Gis PDF

Geographic Information
System
CED, UET LAHORE
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
• “GIS is a computerized system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating,
manipulating, analyzing, and displaying data related to positions on the
Earth’s surface.”
• Geographic Information System (GIS) is defined as an information system that
is used to input, store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and output geographically
referenced data or geospatial data, in order to support decision making for
planning and management of land use, natural resources, environment,
transportation, urban facilities, and other administrative records.
• The term Geographic Information System (GIS) first appeared in published

literature in the mid-1960s. But although the term is relatively new, many of
its concepts have long been in existence. For example, the map overlay
concept, which is one of the important tools used in GIS spatial analysis, was
used by French cartographer Louis-Alexandre Berthier more than 200 years
ago. He prepared and overlaid a series of maps to analyze troop movements
during the American Revolution.
• GIS data can be assembled from existing databases; digitized or scanned from
existing maps and plans; or collected using conventional surveying techniques,
including GPS surveying techniques. One GPS method that has recently
become very popular for GIS data collection is that of differential GPS
• A generalized concept of how data of different types or
“layers” are collected and overlaid in a GIS is illustrated:
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS
GIS DATA SOURCES
• The capabilities and benefits of any GIS are directly related to the content
and integrity of its database. Data that are entered into a GIS come from
many sources and may be of varying quality.
• Building the database is one of the most expensive and challenging
aspects of developing a GIS.
• Two basic data classifications are used in GISs, (1) spatial and (2)
nonspatial.
• Traditional sources for data collection include the following:
1) Field surveying.
2) Remotely sensed images—rectified and digitized aerial photograph
(orthophotos) and processed aerial and satellite imagery.
3) Existing topographic maps, plans, and photos—via digitizing and/or
scanning.
4) Census data.
5) Electronic transfer of previously digitized data from government agencies
or commercial firms.
GEOREFERENCING
• Like the map makers of the past, GIS specialists must find some way to
relate geospatial data to the surface of the Earth. If all or most geographic
data users employ the same (or well-recognized) Earth-reference
techniques, data may be economically shared among agencies using
different computer systems.
• Now, the most widely accepted shape of the Earth has been geometrically
modeled as an ellipsoid.
• Once the shape of the Earth has been modeled and a geodetic datum
defined, some method must be used to show the Earth’s curved surface
on plane-surface map sheets with minimal distortion. Several map
projections have been developed for this purpose.
SPATIAL DATA
• Spatial data consists in general of natural and cultural features that can be
shown with lines or symbols on maps, or seen as images on photographs.
• In a GIS these data must be represented and spatially located, in digital form,
using a combination of fundamental elements called “simple spatial objects.”
• SIMPLE SPATIAL OBJECTS

