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Power System (Formula notes)

Work done = F.d cos 

Where F= force applied , d = displacement,  = angle between F & d

Energy: It is capacity to do the work.

Unit : watt second 1w  s  1Joule  1N  m  Newton  meters 

Electrical energy : It is energy that is in charged particles in an electric field.

Electrical energy generally expressed in kilo watt hours (kwh)

1 kwh  3.6 106 J

1 2
Kinetic energy (KE): mv (Jules)
2

Potential Energy (PE): Mgh (Jules)

p
Thermal Energy: Internal energy present in system by virtue of its temperature.
eu
Unit : Calories 1 Cal  4.186 J

Power: it is time rate of change of energy

dw du
P  u = work, w = energy
ad

dt dt

Unit : Watt 1 Watt  1 J / s

Note: Electric motor ratings are expressed in horse power (hp)

gr

1hp = 745.7 W and also 1 metric horse power = 735 Watt.

Electric parameter:

Let v  2V sin t
i  2I sin(t  )

where v = instantaneous value voltage

i = instantaneous value current

V = rms value of voltage

I = rms value of voltage

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In Phasor representation

v  V 0 , i  I  

S = P+jQ = VI cos  + jVI sin  = VI* (for this relation Q will be positive for
lagging VAR)

Where S = complex power or apparent power

P = Active power

Q = Reactive power

e up
ad

For balanced 3 phase system

P  3 |VP || I P | cos  P  3 | VL || I L | cos P

gr

Q  3 | VP || I P | sin  P  3 |VL || I L | sin P

where VL = line voltage

VP = phase voltage

VL
Note: in  connection VP  & IP  IL
3

IL
 connection VP  VL & I P 
3

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Hyrdo power:

P = gWh(watt)

Where  = water density (100 kg/m3)

g = 9.81 m/s2

W = discharge rate (m3/sec)

h= head of water

Tidal power

P =  gh2 A/T (watt)

Where h = tidal head

A = area of basin

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T = period of tidal cycle

Wind power

P = 0.5 AV3 (watt)

e
 = air density (1201 g/m3 at NTP)
ad
V = Wind speed in (m/s)

A = Swept area by blade (m2)

Load Curve: It is graph between the power demands of the system w.r.t. to time.
gr

(i) Base Load: The unvarying loads which

occur almost the whole day.
(ii) Peak load: The various peak demands of
load over and above the base load.

Designation Capital cost Fuel cost Typical Type of plant

capacity annual load
factor
Base load High Low 65-75 Nuclear,
thermal
Peak load Low High 5-10 Gas based,
small hydro,
pump storage

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Designation Capital cost Fuel cost Typical Type of plant

capacity annual load
factor
Base load High Low 65-75 Nuclear,
thermal
Peak load Low High 5-10 Gas based,
small hydro,
pump storage

Operational factors :

Maximum demand
1. Demand Factor =
Connected load

energy consumed is a given period

2. Average load 
Hours in that time period

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Average demand
3. Load factor 
Maximum load

sum of individual max demands

4. Diversity factor 
Maximum demand on power station
e
Average demand
5. Plant Capacity factor 
Installed capcity
ad
6. Reserve Capacity = Plant capacity - max. demand
Actual energy produced
7. Plant use factor 
Plant capacity  hours (the plant has been in operation)
gr

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Power Systems Generation and Distribution and Concepts of HVDC:

Thermal Power Station :-

Heat equivalent of mech−energy Transmitted toTurbine shat
 Thermal efficiency, ηThermal =
Heat of coal combustion
 Thermal efficiency = ηboiler × ηturbine
Heat equvivalent of electrical o/p
 Overall efficiency, ηoverall =
Heat of combustion of coal
 Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency × Electrical efficiency.
 Energy output = coal consumption × calorific value.
= coal consumption × 6500 k.cal
Output in k.cal
η=
Input in k.cal

Water Power equation:-

head
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 Water Head : The difference of water level is called the water head.
 Gross Head : The total head between the water level at inlet and tail race is called as gross

 Rated Head : Head utilized in doing work on the turbine

 Net Head : It is the sum of the Rated Head and the loss of head in guide passage and
ad
entrance
H = Head of water in metre
Q = Quantity of water in m3 /sec or lit/sec.
W = specific gravity of water
= 1 kg/lit when ‘Q’ represented in lit/sec.
gr

= 100 kg/m3 when ‘Q’’ represented in m3 /sec.

