VJTI /SYBTECH(CIVIL)/ GEOMATICS-II/PROF.S.Y.

MHASKE

Lecture Notes

On

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

By
Prof. S.Y.Mhaske
symhaske@vjti.org.in

Civil and Environmental Engineering Department

Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute Matunga, Mumbai – 400 019

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GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

Definition: A Geographic information system is a computer – based system capable of

capturing, storing, and analyzing and displaying geographically referenced information;
that identified according to location. Practitioners also define a GIS as including the
procedures, operating personal and spatial data that goes into system.

1 Components of a GIS:
Geographical information system have three important components they are
i. Computer hardware
ii .Set of application software modules
iii .and a proper organizational contest

1.1 Hardware Component of GIS:

The general hardware components of GIS are
i. CPU :- Central Processing Unit is linked to disk drive, which provides the
space for storing data and programs.
ii. Digitizer: It is a device used to convert data from maps and documents into
digital form ( i.e Raster to Vector)
iii. Plotter – Plotter is used to present the results of the data processing on a paper.
iv. Tape Drive:- It is used to store data or programs on magnetic tape for
communicating with other systems ( CD/DVD)
v. VDU ( Visual Display Unit):- It is used to control the computer and the other
peripherals. It is otherwise known as terminal or workstation.

1.2 Software Components of GIS:

The software components of GIS consist of five basic modules.
These basic modules are subsystems for
i. Data input and verification
ii. Data storage and data base management ( e.g. MS Access / Oracle)
iii. Data Transformation
iv. Interaction with the user

1.3 Organizational contest:

Organizational contest is nothing but the way the information flows and the way in
which the analysis is done. It is clear from the following flowchart.

2. Types of Data:
i. Spatial Data
ii. Non-spatial Data or Attribute data

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Spatial Data :-
It is something mappable. The spatial data or georefernced data are commonly
characterized by having two fundamental components
a) The physical dimension or class i.e. phenomenon being reported e.g. rock type,
vegetation type details
b) The Spatial Location of the phenomena e.g. Location , specified with reference to
common coordinate system .( Latitude and Departure)
Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
It can be discrete or continuous.

The various components of geographic data can be reduced in the form of

i Point ( e.g. Building , Lamp post, tree, well)
ii Segment ( e.g. Roads , railway lines , telephone lines )
iii. Polygon (ground area, lake)

Non-spatial Data or Attribute data:

Non-spatial Data are characters of feature that are not mappable. It contains data
describing characteristics or qualities of spatial features i.e descriptive information
e.g. No of benches in classroom , type of roads etc

Attribute data are non-spatial data associated with time and area entities. It is generally
referred to as Tabular data.

The GIS attributes are represented using colours, textures and linear or graphic symbols.
The actual Value of the attribute that is measured or sampled and stored in the database is
called attribute value.

Many Commercial GIS software store attribute data separately from spatial data system,
known as the Georelational model. Spatial data are stored in graphic files and managed
by a file manager system, but attribute data are stored in relational database.

A Relational database is a collection of tables, which can be connected to each other by

attributes whose values can uniquely identify a record in a table.

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The object-oriented data model system eliminates the complexity of coordinates and
synchronizes the spatial data and attribute data, and GIS brings closer to other
information system.

3. Data input Devices used in GIS:-

i. Digitizer :- Convert Raster to Vector
ii. Scanner :- To convert data on paper to raster / digital data
iii. Keyboard :- Entry of attribute data
iv.Disk Drive :- To take data from another system into GIS.

4. Data Output Devices used in GIS :-

i. Plotter :- Used to plot the geographical information after analysis on paper.
ii. Printer :- Used to print the information after analysis on a paper .
iii. VDU: - Use to display the result after analysis.
iv. Tape Drive: - Used to store the result after analysis and take it to other system

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5. GIS DATA MODEL

 Geographical variation in the real world is infinitely complex

 The closer we look, the more detail we see
 Methods used to convert real geographical variation into discrete objects is the
data model
 Data Model is a set of guide lines for the representation of the logical
organization of the data in a data base consisting of logical units of data and the
relationships between them
 Each data model fits to certain types of data and applications

Two Major Choices of Data Models

Raster and Vector

5.1 RASTER MODEL

 Raster Model divides the entire study area into regular grid of cells in a
specific sequence
 It is space filling and every location in the study area corresponds to a cell in
the raster
 One set of cells and associated values is a layer (soil, landuse, elevation etc.)
 Raster model tells what occurs at each place in the area

