground floor from one end to the other from the furnace to
chimney pipe to expel the smoke through the roof.

Racks holding rectangular trays are also fitted to the side walls for
accommodating larger quantities of cardamom. Capsules are spread in a single
layer on the racks and trays.

After spreading, the curing room is closed and heating is done by burning fire
wood in the furnace and the heat produced is conducted. Only fallen trees and
lopped branches should be used as fuel. The host smoke passes through the
pipes bringing the room temperature to 45 to 5O’C.

This temperature is maintained for 3 to 4 hours. At this stage capsules sweat and
give off moisture. Ventilators are then opened for sudden cooling and sweeping
out vapour from the drying capsules.

Ventilators are closed after vapour is escaped completely and temperature is

maintained at 40°C for about 24 to 30 hours. Temperature is raised again to 45°C
for one hour. The whole process of curing takes about 28 to 36 hours. In general,
quality of capsules cured by this method is very good. Community curing is cheap
and less polluting.

 CARDAMOM PROCESSED PRODUCTS:

Cardamom is generally used as raw purpose mainly as green cardamom,

except this cardamom oil ,powder are widely used.

 Yield:

The average yield of the dry capsules from the maintained plantation is about
100-150 kg/Ha .

Korikanthimath (2001) reported that The highest yield, 1625 kg/ha (dry), was
recorded during the fourth year after planting. The average yield over nine crop
seasons, 696 kg/ha (dry), obtained in the trials was 12 times more than the national
average yield.

A new high yielding cardamom clone for 3 years and highest average yield
of the dry capsule was obtained from P3(487.6 kg/ha) followed by P1(475.6
kg /ha).

 Quality issues:

It is necessary to maintain some specifications in order to achieve the

export quality. The cardamom should not be broken, very small, immature and
light weight. It should be bold, well mature, good sized, having pungency and
free from diseases. There are certain specifications given by Bureau of Indian
standards in order maintain Indian standard of small cardamom which are given
below.

Weight General
Grade Description Size (mm) Colour
(g/l) characteristics
AGB Extra Bold 7 435 Colour
Kiln dried, 3
AGS Superior 5 385 Green
cornered and
AGS 1 Shipment 4 320-350
with ribbed
Light
AGL Light 3.5 260 appearance
green
CGEB Extra Bold 8 450
Golden to
CGB Bold 7.5 435
light green
Light Round, ribbed
CG-1 Superior 6.5 415
green or smooth
Mota, skin
CG-2 6 385 Green
Green
CG-3 Shipment 5.5 350 Cream
CG-4 Light 3.5 280 Brown
BL-1   8.5 340 Pale Fully
BL-2   7 340 Creamy developed
round, 3
cornered
BL-3   5 300 Dull white
ribbed or
smooth skin
AG- Alleppey Green, CG- Coorg Green, BL- Bleached

Source : Bureau of Indian standard, April (2015)

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