• Points define single geometric locations. They are used to locate features such
as houses, wells, mines, or bridges.
• Lines and strings are obtained by connecting points. A line connects two
points, and a string is a sequence of two or more connected lines. Lines and
strings are used to represent and locate roads, streams, fences, property lines,
etc.
• Interior areas consist of the continuous space within three or more connected
lines or strings that form a closed loop. For example, interior areas are used to
represent and locate the limits of governmental jurisdictions, parcels of
landownership, different types of land cover, or large buildings.
SIMPLE SPATIAL OBJECTS
• Pixels are usually tiny squares that represent the smallest elements into
which a digital image is divided. Continuous arrays of pixels, arranged in
rows and columns, are used to enter data from aerial photos,
orthophotos, satellite images, etc. Assigning a numerical value to each
pixel specifies the distributions of colors or tones throughout the image.
Pixel size can be varied and is usually specified by the number of dots per
inch (dpi). As an example, 100 dpi would correspond to squares having
dimensions of 1/100 in. on each side. Thus, 100 dpi yields 10,000 pixels
per square inch.
• Grid cells are single elements, usually square, within a continuous
geographic variable. Similar to pixels, their sizes can be varied, with
smaller cells yielding improved resolution. Grid cells may be used to
represent slopes, soil types, land cover, water table depths, land values,
population density, and so on. The distribution of a given data type within
an area is indicated by assigning a numerical value to each cell; for
example, showing soil types in an area using the number 2 to represent
sand, 5 for loam, and 9 for clay.
SIMPLE SPATIAL OBJECTS
SPATIAL DATA: VECTOR AND RASTER FORMATS
• The simple spatial objects described previously give rise to two different
formats for storing and manipulating spatial data in a GIS—vector and
raster.
• When data are depicted in the vector format, a combination of points,
lines, strings, and interior areas is used. The raster format uses pixels and
grid cells.
• In the vector format, points are used to specify locations of objects such as
survey control monuments, utility poles, or manholes; lines and strings
depict linear features such as roads, transmission lines, or boundaries; and
interior areas show regions having common attributes; for example,
governmental entities or areas of uniform land cover.
• As an alternative to the vector approach, data can be depicted in the
raster format using grid cells (or pixels if the data are derived from
images). Each equal-sized cell (or pixel) is uniquely located by its row and
column numbers and is coded with a numerical value or code that
corresponds to the properties of the specific area it covers.
• In the raster format, a point would be indicated with a single grid cell, a
line would be depicted as a sequence (linear array) of adjacent grid cells
having the same code, and an area having common properties would be
shown as a group of identically coded contiguous cells.
• In general the raster method yields a coarser level of accuracy or
definition of points, lines, and areas than the vector method.
• In the raster format, the size of the individual cells defines the resolution,
or precision, with which data are represented. Smaller the area covered by
each cell, the higher the resolution for any given image.
• Land cover maps of a region
(a) The region using standard
Topographic symbols.
(b) Vector representation of the
same region.
(c) Raster representation of the
region using a coarse-resolution
grid cell.
(d) Raster representation using
a finer-resolution grid cell.
• F for forest, G for grassland,

• M for marsh, and S for stream.
• With a finer-resolution grid, the points, lines, and areas are rendered with
more precision. However, it is important to note that as grid resolution
increases, so does the volume of data (number of grid cells) required to
enter the data.
• Despite the coarser resolution present in a raster depiction of spatial
features, this format is still often used in GISs. One reason is that many
data are available in raster format. Examples include aerial photos,
orthophotos, and satellite images.
• Another benefit of raster format is the ease with which it enables
collection, storage, and manipulation of data using computers.
• Furthermore, various refinements of raster images are readily made using
available “image processing” software programs. Finally, for many data
sets such as wetlands and soil types, boundary locations are rather vague
and the use of the raster format does not adversely affect the data’s
inherent accuracy.
SPATIAL DATA: DATA ATTRIBUTE TABLE
SPATIAL DATA: TOPOLOGY
• Topology is a branch of mathematics that describes how spatial objects
are related to each other. The unique sizes, dimensions, and shapes of the
individual objects are not addressed by topology. Rather, it is only their
relative relationships that are specified.
• Topological relationships include the following:
• Connectivity: used to determine where (e.g., at which node) chains are
connected and to give a sense of direction among connected chains by
specifying “to nodes” and “from nodes.”
• Adjacency: used to determine what spatial features (points, lines, and areas)
are adjacent to chains and polygons. The descriptions “left” and “right”
can be applied once direction has been established by defining “to” nodes
and “from” nodes.
• Containment: used to determine which spatial features (points, lines, and
smaller polygons) are enclosed within a specified polygon.
NON SPATIAL DATA
• Nonspatial data, also often called attribute or descriptive data, describe
geographic regions or define characteristics of spatial features within
geographic regions.
• Nonspatial data are usually alphanumeric and provide information such as
color, texture, quantity, quality, and value of features.
• In general, spatial data will have related nonspatial attributes, and thus
some form of linkage must be established between these two different
types of information. For example, area of land and its address can be
spatial data and date of its purchase and its price at the time of purchase
can be non spatial data.
SPATIAL DATA FORMAT CONVERESION
• In manipulating information within a GIS database, it is often necessary to
either integrate vector and raster data or convert from one form to the
other.
• Vector-to-raster conversion is also known as coding and can be
accomplished in several ways, three of which are illustrated:
• Predominant coding: each grid cell is assigned the value corresponding to
the predominant characteristic of the area it covers.
• Precedence coding: each category in the vector data is ranked according
to its importance or “precedence” with respect to the other categories. In
other words, each cell is assigned the value of the highest ranked category
present in the corresponding area of the vector data. A common example
involves water. While a stream channel may cover only a small portion of a
cell area, it is arguably the most important feature in that area.
• Center-point coding: is the third technique for converting from vector-to
raster data. Here a cell is simply assigned the category value at the vector
location corresponding to its center point.
• The precisions of these vector-to-raster conversions depend on the size of

