Electronics Interview Questions And Answers

1. Question 1. What Is Electronic?

Answer :
The study and use of electrical devices that operate by controlling the flow of
electrons or other electrically charged particles.

2. Question 2. What Is Communication?

Answer :
Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes
through a medium then the output is obtained at the receiver. (or)communication
says as transferring of message from one place to another place called
communication.

3. Question 3. Different Types Of Communications? Explain.?

Answer :
Analog and digital communication.
As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the
human voice) and translating it into electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is
breaking the signal into a binary format where the audio or video data is
represented by a series of "1"s and "0"s.
Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good,
components used in digital communication can be produced with high precision
and power consumption is also very less when compared with analog signals.

4. Question 4. What Is Sampling?

Answer :
The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t)
is referred to as sampling.

5. Question 5. State Sampling Theorem.?

Answer :
It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken
care that the sampling rate is equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency
and the minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.

6. Question 6. What Is Cut-off Frequency?

Answer :
The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum
response.
7. Question 7. What Is Pass Band?
Answer :
Passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a
filter without being attenuated.

8. Question 8. What Is Stop Band?

Answer :
A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit,
such as a filter or telephone circuit, does not let signals through, or the
attenuation is above the required stopband attenuation level.

9. Question 9. Explain Rf?

Answer :
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about
3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current
electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves.
Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical
systems can respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits or
electromagnetic radiation.

10. Question 10. What Is Modulation? And Where It Is Utilized?

Answer :
1. Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic
wave with an external signals.
2. Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal
onto a carrier signal.
3. These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air
easily and are capable of travelling long distances.
4. The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier
signal are varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
5. Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long
distances.
6.
o Question 11. What Is Demodulation?
Answer :
Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get
the original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the
 receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it
needs to turn it to base-band.

o Question 12. Name The Modulation Techniques.?

Answer :
For Analog modulation: AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM
Digital modulation: OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK, CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM.

o Question 13. Explain Am And Fm.?

Answer :
AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.
FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.

o Question 14. Where Do We Use Am And Fm?

Answer :
AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.

o Question 15. What Is A Base Station?

Answer :
Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local
wireless network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the
wireless network.

o Question 16. How Many Satellites Are Required To Cover The Earth?
Answer :
3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to
each other. The life span of the satellite is about 15 years.

o Question 17. What Is A Repeater?

Answer :
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that
the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.

o Question 18. What Is An Amplifier?

Answer :
 An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power,
voltage or current of an applied signal.

o Question 19. Example For Negative Feedback And Positive

Feedback?
Answer :
Example for –ve feedback is ---Amplifiers And for +ve feedback is – Oscillators.

o Question 20. What Is Oscillator?

Answer :
An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output from a direct current
input. The two main types of oscillator are harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic
oscillators have smooth curved waveforms, while relaxation oscillators have
waveforms with sharp changes.

o Question 21. What Is An Integrated Circuit?

Answer :
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched
onto a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high
performance, and very small size.

o Question 22. What Is Crosstalk?

Answer :
Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The
most common example is hearing an unwanted conversation on the telephone.
Crosstalk can also occur in radios, televisions, networking equipment, and even
electric guitars.

o Question 23. What Is Resistor?

Answer :
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current
by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current,
that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR.

o Question 24. What Is Inductor?

Answer :
An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its
property of inductance. An inductor can take many forms.
o Question 25. What Is Conductor?
Answer :
A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity.

o Question 26. What Is A Semi Conductor?

Answer :
A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between
that of a conductor and that of an insulator(An Insulator is a material that resists
the flow of electric current.
It is an object intended to support or separate electrical conductors without
passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either permanently
or dynamically.

o Question 27. What Is Diode?

Answer :
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes
between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their
unidirectional current property.

o Question 28. What Is Transistor?

Answer :
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify
or switch electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of
computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are
packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

o Question 29. What Is Op-amp?

Answer :
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DC-coupled high-gain
electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs[1] and, usually, a single output.
Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which
largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive
feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation.

o Question 30. What Is A Feedback?

Answer :
 Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system
is passed (fed back) to the input. This is often used to control the dynamic
behaviour of the system.

o Question 31. Advantages Of Negative Feedback Over Positive

Feedback.?
Answer :
Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes,
because negative feedback processes lead systems towards equilibrium states.
Positive feedback reinforces a given tendency of a system and can lead a system
away from equilibrium states, possibly causing quite unexpected results.

o Question 32. What Is Cdma, Tdma, Fdma?

Answer :
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by
various radio communication technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum
technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a
code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel.
By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while
frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people
wish to communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take
turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or
speak in different directions (spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak
different languages.
People speaking the same language can understand each other, but not other
people. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular
code can understand each other.

o Question 33. Explain Different Types Of Feedback?

Answer :
Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and
linearizes operation). Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted,
into the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes
referred to as "cumulative causation", is a feedback loop system in which the
system responds to perturbation (A perturbation means a system, is an alteration
of function, induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as
the perturbation. In contrast, a system that responds to the perturbation in the
opposite direction is called a negative feedback system.
 Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.

o Question 34. What Are The Main Divisions Of Power System?

Answer :
The generating system,transmission system,and distribution system.

o Question 35. What Is Instrumentation Amplifier (ia) And What Are All
The Advantages?
Answer :
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input
impedances with ease of gain adjustment by varying a single resistor.

o Question 36. What Is Meant By Impedance Diagram.?

Answer :
The equivalent circuit of all the components of the power system are drawn and
they are interconnected is called impedance diagram.

o Question 37. What Is The Need For Load Flow Study.?