5.1.1 CREATION OF RASTER DATA LAYER

o To create a raster layer, lay a grid pattern over a map (like soil) and code
each cell with a value that represents the soil type
o Cell is called as raster or grid or pixel
o These coded values are in ASCII and can be entered manually through
keyboard. It will be time consuming and tedious
o Currently scanners are used to create raster data layers
o Remote Sensing directly gives the digital data raster model
o GIS tools provide facilities for conversion of vector to raster layers
o
5.1.2 RASTER DIGITAL DATA SOURCES

o Remote Sensing generates images in raster model. Geo registration and

resampling have to be done for registering remote sensing data with other
layers
o Elevation Data is available in raster form in some countries

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5.1.3 Raster Data Layer

Resolution
 Resolution can be defined as the minimum linear dimension of the
smallest unit of geographical space for which data are encoded
 Higher resolution refers to raster with small cell dimensions. It gives more
detail and the storage requirement increases
Orientation
 Angle between true north and the direction defined by the columns of the
raster
Zone
 Each zone of a map layer is a set of contiguous locations that exhibit the
same value
Example : Villages, Soil types
 All individual zones that have the same characteristics is called as a class

Value

 It is item of information stored in a layer for each pixel or cell

 Cells in the same zone have the same value

Location

 Generally location is identified by an ordered pair of coordinates (row and

column numbers) that identify the location of each unit of geographic
space in the raster
 Usually the true geographic location of one or more corners of the raster is
also known

5.1.4 Pixel Values
 The type of values contained in pixels in raster depend upon the map
being coded
 Raster Data Values may be
 0 - 255 (8 bit value)
Remote Sensing Image
 Integers
 Real Values (DTM)
 Integer values act as code numbers which point to names in an associated
table or legend
 One pixel or cell is assured to have only one value
 The boundary of two classes may run across the middle of the pixel. In
such cases, the pixel is given the value of the largest fraction of the cell.

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5.1.5 RASTER DATA COMPRESSION

a) Run length Encoding

 Values often occur in runs across several cells
 Spatial auto-correlation exists - a tendency for nearby things to be more
similar than distant things
 In run length encoding, data are entered in pairs, first run length and then
value
 Thematic maps storage sizes get reduced using run length encoding
 Some raster GIS packages have the capability to handle run length
encoded files

b) Value point encoding
Cells are assigned position numbers starting in the upper left corner
proceeding from left to right and from top to bottom
The position no. for end of each run is stored in the point columns. The
value for each cell in the run is in the value column

COLUMNS
0123456789
ROWS
0
1
2
A
3
4
B
5
6
7
D
8 C
9

MAP
Map

Full Raster Encoding (100 values) Run Length Encoding (54 values) Value Point
Encoding (32 values)
COLUMNS VALUE LENGTH ROW VALUE POINT
Rows 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A 10 0 A 23
0 A A A A A A A A A A A 10 1 B 29
1 A A A A A A A A A A A 4 2 A 32
2 A A A A B B B B B B B 6 2 B 30
3 A A A B B B B B B B A 3 3 D 43
4 D D D D B B B B B B B 7 3 B 49
5 D D D D D B B B B B D 4 4 D 54
6 D D D D C C C C C C B 6 4 B 59
7 D D D D C C C C C C D 5 5 D 64
8 D D D D C C C C C C B 5 5 C 69
9 D D D D C C C C C C D 5 6 D 74
10 D D D D C C C C C C C 5 6 C 79
D 5 7 D 84
C 5 7 C 89
D 5 8 D 94
C 5 8 C 99
D 5 9
C 5 9

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c) Quadtree
 More compact raster representation using a variable sized grid cells
 Process of regularly subdividing a map into four equal sized quadrants. Quadrant
that has more than one class is again subdivided.
 Root is a point from which all branches expand
 Leaf is a lower most point.
 All other points in the tree are nodes

5.2 VECTOR DATA MODEL

 Functional primitive unit is a point

 Arcs are created by connecting points with straight lines
 Areas are defined by set of lines/arcs
 Every piece of boundary line is a common boundary between two
areas
 Common boundary between two junctions (nodes) is called as edge or
chain or arc
 Arcs are fundamental in Vector GIS
 Arcs have attributes which identify the polygons on either side