η = efficiency of the system.
Effective work done
� = WQH × η kg- m/sec.

WQH × η
 Metric output = (H.P)
75

1H.P = 75 kg-m/sec

WQH × η
 Metric output in watt = × 735.5
75

WQH
 Output = × η kw
102

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 Volume of water available per annum = catchment area × Annual Rainfall

→ Electric energy generated = weight × head × overall η.

GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT :

→ The thermal efficiency of gas turbine plant is about 22% to 25%
→ The air fuel ratio may be of the order of 60 : 1 in this ase.

ηoverall
 Engine efficiency ηengines = ηalt
ηengine
 Thermal efficiency ηthey = mech.η of englnd
 Heat produced by fuel per day = coal consumption / day × caloritic value

Terms and Definitions :-

1. Connected load :-

2. Demand :-
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It is the sum of ratings in kilo watts of equipment installed in the consumer’s premises

It is the load or power drawn from the source of supply at the receiving end averaged over a
ad
specified period.
3. Maximum Demand :-
Maximum demand (M.D) of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given
period.
gr

4. Average load:-
If the number of KWH supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours, then the value so
obtained is known as daily average load.
KWH deliverd in one day
Daily average load =
24
KWH delivered in one month
Monthly average load =
30 ×24
KWH delivered in one year
Yearly average load =
365 ×24
5. Plant capacity :-
It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be slightly more than
M.D. it is equal to sum of the ratings of all the generators in a power station.
6. Firm Power :-
It is the power which should be always be available even under emergency
7. Prime Power :-
It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical) continuously available for
conversion into electrical power.

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8. Dump power :-
This is the term usually used in hydro electric plants and it represents the power in excess of the
load requirements. It is made available by surplus water.
9. Spill Power :-
Is that power which is produced during floods in a hydro power station.
10. Cold reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is not in operation but can be made available for service.
11. Hot reserve :-
It that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service
12. Spinning reserve :-
Is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to bus-bars and is ready to take the load.

Load factor :-
It is defined as the ratio of number of units actually generated in a given period to the number
of units that could have been generated with maximum demand.

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Average load or Average Demand
 Load factor =
Maximum Demand.

Energy generated in a given period

= (Maximum Demand) ×(Hours of operaation in the given period)
.
e
→ The load factor will be always less than one (< 1)
Demand factor:-
ad
It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand on the station to the total connected load to
the station.
Maximum Demand on the station
 ∴ Demand factor =
Total connected load to the station
 Its value also will be always less than one (< 1)
gr

Diversity Factor :-
Diversity factor may be defined as “the sum of individual maximum demand to the station
to the maximum demand on the power station”.
Sum of individual consumers maximum demand
 Diversity factor =
Maximum demand on the station.
 Its value will be always greater than one (> 1)

Plant Factor or Plant Use Factor :-

station output in kwh

 Plant factor =
Σ (KW1 ) H1 + (KW2 ) H2 + (KW3 )H3 + ……
Where KW1, KW2, KW3 etc. are the kilowatt ratings of each generator and H1 , H2 , H3 etc.
are the number of hours for which they have been worked.

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Capacity Factor or plant capacity factor or capability factor :-

→ It is defined as the ratio of average demand on the station to the maximum installed capacity.