Answer :
The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation
existing system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also
essential for designing the power system.

o Question 38. What Is The Need For Base Values?

Answer :
The components of power system may operate at different voltage and power
levels. It will be convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power,
current ratings of the components of the power system is expressed with
reference to a common value called base value.

o Question 39. What Is The Difference Between Photodiode And Solar

Cell?
Answer :
A photodiode is made to detect light quickly a solar cell is made to collect energy
from light. They are both typically silicon diodes, but modified to meet their
different requirements. A photodiode has to be fast, which means low
capacitance, which means small area of silicon.
Therefore, it is not very sensitive, and cannot generate much power from light. A
solar cell has as large an area as you can afford to buy, getting watts per square
inch. There are other differences in the way they are made, and how the PN
junction is grown, but they all relate to this difference in purpose.
o Question 40. How Do You Make A Memory Card Of Mobile Phone?
Answer :
A memory chip stores bits and mounted in a card with electrical contacts so a
computer or camera can send data to be stored.

Semiconductor Interview Questions And Answers

1. Question 1. What Do Diodes Do?

Answer :
Block current in one direction while letting current flow in another direction.

2. Question 2. Where Must Doping Be Added Within A Semiconductor To Alter

Their Conductivity?
Answer :
Their crystal lattice.

3. Question 3. What Is The Value Of Kt At Room Temperature?

Answer :
25.6 meV

4. Question 4. Which Semiconductor Has A Direct Bandgap?

Answer :
Gallium arsenide has a direct bandgap.

5. Question 5. What Are The Four Elements In Cigs?

Answer :
1. Copper
2. indium
3. gallium
4. selenium

o Question 6. How To Use Resistors?

Answer :
Resistors are typically used to control volume in electronics.

o Question 7. What Is An Exciton?

Answer :
 An electron-hole pair is called an exciton.

o Question 8. What Type Of Semiconductor Do You Get If You Dope It

With Boron?
Answer :
A p-type semiconductor.

o Question 9. What Is A Iii-v Semiconductor?

Answer :
A semiconductor made from elements in columns III and V of the periodic table.

o Question 10. What Mathematical Formula Most Accurately Predicts

The Fermi Level Of A Semiconductor?
Answer :
Fermi-Dirac distribution.

o Question 11. What Are The Four Terminals Of An Fet Transistor?

Answer :
1. Source
2. gate
3. drain
4. body

o Question 12. Can Pure Silicon Alone Be Used To Make A

Semiconductor?
Answer :
No. It needs impurities to become semi-conductive.

o Question 13. What Does The Acronym Igbt Stand For?

Answer :
Insulated gate bipolar transistor.

o Question 14. What Are The Components Of A Mosfet?

Answer :
1. Source
2. drain
3. gate

o Question 15. What Does Cmos Stand For?

Answer :
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor.
o Question 16. What Are The Two Bands In Which An Electron Can
Reside?
Answer :
Valence and conduction

o Question 17. What Is The Reason For Reducing Drain Doping In A

Metal-oxide Semiconductor Device Design?
Answer :
To improve breakdown voltage.

o Question 18. What Is A Semiconductor?

Answer :
The combination of a conductive material, and an insulator.

o Question 19. What Does 'doping' Do?

Answer :
Changes a semiconductor's behavior.

o Question 20. When Silicon Has Been Doped, What Does This Mean?
Answer :
Impurities have been added that alter its electronic properties in a controllable
way.

o Question 21. What Is Doping?

Answer :
The process of deliberately adding impurities to affect conductivity is
called Doping.

o Question 22. Why Are Semiconductors Important?

Answer :
They successfully replaced vacuum tubes as the primary way to compute data.

o Question 23. What Does Led Stand For?

Answer :
Light Emitting Diode

o Question 24. What Does Mosfet Stand For?

Answer :
Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor.
o Question 25. What Does Bjt Stand For?
Answer :
Bipolar junction transistor.

Electronics And Communications Engineering

1. Question 1. What Is Cutoff Frequency?

Answer :
The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum
response.

2. Question 2. What Is Op-amp?

Answer :
An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp , is a DCcoupled high -
gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single
output. Typically the output of the opamp is controlled either by
negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage
gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation.

3. Question 3. What Is Transistor?

Answer :
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify
or switch electronic signals. The transistor is the fundamental building block of
computers, and all other modernelectronic devices. Some transistors are
packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits.

4. Question 4. What Is Diode?

Answer :
In electronics, a diode is a twoterminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes
between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their
unidirectional current property.

5. Question 5. What Is A Semi Conductor?

Answer :
A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivityin between that
of a conductor and that of an insulator(AnInsulator is a material that resists the
flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical
conductorswithout passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range
either permanently or dynamically.
6. Question 6. What Is Conductor?
Answer :
A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc.
Copper is a good conductor of  electricity.

7. Question 7. What Is Inductor?

Answer :
An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its
property of inductance. An inductor can take many forms.

8. Question 8. What Is Capacitor?

Answer :
A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energyin the electric
field between a pair of conductors (called “plates”). The process of storing energy
in the capacitor is known as “charging”, and involves electric charges of equal
magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. 
Capacitors are often used in electric and electronic circuits asenergystorage
devices. They can also be used to differentiate between highfrequency and low-
frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers. This term is considered
archaic in English, but most other languages use acognate of condenser to refer
to a capacitor.