5.2.1 Vector Representation

• Used to represent points, lines, and areas

• All are represented using coordinates
– One per point
– Areas as polygons
• Straight lines between points, connecting back to the start
• Point locations recorded as coordinates
– Lines as polylines
• Straight lines between points

5.2.2 POLYGON STORAGE

 Type 1 (Nontopological)
 Every polygon is stored as a sequence of coordinates
 Common boundaries between two nearby areas are coded twice
once for each polygon
Type 2 (Topologically structure)
• Every arc is stored as a sequence of coordinates
• Areas are built by linking arcs
• Shared boundary is stored only once

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• Used in most vector based GIS packages

Vector Data Base Creation

• Vector data is created by digitizing points and lines or by scanning
and vectorising or directly from other digital sources
• Once vector data base is created, cleaning, editing and building
topology have to be carried out
• Building topology calculates and encodes relationship between
points, lines and areas

5.2.3 COMPARISON OF RASTER AND VECTOR DATA MODELS

Raster Model Vector Model

Advantages Advantages

1. It is a simple data structure 1. It provides a more compact data

2. Overlay operations are easily and
efficiently implemented
3.High spatial variability is efficiently
represented in a raster format.
4.The raster format is more or less required
for efficient manipulation and
enhancement of digital images
2. It provides efficient encoding of
topology and as a result more efficient
implementation of operations that require
topological information such as network
analysis.
3. The Vector model is better suited to
supporting graphics that closely
approximates hand drawn maps.

Raster Model Vector Model

Disadvantages Disadvantages

1. The raster data structures is less compact
2. Topological relationships are more
difficult to represent.
3. The output of graphics is les
aesthetically pleasing because boundaries
tend to have a blocky appearance rather
than the smooth lines of hand drawn
maps. This can be overcome by using a
very large number of cells, but may result
in unacceptable, large files
4.Manipulation and enhancement of
digital images can be effectively done
in the raster domain
1. It is a more complex data structures than
a simple raster.
2. Overlay operations are more difficult to
implement.
3. The Representation of high spatial
variability is inefficient.
4. Manipulation and enhancement of
digital images cannot be effectively done
in the vector domain

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5.2.4 COMPARISON OF GIS AND CAD SOFTWARE

GIS CAD SOFTWARE

1. GIS has the capabilitities of analysis of
spatial data.
2. Complex analysis of multiple spatial
data and non spatial data in an integrated
manner is possible.
3. GIS may be raster based vector based or
recently the advanced hybrid GIS is also
available.
1. CAD Software do not have the
capabilities of handling spatial data.
It is not possible to use spatial data
therefore obliviously complex analysis
involving spatial and non-spatial data
together is not possible.
3. CAD software is compatible only with
vector data structure. In an CAD software
raster data structures cannot be used.

5.3 Application of GIS:-

 Urban Planning, Management & Policy
 Zoning, subdivision planning
 Land acquisition
 Economic development
 Code enforcement
 Housing renovation programs
 Emergency response
 Crime analysis
 Tax assessment
 Environmental Sciences
 Monitoring environmental risk
 Modeling storm water runoff
 Management of watersheds, floodplains, wetlands, forests, aquifers
 Environmental Impact Analysis
 Hazardous or toxic facility siting
 Groundwater modeling and contamination tracking

 Political Science
 Redistricting
 Analysis of election results
 Predictive modeling
 Business
 Demographic Analysis
 Market Penetration/ Share Analysis
 Site Selection

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 Education Administration
 Attendance Area
Maintenance
 Enrollment Projections
 School Bus Routing
 Civil Engineering/Utility
 Locating underground facilities
 Designing alignment for freeways, transit
 Coordination of infrastructure maintenance
 Real Estate
 Neighborhood land prices
 Traffic Impact Analysis
 Determination of Highest and Best Use
 Health Care
 Epidemiology
 Needs Analysis
 Service Inventory

5.4 GIS In Civil Engineering

 Fundamentally, we as civil engineers—regardless of emphasis—share one

characteristics in that we are all problem solvers. Civil engineers solve problem
through modeling, design, planning and evaluation.
 A tool that has proliferated within civil engineering in recent years is Geographic
Information systems (GIS). Specifically applied to modelling civil engineering
phenomena, GIS has been recognized in a majority of the civil engineering
disciplines as a beneficial technology. This fact is illustrated by the growing
number of articles finding there way into civil engineering journals and
conference proceedings, in addition to the handful of special publications devoted
to GIS in civil engineering.