the grid used. Obviously, using a raster of large cells would result in a
relatively inaccurate representation of the original vector data. On the
other hand, a finer solution grid can very closely represent the vector
data, but would require a large amount of computer memory.
• Raster-to-Vector Conversion
• Raster-to-vector conversions are more vaguely defined than vector to

raster. The procedure involves extracting lines from raster data, which
represent linear features such as roads, streams, or boundaries of
common data types.
• The approach is basically a simple one and consists in identifying the pixels
or cells through which vector lines pass, the resulting jagged- or
“staircase” type outlines are not indicative of the true lines.
• There are different methods to perform raster to vector conversions but
no matter which conversion is performed, errors are introduced during the
process and some information from the original data is lost. Use of smaller
grid cells improves the results.
• Raster-to-Vector Conversion
• One raster-to-vector conversion
example is illustrated, which shows
the cells identifying the stream line.
SPATIAL DATA EXERCISE | UNDERSTANDING SPATIAL DATA
CREATING GIS DATABASE
• Several important factors must be considered prior to developing the
database for a GIS. These include the types of data that need to be
obtained, optimum formats for these data, the reference coordinate
system that will be used for spatially relating all data, and the necessary
accuracy of each data type.
• The next step is to locate data sources. Depending on the situation, it may
be possible to utilize existing data, in which case a significant cost savings
could result. However, in many cases, it is necessary to collect new data to
meet the needs of the GIS.
• DATA SOURCE
• 1) Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys: Using conventional
methods, using total station, using GPS (GNSS).
• 2) Using areal photos.
• 3) Digitizing existing graphic materials: maps, orthophotos, plans,
diagrams, or other graphic documents.
DATA SOURCE
• 4) Existing digital datasets: Massive quantities of digital information are
now being generated by a wide variety of offices and agencies involved in
GIS activities. For Example, the U.S. Geological Survey or local survey
departments of countries, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Land Management Department, the Environmental
Protection Agency, and other organizations are developing digital
information. Their maps and data can be utilized.
• 5) Remote sensing and mobile mapping: For example: Scanners and
LiDAR systems.
GIS DATASTRUCTURES
• GIS software programs usually support both raster and vector models, and
some programs readily convert from one to the other.
• Both vector and raster models permit the storing of thematic data on separate
layers. Typical thematic layers include the following:
1) Spatial reference system (e.g., coordinate grid system, etc.). The control data on
this layer are used to correlate the placement of spatial data on all related
layers.
2) Elevation data (including contours).
3) Parcel (property) boundaries.
4) Hydrology (runoff and catchment areas, drainage, streams and rivers).
5) Wetlands.
6) Transportation.
7) Soil types.
8) Geology.
9) Land use and zoning.
10) Government boundaries.
11) Municipal services.
12) Buildings and other structures.
13) Ground cover (including crop types and tree stands).
GIS DATABASE ANALYSIS AND MAPPING
METADATA
• Metadata, often simply defined as “data about data,” describes the

content, quality, condition, and other characteristics about geospatial data
and provides a record of changes or modifications that have been made to
that data.
• It normally includes information such as who originally created the data,
when was it generated, what equipment and procedures were used in
collecting the data, and what was its original scale and accuracy.
• Although generating the original metadata and updating it as changes are
made may be burdensome and add cost, in the long run it is worth the
effort because it preserves the value of the data and extends its useful life.
If it is not done, prospective users may not trust the data and as a result
they may fail to take advantage of it and incur the cost of duplicate data
collection.
METADATA
GIS PROCESS EXPLAINED THROUGH AN EXAMPLE
GIS APPLICATIONS
GIS APPLICATIONS
GIS APPLICATIONS
GIS APPLICATIONS

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Geographic Information

• The term Geographic Information System (GIS) first appeared in published

• SIMPLE SPATIAL OBJECTS

• F for forest, G for grassland,

• The precisions of these vector-to-raster conversions depend on the size of

• Raster-to-vector conversions are more vaguely defined than vector to

• Metadata, often simply defined as “data about data,” describes the

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