9. Question 9. What Is Resistor?

Answer :
A resistor is a twoterminal electronic component that opposes anelectric current
by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current,
that is, in accordance with Ohm’s law: V= IR

10. Question 10. What Is A Rectifier?

Answer :
A rectifier changes alternating current into direct current. This process is called
rectification. The three main types of rectifier are the halfwave, fullwave, and
bridge. A rectifier is the opposite of an inverter, which changes direct current into
alternating current. HWR The simplest type is the halfwave rectifier, which can be
made with just one diode. When the voltage of the alternating current is positive,
the diode becomes forwardbiased and current flows through it. When the voltage
is negative, the diode is reversebiased and the current stops.
The result is a clipped copy of the alternating current waveform with only positive
voltage, and an average voltage that is one third of the peak input voltage. This
pulsating direct current is adequate for some components, but others require a
 more steady current. This requires a fullwave rectifier that can convert both parts
of the cycle to positive voltage.
FWR The fullwave rectifier is essentially two halfwave rectifiers, and can be made
with two diodes and an earthed centre tap on the transformer. The positive
voltage half of the cycle flows through one diode, and the negative half flows
through the other. The centre tap allows the circuit to be completed because
current cannot flow through the other diode. The result is still a pulsating direct
current but with just over half the input peak voltage, and double the frequency.

11. Question 11. What Is Crosstalk?

Answer :
Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The
most common example is hearing an unwanted conversation on the telephone.
Crosstalk can also occur in radios, televisions, networking equipment, and even
electric guitars.

12. Question 12. What Is An Integrated Circuit?

Answer :
An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched
onto a silicon chip. Their main advantages are low cost, low power, high
performance, and very small size.

13. Question 13. What Is A Transducer And Transponder?

Answer :
A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electromechanical,
electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or
physical attribute to another for various purposes including measurement or
information transfer.
In telecommunication, the term transponder (shortforTransmitterresponder and
sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) has the following
meanings:
1. An automatic device that receives, amplifies, andretransmits a signal
on a different frequency (see alsobroadcast translator).
2. An automatic device that transmits a predetermined messagein
response to a predefined received signal.
3. A receivertransmitter that will generate a reply signal upon proper
electronic interrogation.
4. A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders,
because each is a separate transceiver or repeater.

o Question 14. What Is Oscillator?

Answer :
 An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output  from a direct current
input. The two main types of oscillator are harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic
oscillators have smooth curved waveforms, while relaxation oscillators
have waveforms with sharp changes.

o Question 15. Example For Negative Feedback And Positive

Feedback.
Answer :
Examples :
1. –ve feedback is —Amplifiers.
2. +ve feedback is – Oscillators.

o Question 16. Advantages Of Negative Feedback Over Positive

Feedback.
Answer :
Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes,
because negative feedback processes lead systems towards equilibrium states.
Positive feedback reinforces a given tendency of a system and can lead a system
away from equilibrium states, possibly causing quite unexpected results.

o Question 17. What Is A Feedback? And Explain Different Types Of

Feedback.
Answer :
Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system
is passed (fed back) to the input. This is often used to control the dynamic
behaviour of the system.
Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and
linearizes operation). Negative feedback feeds part of a system’s output, inverted,
into the system’s input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes
referred to as “cumulative causation”, is a feedback loop system in which the
system responds to perturbation (Aperturbation means a system, is an alteration
of function, induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as
the perturbation. In contrast, a system that responds to the perturbation in
the opposite direction is called a negative feedback system. 
Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.

o Question 18. Explain Full Duplex And Half Duplex.

Answer :
Full duplex refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously.
For example, a telephone is a fullduplex devicebecause both parties can talk at
 once. In contrast, a walkietalkie is ahalfduplex device because only one party can
transmit at a time. Most modems have a switch that lets you choose between full-
duplex and halfduplex modes. The choice depends on whichcommunications
program you are running.
In fullduplex mode, data you transmit does not appear on yourscreen until it has
been received and sent back by the other party. This enables you to validate that
the data has been accurately transmitted. If your display screen shows two of
each character, it probably means that your modem is set to halfduplex mode
when it should be in fullduplex mode.

o Question 19. What Is Barkhausen Criteria?

Answer :
Barkhausen criteria, without which you will not know which conditions, are to be
satisfied for oscillations. 
“Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of
the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the
feedback factor of the feedback network ( the magnitude of the loop gain )
are less than unity”.
The condition of unity loop gain Aβ = 1 is called the Barkhausencriterion. This
condition implies that | Aβ|= 1and that the phase of – Aβ is zero.

o Question 20. What Is An Amplifier?

Answer :
An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power,
voltage or current of an applied signal.

o Question 21. Difference Between Cdma And Gsm.

Answer :
These are the two different means of mobile communication being presently used
worldwide. The basic difference lies in the Multiplexing method used in the aerial
communication i.e. from Mobile Tower to your mobile and vice versa. CDMA uses
Code Division Multiple Access as the name itself indicates, for example you are in
a hall occupied with number of people speaking different language.
You will find that the one  language you know will be heard by you and the others
will be treated like noise. In the same manner each CDMA mobile communication
takes place with a “code” communicating between them and the other end if one
is knowing that code then only it can listen to the data being transmitted i.e. the
communication is in the coded form.
On the other hand GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)uses
narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio
frequency. TDMA works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots and then
 allocating slots to multiple calls. In this way, a single frequency can support
multiple, simultaneous data channels.

o Question 22. What Is Cdma, Tdma, Fdma?