Average demand on the station

i.e. capacity factor =
Max.installed capacity of the station

→ Coincidence factor:-

It is the reciprocal of diversity factor and is always less than 1

Maximum demand
→ Utilization factor =
Plant capacity
Service hours
→ Operation factor =
Total duration

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Actual energy produced
→ Use factor =
Plant capacity ×Time (hrs)the plant has been in operation

D.C. Distribution calculations

e
Uniformly loaded Distributor fed at one end.
ad
→ Fig (a) shows the single lien diagram of a 2 – wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A and
loaded uniformly with i amperes per metre length.
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
A C
B
A B
gr

x dx
i i i i
Fig. (a)
→ Then the current at point c is.
= δ𝑙𝑙 − ix amperes
= i(𝑙𝑙 – x) amperes.
→ Total voltage drop is the distributor upto point C is
x x2
𝑣𝑣 = ∫0 ir (𝑙𝑙 − x)dx = ir �𝑙𝑙x − 2
�
→ Voltage drop over the distributor AB
1
= ir𝑙𝑙 2
2
1
= IR
2
Where i𝑙𝑙 = I, the total current entering at point A

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r𝑙𝑙 = R, the total resistance of the distributor.

Uniformly loaded distributor fed at both ends.

(i) Distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages
Current supplied from each feeding point
9𝑙𝑙
=
2

𝑙𝑙
x dx
A B
C

V C
i i i i i
ir
→ Voltage drop upto point C = (𝑙𝑙x − x 2 ).

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2
1
→ Max. voltage drop = IR
8
IR
→ Min. voltage =V– volts
8
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages :-
The point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters from the feeding point A.
e
irx2
Voltage drop in section AC = volts.
2
ad
x 𝑙𝑙 - x
C
A B

VA VB
gr

i i i i i
VA − VB 𝑙𝑙
→ x= ir𝑙𝑙
+
2

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Transmission Lines:

𝑙𝑙 3P
→ The empirical formula for the economical voltage line to line is V = 5.5 � +
1.6 100
where ‘V’ = line pressure in KV, l = distance of transmission in KM,
P = estimated max.KW per phase to be delivered over one pole or tower line

Performance of Lines

→ By performance of lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of

lines.
The efficiency of lines is defined as

Power delivered at the receiving end

→ % efficiency = × 100
Power sent from sending end

Power delivered at the receiving end

→ % efficiency = × 100

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Power delivered at the receiving end+losses

Vr′ − Vr
→ % regulation = × 100
Vr

Where Vr ′ is the receiving end voltage under no load condition and Vr the
e
Receiving end voltage under full load condition.
ad
Effect of Earth on a 3 – 𝛟𝛟 line:-

S. No Line Description R L XL C XC
1. Length Increases Increases Increases Increases Increases Decreases
gr

2. Distance of separation No change Increases Increases Decreases Increases

increases
3. Radius of conductor Decreases Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
increases
4. Symmetrical spacing. Does not Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
depend
5. Unsymmetrical spacing. Does not Increases Increases Decreases Increases
depend.
6. Effect of earth is taken No change No change No change Increases Decreases
into account
7. Height of the conductor No change No change No change Decreases Increases.
increases

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Short Transmission Line

→ The equivalent circuit and vector diagram for a short transmission line are shown in fig.
Vr 2Ir R cos ϕr 2Ir X sin ϕr Ir2
VS = �1 + + + (R2 + X 2 )
Vr Vr Vr2
→ In practice the last term under the square root sign is generally negligible; therefore.
1�
2Ir R 2Ir X 2
VS = Vr �1 + � cos ϕr + sin ϕr ��
Vr Vr

R + JX
vS
Ir jIrX
IS

vS vr
vr IrR
ϕr ϕa
Ir

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The terms within the simple brackets is small as compared to unity. Using binomial expansion
and limiting only to second term,
Vs ≃ Vr + Ir Rcos ϕr + Ir X sin ϕr
→ The receiving end voltage under no load Vr ′ is the same as the sending end voltage under full
e
load condition.
VS − Vr
%regulation = Vr
× 100
ad
I R I X
= � r cos ϕr + r sin ϕr � × 100
Vr Vr
Ir R Ir X
Regulation per unit = cos ϕr + sin ϕr
Vr Vr
= Vr cos ϕr + Vx sin ϕr
→ Where Vr and Vx are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line.
gr

Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
V
A = Vs � Ir = 0
r

This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
Vs
B= � Vr = 0
Ir
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited receiving
end. This is known as transfer impedence in network theory.
I
C = Vs � Ir = 0
r

C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open – circuited receiving end. It
has the dimension of admittance.
I
D = s � Vr = 0
I r

D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving end

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.
 The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows
AD – BC = 1

→ The sending end voltage and current can be written from the equivalent network as,
Vs = Vr + Ir Z
Is = I r
→ The constants for short transmission lines are,
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
VS� − Vr
→ % regulation = A
Vr
×100

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Power received at the receiving end
→ %η= × 100
Power received at the receiving end+losses
Where R is the resistance per phase of the line.
e
ad
gr

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Medium Length Lines:-

→ Transmission lines with lengths between 80 km and 160 km are categorized as medium lines
where the parameters are assumed to be lumped. .
→ The two configurations are known as nominal – T and nominal – π respectively.
R jX R jX
+ + Ir
2 2 vC 2 2 R + jX I𝑙𝑙 Ir
IS IC IC1
Y Y vr
vS Y = jwc vr vS
2 2

Nominal – T
vS
X
jIS
2

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vc
R
IS
2
vr
jIr X/2
IS
e
IC

Ir
ad
−j
|VS |� �
Vr ′ = R jX
wc
j
+ −
2 2 wc
Vr′ − Vr
% of regulation = Vr
× 100
gr

P
%η= R × 100
P+3 �I 2 + I52 �
2 r

A, B, C, D constant for nominal – T

YZ
A=1+
2
YZ
B = Z �1 + �
2
C=Y
YZ
D = �1 + �
2

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Nominal – 𝛑𝛑

IS Z = R + jx I𝑙𝑙 Ir vS
IC & IC
IC2 jI𝑙𝑙X
IC1
Y jwc Y jwc vr
vS = = vr IS
2 2 2 2 I𝑙𝑙R
I𝑙𝑙
Ir
→
−2j
|VS |� �
Vr ′ = ωC
j
R+jX− ωC
�2
Vr LVr
% regulation = × 100
Vr
P
%η= ×100
P+3 I2𝑙𝑙 R
A, B, C, D constants for nominal – 𝛑𝛑
Y𝑍𝑍
A=1+

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2
B=Z
YZ
C = Y �1 + �
4
YZ
D = �1 + �
2
e
Long Transmission Lines:-
→ In case the lines are more than 160 km long
ad
I + ∆I I V + ∆ V1 I + ∆I Z∆X
V1 I

vS V + ∆V V vr Y∆X
C∆X
gr

∆X X ∆X
→ Let Z = series impedence per unit length
Y = shunt admittance per unit length
𝑙𝑙 = length of line
Z = zl = total series impedence
Y = yl = total shunt admittance.
V = Aerx + Be−rx
I
I= (Aerx − Be−rx )
ZC
V +I Z V −I Z
V = r 2 r c erx + r 2r C e−rx
1 V +I Z V −I Z
I = � r 2 r C erx − r 2 r C e−rx �
ZC

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z r+jωL
ZC = � = �
y g+jωC

→ The propagation constant r = ∝ + jβ ; the real part is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component β the phase constant and is measured in radians per unit length.
Vr + Ir ZC Vr −Ir ZC
V= 2
e∝x . ejβx + 2
e−∝x . e−jβx
Vs = Vr cos hrl + Ir Zc sin hrl
sin hrl
IS = Vr + Ir cos hrl
Zc
A = cosh rl
B = Zc sinh rl
sinh rl
C=
Zc
D = cosh rl

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The equivalent Circuit Representation of a Long Line equivalent – 𝛑𝛑 Representation

Z sinhr𝑙𝑙
Z1 =
r𝑙𝑙
e
y1 y1 y Tanhr𝑙𝑙/2
VS =
2 2 2 r𝑙𝑙/2
ad
equivalent – T Representation of Long Line.