 Land resource management, environmental problems, utilities, financial planning,

transportation and market research.
 The 1988 GIS core business is estimated to have been $529 million. This amount
has been projected to grow by 32% annually through 1993. The total GIS industry
is also predicted to expand about 22% annually, reaching a total of about
$11billion by 1993 (Daratech, Inc. 1989).

 Internet- Based Geographical Information Systems System For E-commerce

Application In Construction Material Procurement.
 ARCSITE: Enhanced GIS For Construction Site layout.
 Integrated Hydrologic Modeling And GIS In Water Resources Management.
 Storm Water Pollution.

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 Transportation Distance Measurement Data Quality.

 Watershed Analysis
 Location Of Recycling Depots
 Water Resources management As Integrated approach
 Route Generation
 Urban Planning (Minting Of Master plans)
 Communication And Tracking For Construction Vehicles
 Solid Waste Collection
 Distributed Rainfall Runoff

5.5 Software's For GIS

Following are the list of GIS software’s are available in industry.
 Gram++
 JT Maps
 SAGA
 AccuGlobe 2004
 GSRMS Viewer
 Free Datum's & Projections Coordinate Calculator From TatukGIS
 Global Mapper
 sdts2dem: a Translator for STDS DEM Files   
 SIGIS
 MBBuilder: RAD Tool for MapInfo
 GIS Database Tools

Geospatial Explorer
Geostatistics Package
FIELDS 3-D Viewer
Natural Neighbour for ArcView
 MapInfo Callback Manager DLL
 GIS Developer Kernel (DK)
 GIS Internet Map Server
 ArcExplorer
 MapInfo ProViewer
 ER Viewer
 ECW Compression/Decompression SDK for MacOS
 Free ECW Compressor
 dlgv32- for viewing USGS digital cartographic
 Geomatica FreeView
 SPANS Observer
 Map Info professional
 MapInfo ProViewer
 GRASS GIS
 ERDAS
 Spatial Console
 NAPIS Lite

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 ArcExplorer

 CartaLinx 10-day Trial Version (version 1.2)

 IDRISI for Windows Version2
 IDRISI32 10 day trial version
 TNTlite
 GRASS 5 Software's
 OzGIS shareware mapping system
 Global Mapper
 WinQuery for WinGIS Evaluation Version
 MapIt
 JaGo
 Dime
 AGIS for Windows
 ArcView GIS Software
 ARC GIS
 Idrisi32

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5.6 GIS in V.J.T.I.

Civil and Environmental Engineering Department is having following resources

available for Geospatial industry:-
 Gram++ - GIS software’s [ 10 Nos] – which is Indigenous software designed and
developed by CSRE,IIT Bombay.
 GPS Receiver [ Surveying and Mapping receiver from Trimble (USA)] – 2 Nos
 ARCGIS Educational Master Lab Kit – GIS Software [ 1 No]- Which is a
Commercial Software designed and Developed by ESRI,USA

The Following Research projects on GIS are going in Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department under the guidance of Prof. S.Y. Mhaske:-

M. Tech (Civil Engineering with Specialization in Construction Management)

• Geographical Information System and it’s Application in Site Layout Work by

Hemal K. Lad (2004-2006)

• Geographical Information System and it’s Application in Real Estate

Development. By Mohsin Modi (2005 – 2007)

B. Tech (Civil Engineering)

• Geographic Information System and it’s Application in Traffic study and Noise
Level monitoring. by Swati Ingles , Santosh Jadhav, Pradeep Potty (2006-2007)

• Development of Geographic Information System Map of V.J.T.I . By Kanchan

Shejwal, Arun Soumitri, Rankhamb, Mahjan (2006 – 2007)

References :-

1. DST- NRDMS SPONSORED Training Programme

On “GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS”, at CSRE, IIT Bombay
conducted by Dr.(Mrs.)P.Venkatachalam, Dr. B. Krishna Mohan during 18 – 29
September, 2006

2. Basic of Remote Sensing and GIS , By Dr. S. Kumar , Hyderabad

3. Concept and Techniques of Geographic Information Systems ,by C.P. Lo, Albert K.W.
Yeung, prentice-hall of India, New Delhi.

4. Dissertation on “Geographical Information System and it’s Application in Site Layout

Work” by Hemal K. Lad [ M.tech ( Civil Engineering Specialisation in Construction
management ] under guidance of Prof. S.Y. Mhaske.,V.J.T.I. (2004-2006)

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