Answer :
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access methodutilized by
various radio communication technologies. CDMA employsspreadspectrum
technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a
code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel.
By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by
time, whilefrequencydivision multiple access (FDMA) divides it byfrequency.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people
wish to communicate with each other. To avoid confusion, people could take
turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or
speak in different directions (spatial division). 
In CDMA, they would speak different languages. People speaking the same
language can understand each other, but not other people. Similarly, in radio
CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the
same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can understand
each other.

o Question 23. What Is Multiplexing?

Answer :
Multiplexing (known as muxing) is a term used to refer to a processwhere
multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one
signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource.
For example, in telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using
one wire.

o Question 24. What Is Attenuation?

Answer :
1. Attenuation is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal.
Signals may attenuate exponentially by transmission through a medium,
or by increments calculated in electronic circuitry or set by variable
controls.
2. Attenuation is an important property in telecommunications
and ultrasound applications because of its importance in determining
signal strength as a function of distance. 
3. Attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of
medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc) and is represented by the attenuation
coefficient of the medium in question.
o Question 25. What Is A Repeater?
Answer :
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that
the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.

o Question 26. How Many Satellites Are Required To Cover The Earth?
Answer :
3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to
each other. The life span of the satellite is about 15 years.

o Question 27. What Is A Base Station?

Answer :
Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local
wireless network, and may also be the gateway between a wired network and the
wireless network

o Question 28. How Does A Mobile Work?

Answer :

When you talk into a mobile telephone it converts the sound of your voice to
radiofrequency energy (radio waves). The radio waves are transmitted through the
air to a nearby base station. The base station then sends the call through the
telephone network until it reaches the person you are calling. When you receive a
call on your mobile phone the message travels through the telephone network
until it reaches a base station near to you. The base station sends out radio
waves, which are detected by your telephone and converted back to speech.
Depending on the equipment and the operator, the frequency that each operator
utilises is 900MHz, 1800MHz or 2100MHz.
The mobile phone network operates on the basis of a series of cells. Each cell
requires a radio base station to enable it to function.
There are three types of base station and each has a particular purpose:
1. The Macrocell is the largest type and provides the main coverage for
mobile phone networks.
2. The Microcell is used to improve capacity in areas where demand to
make calls is high, such as shopping centres.
3. The Picocell only has a range of a few hundred metres and may be
used to boost weak signals within large buildings.
Each base station can only cope with a certain number of calls at any one time.
So if demand exceeds the capacity of a base station an additional base station is
needed.
o Question 29. Where Do We Use Am And Fm?
Answer :
1. AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to
1705 kHz. 
2. FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to
108 MHz.
3.
o Question 30. Explain Am And Fm.
Answer :
AMAmplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal. FM-
Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the information bearing signal.

o Question 31. Name The Modulation Techniques.

Answer :
For Analog modulation–AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM .
Digital modulation–OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK,CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM.

o Question 32. What Is Demodulation?

Answer :
Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get
the original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the
receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it
needs to turn it to baseband.

o Question 33. What Is Modulation? And Where It Is Utilized?

Answer :
Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with
an external signals. Radio communication superimposes this information bearing
signal onto a carrier signal. These high frequency carrier signals can be
transmitted over the air easily and are capable of travelling long distances. The
characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in
accordance with the information bearing signal. Modulation is utilized to send an
information bearing signal over long distances.

o Question 34. Explain Rf?

Answer :
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about
3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current
electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this
 range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to,
RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation.

o Question 35. Difference Between Mobile And A Cell Phone.

Answer :
There is no difference, just language use, which differs from country to country, so
in Britain it is called a mobile, and in USA and South Africa and other places a cell
phone. Even in Europe the name differs. The Germans call it a “handy”, which in
English has completely another meaning as an adjective, meaning useful. In Italy
it is called a telofonino or “little phone”.
 This difference in British and American English is also evident in many other
things we use every day, like lifts and elevators, nappies and diapers, pickups and
trucks. The list goes on and on, any student of English has to decide which he or
she will use, as the default setting.

o Question 36. What Is Stop Band?

Answer :
A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit,
such as a filter or telephone circuit, does not let signals through, or the
attenuation is above the required stopband attenuation level.

o Question 37. What Is Pass Band?

Answer :
Passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a
filter without being attenuated.

o Question 38. State Sampling Theorem.

Answer :
It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken
care that the sampling rate is equal to or greater than twice the cut off frequency
and the minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.

o Question 39. What Is Sampling?

Answer :
The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t)
is referred to as sampling.

o Question 40. Difference Between Electronic And Electrical.

Answer :
 Electronics work on DC and with a voltage range of 48vDC to +48vDC. If the
electronic device is plugged into a standard wall outlet, there will be a transformer
inside which will convert the AC voltage you are supplying to the required DC
voltage needed by the device.
Examples: Computer, radio, T.V, etc… 
Electric devices use line voltage (120vAC, 240vAC, etc…).Electric devices can also
be designed to operate on DC sources, but will be at DC voltages above 48v.
Examples: incandescent lights, heaters, fridge, stove, etc…

Analogue Electronics

1. Question 1. What Is Bias?

Answer :
The application of electric voltage to a P-N junction is known as Bias.

2. Question 2. What Is Frequency Modulation?

Answer :
frequency modulation technique is the frequency of a carrier signal varied
according to the amplitude of an information-bearing signal.

3. Question 3. In A Circuit Consisting Of A Battery In Parallel With Two

Identical Parallel Resistors, How Do The Currents Through The Two Resistors
Compare?
Answer :
The same amount of current flows through each resistor.

4. Question 4. In A Series Circuit Consisting Of A Battery And Two Identical

Resistors, How Do The Currents Through The Two Resistors Compare?
Answer :
The same amount of current flows through each resistor.