Z′ Z Tanhr𝑙𝑙/2
=
2 2 r𝑙𝑙/2
IS
gr

sinh r𝑙𝑙
VS Y1 = Y r𝑙𝑙
Vr

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Constants for Two networks in Tandem

IS I Ir
A1 , B1 A2 , B2
vS V vr
C1 , D1 C 2 , D2

A B A B1 A2 B2
equivalent � �=� 1 �� �
C D C1 D1 C2 D2

Constants for networks in parallel

IS 1
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
IS Ir

vS vr

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IS 2
A2 , B2
C 3 , D2
e
A1 B2 + A2 B1
A=
B1 + B2
ad
Equivalent B .B
B = B 1+ B2
Single 1 2

Network A1 B2 + A2 B1 D1 B2 + D2 B1
A=D= =
Parameters B1 + B2 B1 + B2

(A1 − A2 )(D2 − D1 )
gr

C = C1 + C2 +
B1 + B2

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FAULTS:

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
→ Percentage reactance %𝑋𝑋 = × 100 I=full load current
𝑉𝑉

V= phase voltage

X= reactance in ohms per phase

→ Alternatively percentage reactance (%X) (an also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV
under

(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)𝑋𝑋
%X=
10(𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)2

Where X is the reactance in ohms.

→ If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit currenr is given by

up
𝑉𝑉 100
Isc= = I × ( )
𝑋𝑋 %𝑋𝑋

i.e short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/%X
e 100
Short- circuit KVA=Base KVA ×
%𝑋𝑋
ad
gr

Symmetrical components in terms of phase currents:-

→ The unbalanced phase current in a 3-phase system can be expressed in terms

of symmetrical components as under.

𝐼𝐼���⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗

𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 +𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 +𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0
𝐼𝐼���⃗𝑌𝑌 = 𝐼𝐼�����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
𝑌𝑌1 +𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌2 +𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌0
���⃗
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼�����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
𝐵𝐵1 +𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2 +𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵0

Where The positive phase current (𝐼𝐼���� ���� ����

𝑅𝑅1 , 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌1 , &𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 )

Negative phase sequence currents (𝐼𝐼���� ���� ����

𝑅𝑅2 , 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌2 , &𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2 ) and

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Zero phase sequence currents ( 𝐼𝐼���� ���� ����

𝑅𝑅0 , 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌0 , &𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵0 )

→ The operator ‘a’is one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 1200
in the anticlockwise direction.
→ A=-0.5+j 0.866 ; a2=-0.5- j 0.866

a3=1

→ Properties of operator ‘a’:

1+a+a2=0
a-a2=j √3
→ Positive sequence current 𝐼𝐼�����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ ������⃗
𝐵𝐵1 in phase B leads 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 by 120 and therefore 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1
0

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similarly, positive sequence current in phase Y is 2400 ahead of 𝐼𝐼�����⃗ 2�����⃗
𝑌𝑌1 = a 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1
𝐼𝐼���⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0

𝐼𝐼���⃗𝑌𝑌 = 𝐼𝐼�����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ 2 �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗

𝑌𝑌1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌0 = a 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0
e
𝐼𝐼���⃗ �������⃗ 2 �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
𝐵𝐵 = a 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + a 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 = 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵0 +𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵1 +𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵2
ad

→ Zero sequence current:

gr

𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗ ���⃗ �����⃗ 2 �����⃗ 2 �����⃗

𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 + 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 (1+a+a ) + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 (1+a+a ) + 3𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0
= 3 𝐼𝐼�����⃗
𝑅𝑅0
1
∴ �����⃗
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 = [ 𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗ ���⃗
𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 ]
3
→ Positive sequence current :
𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗ 2 ���⃗ �����⃗ 3 3 �����⃗ 2 4 �����⃗
𝑅𝑅 +a 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 +a 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 (1+a +a ) + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 (1+a +a ) + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 (1+a+a )
2

������⃗1
= 3𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
1
∴ 𝐼𝐼⃗R1 = = [ 𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗ 2 ���⃗
𝑅𝑅 +a 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 +a 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 ]
3
→ Negative sequence current:-
𝐼𝐼���⃗ 2 ���⃗ ���⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
𝑅𝑅 +a 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 +a 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅1 (1+a +a ) + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 (1+a +a ) + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅0 (1+a +a)
4 2 3 3 2