5. Question 5. Which Applications Is A Typical Use For A Transformer?

Answer :
changing the voltage of an alternating-current signal.

6. Question 6. In What Form Is The Energy Stored In A Charged Capacitor?

Answer :
The energy is stored as an electric field.
7. Question 7. Under What Physical Conditions Is Magnetic Energy Stored In
An Inductor?
Answer :
when current is flowing through the inductor.

8. Question 8. What Does Mosfet Stand For?

Answer :
Metal-oxide-semiconductor-field-effect-transistor.

9. Question 9. Which Is True About The Resistance In A "short Circuit?"

Answer :
A short circuit has very little resistance.

10. Question 10. Which Components Form A Darlington Pair?

Answer :
Two bipolar transistors.

11. Question 11. When A Series Rlc Circuit Is Driven At Resonance, How Does
The Impedance Of The Circuit Compare To The Resistance In The Circuit?
Answer :
The impedance is equal to the resistance.

12. Question 12. How Does The Total Capacitance Of Two Capacitors Arranged
Together In Parallel Compare To The Individual Capacitances Of Each?
Answer :
The total capacitance is greater than either of the individual capacitances.

13. Question 13. How Is The Charge Stored In A Capacitor Related To The
Voltage Applied To The Capacitor?
Answer :
The charge is proportional to the applied voltage.

14. Question 14. What Is Breakdown Voltage?

Answer :
The voltage at which a Zener diode starts conducting when reverse biased is
called Breakdown Voltage.

15. Question 15. In An Alternating-current Circuit, What Is The Relationship

Between The Impedance Of An Inductor And The Frequency Of The Current?
 Answer :
The impedance increases with frequency.

16. Question 16. How Does The Total Capacitance Of Two Capacitors Arranged
Together In Series Compare To The Individual Capacitances Of Each?
Answer :
The total capacitance is less than either of the individual capacitances.

17. Question 17. Which Statements Is Certainly True About Two Capacitors
That Have Been Charged In Parallel?
Answer :
Each capacitor has the same voltage drop.

18. Question 18. In An Alternating-current Circuit, What Is The Relationship

Between The Impedance Of A Capacitor And The Frequency Of The Current?
Answer :
The impedance decreases with frequency.

19. Question 19. What Does A Q-point Of A Transistor Indicate?

Answer :
The collector-emitter current with no input.

20. Question 20. What Is The Use Of The Load Line?

Answer :
Load line is used in the graphical analysis of non-linear circuits.

21. Question 21. What Is Tri-state Logic?

Answer :
In digital electronics three-state, tri-state, or 3-state logic allows an output port to
assume a high impedance state in addition to the 0 and 1 logic levels, effectively
removing the output from the circuit.

22. Question 22. What Is A Relaxation Oscillator?

Answer :
In electronics a relaxation oscillator is a nonlinear electronic oscillator circuit that
produces a nonsinusoidal repetitive output signal, such as a triangle wave or
square wave. The period of the oscillator depends on the time constant of the
capacitor or inductor circuit.

23. Question 23. What Is Noise Margin?

 Answer :
In electrical engineering, noise margin is the amount by which a signal exceeds
the minimum amount for proper operation.

It is commonly used in at least two contexts:

In a digital circuit, the noise margin is the amount by which the signal exceeds the
threshold for a proper '0' or '1'.

24. Question 24. What Is Characteristic Impedance?

Answer :
The characteristic impedance or surge impedance (usually written Z0) of a
uniform transmission line is the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a
single wave propagating along the line; that is, a wave travelling in one direction in
the absence of reflections in the other direction.

25. Question 25. What Is Fan Out?

Answer :
In digital electronics, the fan-out of a logic gate output is the number of gate
inputs it can drive.
In most designs, logic gates are connected to form more complex circuits. While
no logic gate input can be fed by more than one output, it is common for one
output to be connected to several inputs. The technology used to implement logic
gates usually allows a certain number of gate inputs to be wired directly together
without additional interfacing circuitry. The maximum fan-out of an output
measures its load-driving capability: it is the greatest number of inputs of gates of
the same type to which the output can be safely connected.

26. Question 26. What Is Sample And Hold Circuit?

Answer :
In electronics, a sample and hold (S/H, also "follow-and-hold") circuit is an analog
device that samples (captures, grabs) the voltage of a continuously varying
analog signal and holds (locks, freezes) its value at a constant level for a
specified minimum period of time.

27. Question 27. Define Settling Time Of Op Amp?

Answer :
Op Amp Settling Time. SETTLING TIME. The settling time of an amplifier is
defined as the time it takes the output to respond to a step change of input and
come into, and remain within a defined error band, as measured relative to the
50% point of the input pulse.
28. Question 28. What Is Gain Bandwidth Product?
Answer :
The gain–bandwidth product (designated as GBWP, GBW, GBP or GB) for an
amplifier is the product of the amplifier's bandwidth and the gain at which the
bandwidth is measured.

29. Question 29. What Is Meta Stability?

Answer :
Metastability in electronics is the ability of a digital electronics system to persist
for an unbounded time in an unstable equilibrium or metastable state. In
metastable states, the circuit may be unable to settle into a stable '0' or '1' logic
level within the time required for proper circuit operation.

30. Question 30. What Is Signal Integrity?

Answer :
Signal integrity or SI is a set of measures of the quality of an electrical signal. In
digital electronics, a stream of binary values is represented by a voltage (or
current) waveform.

31. Question 31. What Is Lvdt?

Answer :
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called linear variable
displacement transformer, linear variable displacement transducer, or simply
differential transformer) is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring
linear displacement (position).

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
1. Question 1. What Is Difference Between Latch And Flip-flop?
Answer :
The main difference between latch and FF is that latches are level sensitive while
FF is edge sensitive. They both require the use of clock signal and are used in
sequential logic. For a latch, the output tracks the input when the clock signal is
high, so as long as the clock is logic 1, the output can change if the input also
changes.
FF on the other hand, will store the input only when there is a rising/falling edge of
the clock. Latch is sensitive to glitches on enable pin, whereas flip-flop is immune
to glitches. Latches take fewer gates (also less power) to implement than flip-
flops. Latches are faster than flip-flops
2. Question 2. Given Only Two Xor Gates One Must Function As Buffer And
Another As Inverter?
Answer :
 Tie one of xor gates input to 1 it will act as inverter.
Tie one of xor gates input to 0 it will act as buffer.

3. Question 3. Difference Between Mealy And Moore State Machine?

Answer :
A) Mealy and Moore models are the basic models of state machines. A state
machine which uses only Entry Actions, so that its output depends on the state, is
called a Moore model. A state machine which uses only Input Actions, so that the
output depends on the state and also on inputs, is called a Mealy model. The
models selected will influence a design but there are no general indications as to
which model is better. Choice of a model depends on the application, execution
means (for instance, hardware systems are usually best realized as Moore
models) and personal preferences of a designer or programmer
B) Mealy machine has outputs that depend on the state and input (thus, the FSM
has the output written on edges) Moore machine has outputs that depend on
state only (thus, the FSM has the output written in the state itself.
Advantage and Disadvantage
•In Mealy as the output variable is a function both input and state, changes of
state of the state variables will be delayed with respect to changes of signal level
in the input variables, there are possibilities of glitches appearing in the output
variables.
•Moore overcomes glitches as output dependent on only states and not the input
signal level.
•All of the concepts can be applied to Moore-model state machines because any
Moore state machine can be implemented as a Mealy state machine, although the
converse is not true.
•Moore machine: the outputs are properties of states themselves... which means
that you get the output after the machine reaches a particular state, or to get
some output your machine has to be taken to a state which provides you the
output. The outputs are held until you go to some other state Mealy machine:
•Mealy machines give you outputs instantly, that is immediately upon receiving
input, but the output is not held after that clock cycle.

4. Question 4. Difference Between One Hot And Binary Encoding?

Answer :
Common classifications used to describe the state encoding of an FSM are Binary
(or highly encoded) and One hot.
A binary-encoded FSM design only requires as many flip-flops as are needed to
uniquely encode the number of states in the state machine. The actual number of
flip-flops required is equal to the ceiling of the log-base-2 of the number of states
in the FSM.A one hot FSM design requires a flip-flop for each state in the design
and only one flip-flop (the flip-flop representing the current or "hot" state) is set at
a time in a one hot FSM design.
 For a state machine with 9- 16 states, a binary FSM only requires 4 flip-flops while
a one hot FSM requires a flip-flop for each state in the design FPGA vendors
frequently recommend using a one hot state encoding style because flip-flops are
plentiful in an FPGA and the combinational logic required to implement a one hot
FSM design is typically smaller than most binary encoding styles.
Since FPGA performance is typically related to the combinational logic size of the
FPGA design, one hot FSMs typically run faster than a binary encoded FSM with
larger combinational logic blocks

5. Question 5. How To Achieve 180 Degree Exact Phase Shift?

Answer :
Never tell using inverter
a) DCM an inbuilt resource in most of FPGA can be configured to get 180 degree
phase shift.
b) BUFGDS that is differential signaling buffers which are also inbuilt resource of
most of FPGA can be used.

6. Question 6. What Is Significance Of Ras And Cas In Sdram?

Answer :
SDRAM receives its address command in two address words. It uses a multiplex
scheme to save input pins. The first address word is latched into the DRAM chip
with the row address strobe (RAS).
Following the RAS command is the column address strobe (CAS) for latching the
second address word. Shortly after the RAS and CAS strobes, the stored data is
valid for reading.

7. Question 7. Tell Some Of Applications Of Buffer?

Answer :
a) They are used to introduce small delays.
b) They are used to eliminate cross talk caused due to inter electrode capacitance
due to close routing.
c) They are used to support high fan-out, e.g.: bufg

8. Question 8. Give Two Ways Of Converting A Two Input Nand Gate To An

Inverter?
Answer :
a) Short the 2 inputs of the nand gate and apply the single input to it.
b) Connect the output to one of the input and the other to the input
signal.
b)
9. Question 9. Why Is Most Interrupts Active Low?
Answer :
 This answers why most signals are active low if you consider the transistor level
of a module, active low means the capacitor in the output terminal gets charged
or discharged based on low to high and high to low transition respectively. When
it goes from high to low it depends on the pull down resistor that pulls it down and
it is relatively easy for the output capacitance to discharge rather than charging.
Hence people prefer using active low signals.

10. Question 10. Design A Four-input Nand Gate Using Only Two-input Nand
Gates.
Answer :
Basically, you can tie the inputs of a NAND gate together to get an inverter.

11. Question 11. What Will Happen If Contents Of Register Are Shifter Left,
Right?
Answer :
It is well known that in left shift all bits will be shifted left and LSB will be
appended with 0 and in right shift all bits will be shifted right and MSB will be
appended with 0 this is a straightforward answer What is expected is in a left shift
value gets Multiplied by 2
e.g.: consider 0000_1110=14 a left shift will make it 0001_110=28, it the same
fashion right shift will Divide the value by 2.

12. Question 12. Given The Following Fifo And Rules, How Deep Does The Fifo
Need To Be To Prevent Underflow Or Overflow?
Answer :
RULES:
1) frequency(clk_A) = frequency(clk_B) / 4
2) period(en_B) = period(clk_A) * 100
3) duty cycle(en_B) = 25%
Assume clk_B = 100MHz (10ns)
From (1), clk_A = 25MHz (40ns)
From (2), period(en_B) = 40ns * 400 = 4000ns, but we only output for 1000ns,due
to (3), so 3000ns of the enable we are doing no output work. Therefore, FIFO size
= 3000ns/40ns = 75 entries

13. Question 13. Differences Between D-latch And D Flip-flop?

Answer :
D-latch is level sensitive where as flip-flop is edge sensitive. Flip-flops are made
up of latches.

14. Question 14. What Is A Multiplexer?

Answer :
 Is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from one of many input
lines and directs it to a single output line.
(2n =>n). Where n is selection line.

15. Question 15. What Are Set Up Time & Hold Time Constraints? What Do
They Signify? Which One Is Critical For Estimating Maximum Clock Frequency Of
A Circuit?
Answer :
Set up time is the amount of time the data should be stable before the application
of the clock signal, where as the hold time is the amount of time the data should
be stable after the application of the clock. Setup time signifies maximum delay
constraints; hold time is for minimum delay constraints. Setup time is critical for
establishing the maximum clock frequency.

16. Question 16. How Can You Convert An Sr Flip-flop To A Jk Flip-flop?

Answer :
By giving the feedback we can convert, i.e. !Q=>S and Q=>R.Hence the S and R
inputs will act as J and K respectively.

17. Question 17. How Can You Convert The Jk Flip-flop To A D Flip-flop?
Answer :
By connecting the J input to the K through the inverter.

18. Question 18. How Do You Detect If Two 8-bit Signals Are Same?
Answer :
XOR each bits of A with B (for e.g. A [0] xor B [0]) and so on. The o/p of 8 xor
gates is then given as i/p to an 8-i/p nor gate.
if o/p is 1 then A=B.

19. Question 19. Convert D-ff Into Divide By 2. (not Latch) What Is The Max
Clock Frequency The Circuit Can Handle, Given The Following Information?
Answer :
T_setup= 6nsT_hold = 2nS T_propagation = 10nS
Circuit: Connect Qbar to D and apply the clk at clk of DFF and take the O/P at Q. It
gives freq/2. Max. Freq of operation: 1/ (propagation delay+setup time) = 1/16ns
= 62.5 MHz

20. Question 20. 7 Bit Ring Counter's Initial State Is 0100010. After How Many
Clock Cycles Will It Return To The Initial State?
Answer :
 6 cycles

21. Question 21. Design All The Gates (not, And, Or, Nand, Nor, Xor, Xnor)
Using 2:1 Multiplexer?
Answer :
Using 2:1 Mux, (2 inputs, 1 output and a select line)
a) NOT :Give the input at the select line and connect I0 to 1 & I1 to 0. So if A is 1,
we will get I1 that is 0 at the O/P.
b) AND: Give input A at the select line and 0 to I0 and B to I1. O/p is A & B
c) OR: Give input A at the select line and 1 to I1 and B to I0. O/p will be A | B
d) NAND: AND + NOT implementations together
e) NOR: OR + NOT implementations together
f) XOR: A at the select line B at I0 and ~B at I1. ~B can be obtained from (a)
g) XNOR: A at the select line B at I1 and ~B at I0

22. Question 22. Design A Circuit That Calculates The Square Of A Number?
Answer :
It should not use any multiplier circuits. It should use Multiplexers and other logic?
1^2=0+1=1
2^2=1+3=4
3^2=4+5=9
4^2=9+7=16
5^2=16+9=25
See a pattern yet? To get the next square, all you have to do is add the next odd
number to the previous square that you found. See how 1,3,5,7 and finally 9 are
added. Wouldn’t this be a possible solution to your question since it only will use a
counter, multiplexer and a couple of adders? It seems it would take n clock cycles
to calculate square of n.

23. Question 23. N Number Of Xnor Gates Is Connected In Series Such That
The N Inputs (a0, A1, A2......) Are Given In The Following Way: A0 & A1 To First
Xnor Gate And A2 & O/p Of First Xnor To Second Xnor Gate And So On..... Nth
Xnor Gates Output Is Final Output. How Does This Circuit Work? Explain In
Detail?
Answer :
If N=Odd, the circuit acts as even parity detector, i.e. the output will 1 if there are
even number of 1's in the N input...This could also be called as odd parity
generator since with this additional 1 as output the total number of 1's will be
ODD. If N=Even, just the opposite, it will be Odd parity detector or Even Parity
Generator.

24. Question 24. What Is Race-around Problem? How Can You Rectify It?
 Answer :
The clock pulse that remains in the 1 state while both J and K are equal to 1 will
cause the output to complement again and repeat complementing until the pulse
goes back to 0, this is called the race around problem. To avoid this undesirable
operation, the clock pulse must have a time duration that is shorter than the
propagation delay time of the F-F, this is restrictive so the alternative is master-
slave or edge-triggered construction.

25. Question 25. An Assembly Line Has 3 Fail Safe Sensors And One
Emergency Shutdown Switch. The Line Should Keep Moving Unless Any Of The
Following Conditions Arise:
Answer :
(i) If the emergency switch is pressed
(ii) If the senor1 and sensor2 are activated at the same time.
(iii) If sensor 2 and sensor3 are activated at the same time.
(iv) If all the sensors are activated at the same time
suppose a combinational circuit for above case is to be implemented only with
NAND Gates. How many minimum number of 2 input NAND gates are required?
No of 2-input NAND Gates required = 6 you can try the whole implementation.

26. Question 26. How Will You Implement A Full Subtractor From A Full Adder?
Answer :
All the bits of subtrahend should be connected to the xor gate. Other input to the
xor being one. The input carry bit to the full adder should be made 1. Then the full
adder works like a full subtract.

27. Question 27. What Is Difference Between Setup And Hold Time. The
Interviewer Was Looking For One Specific Reason, And Its Really A Good Answer
Too..the Hint Is Hold Time Doesn't Depend On Clock, Why Is It So...?
Answer :
Setup violations are related to two edges of clock, i mean you can vary the clock
frequency to correct setup violation. But for hold time, you are only concerned
with one edge and do not basically depend on clock frequency.

28. Question 28. In A 3-bit Johnson's Counter What Are The Unused States?
Answer :
2(power n)-2n is the one used to find the unused states in Johnson counter.
So for a 3-bit counter it is 8-6=2.Unused states=2. the two unused states are 010
and 101.

29. Question 29. What Is Difference Between Ram And Fifo?

 Answer :
FIFO does not have address lines
Ram is used for storage purpose where as FIFO is used for synchronization
purpose i.e. when two peripherals are working in different clock domains then we
will go for FIFO.

30. Question 30. Consider Two Similar Processors, One With A Clock Skew Of
100ps And Other With A Clock Skew Of 50ps. Which One Is Likely To Have More
Power? Why?
Answer :
Clock skew of 50ps is more likely to have clock power. This is because it is likely
that low-skew processor has better designed clock tree with more powerful and
number of buffers and overheads to make skew better.

31. Question 31. Is It Possible To Reduce Clock Skew To Zero? Explain Your
Answer?
Answer :
Even though there are clock layout strategies (H-tree) that can in theory reduce
clock skew to zero by having the same path length from each flip-flop from the pll,
process variations in R and C across the chip will cause clock skew as well as a
pure H-Tree scheme is not practical (consumes too much area).

32. Question 32. The Circle Can Rotate Clockwise And Back. Use Minimum
Hardware To Build A Circuit To Indicate The Direction Of Rotating?
Answer :
2 sensors are required to find out the direction of rotating. They are placed like at
the drawing. One of the m is connected to the data input of D flip-flop, and a
second one - to the clock input. If the circle rotates the way clock sensor sees the
light first while D input (second sensor) is zero - the output of the flip-flop equals
zero, and if D input sensor "fires" first - the output of the flip-flop becomes high.

33. Question 33. You Have Two Counters Counting Upto 16, Built From
Negedge Dff , First Circuit Is Synchronous And Second Is "ripple" (cascading),
Which Circuit Has A Less Propagation Delay? Why?
Answer :
The synchronous counter will have lesser delay as the input to each flop is readily
available before the clock edge. Whereas the cascade counter will take long time
as the output of one flop is used as clock to the other. So the delay will be
propagating. For E.g.: 16 state counter = 4 bit counter = 4 Flip flops Let 10ns be
the delay of each flop The worst case delay of ripple counter = 10 * 4 = 40ns The
delay of synchronous counter = 10ns only.(Delay of 1 flop)
34. Question 34. Difference Between Synchronous And Asynchronous Reset?
Answer :
Synchronous reset logic will synthesize to smaller flip-flops, particularly if the
reset is gated with the logic generating the dinput. But in such a case, the
combinational logic gate count grows, so the overall gate count savings may not
be that significant. The clock works as a filter for small reset glitches; however, if
these glitches occur near the active clock edge, the Flip-flop could go metastable.
In some designs, the reset must be generated by a set of internal conditions. A
synchronous reset is recommended for these types of designs because it will
filter the logic equation glitches between clocks.
Disadvantages of synchronous reset:
Problem with synchronous resets is that the synthesis tool cannot easily
distinguish the reset signal from any other data signal. Synchronous resets may
need a pulse stretcher to guarantee a reset pulse width wide enough to ensure
reset is present during an active edge of the clock. if you have a gated clock to
save power, the clock may be disabled coincident with the assertion of reset. Only
an asynchronous reset will work in this situation, as the reset might be removed
prior to the resumption of the clock. Designs that are pushing the limit for data
path timing, cannot afford to have added gates and additional net delays in the
data path due to logic inserted to handle synchronous resets.
Asynchronous reset:
The biggest problem with asynchronous resets is the reset release, also called
reset removal. Using an asynchronous reset, the designer is guaranteed not to
have the reset added to the data path. Another advantage favoring asynchronous
resets is that the circuit can be reset with or without a clock present.
Disadvantages of asynchronous reset: ensure that the release of the reset can
occur within one clock period. if the release of the reset occurred on or near a
clock edge such that the flip-flops went metastable.

35. Question 35. Implement The Following Circuits:

Answer :
(a) 3 input NAND gate using min no of 2 input NAND Gates
(b) 3 input NOR gate using min no of 2 input NOR Gates
(c) 3 input XNOR gate using min no of 2 input XNOR Gates
Assuming 3 inputs A,B,C?
3 input NAND Connect:
a) A and B to the first NAND gate
b) Output of first Nand gate is given to the two inputs of the second NAND gate
(this basically realizes the inverter functionality)4
c) Output of second NAND gate is given to the input of the third NAND gate,
whose other input is C ((A NAND B) NAND (A NAND B)) NAND C Thus, can be
implemented using '3' 2-input NAND gates. I guess this is the minimum number of
gates that need to be used.