������⃗2
= 3 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
1
∴ 𝐼𝐼⃗R2 = [ 𝐼𝐼���⃗ 2 ���⃗ ���⃗
𝑅𝑅 +a 𝐼𝐼𝑌𝑌 +a𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 ]
3

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Single Line to –Ground Fault:-

�⃗ R=0 and 𝐼𝐼⃗B =𝐼𝐼⃗Y=0

→ 𝑉𝑉

The sequence currents in the red phase in terms of line currents shall be :-

3 𝐸𝐸𝑅𝑅 �����⃗
→ Fault current:- Fault current, 𝐼𝐼���⃗ ���⃗
𝑅𝑅 =3 𝐼𝐼0 =����⃗+𝑍𝑍

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�������������⃗
𝑧𝑧0 1 +��
𝑍𝑍2

Phase voltage at fault

Since the generated emf system is of positive sequence only ,the sequence
e
components of emf in R-phase are:
ad
→

The sequence voltage at the fault for R-phase are: This is ecpected because R-phase is
shorted to ground.
gr

∴ The phase voltages at fault are:

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Line –To-Line fault:-

The condition created by this fault lead to:

→
Again taking R-phase as the reference, we have

Expressing in terms of sequence components of red line, we have

Also,

Fault current:
e up
ad
gr

→ Phase voltages: - since the generated emf system is of positive phase sequence only,the
sequence components of emf in R-phase are:

→ The sequence voltages at the fault for R-phase are:

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→ The phase voltages at the fault are:

→ Double Line- To – Ground Fault:-

The conditions created by this fault lead to :

Also,
e up
ad
→ Fault current:-

→
gr

Phase voltages: - the sequence voltages for phase R are:

Now

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TRANSIENTS IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS:

1. D.C sources
a) Resistance only: - As soon as switch is closed, the current in the circuit will be
determined according to ohms law.
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 .

b) Inductance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit will be given by
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉 1 𝑉𝑉 1
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) = = . = .
𝑍𝑍(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆 2
𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = t

up
𝐿𝐿
c) Capacitance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉
I(s) = = .CS =VC
𝑍𝑍(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆
Which is an impulse of strength (magnitude)VC
e
d) R-L circuit: when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉 1 𝑉𝑉 1/𝐿𝐿
ad
I(s) = = . = .
𝑍𝑍(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅+𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆+𝑅𝑅/𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 1 1 𝐿𝐿
= � −
𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆
�.
𝑆𝑆+𝑅𝑅/𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 1 1
= � − �
𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆+𝑅𝑅/𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 −𝑅𝑅
gr

𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = �1 − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � 𝑡𝑡��

𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿

e) R-L circuit: After the switch s is closed, current in the circuit is given by
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉 1
I(s) = = .
𝑍𝑍(𝑠𝑠) 𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅+1/𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1
𝑉𝑉 �𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅�𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉 1
= = .
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆+1/𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆+1/𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉
i (t)= .𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅

→ R-L-C circuit: - After the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by

𝑉𝑉 1
I(s) = 𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅+𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+1𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝑉𝑉 1
I(s) = .(𝑆𝑆+𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏)(𝑆𝑆+𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)
𝐿𝐿

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𝑉𝑉
i(t) =
2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
�𝑒𝑒 −(𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏)+ − 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)𝑡𝑡 �

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅2 1
where = a and � − = b; then
2𝐿𝐿 4𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

→ There are three conditions based on the value of to

𝑅𝑅2 1
∗ If 4𝐿𝐿2 > ,b is real
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅2 1
∗ If = ,b is zero
4𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅2 1
∗ If 4𝐿𝐿2
< ,b is imaginary
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Case I: when b is real

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𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅2 1 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅2 1
→ i(t) = �𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �2𝐿𝐿 + �4𝐿𝐿2 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � +� − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �2𝐿𝐿 − �4𝐿𝐿2 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 � 𝑡𝑡� �
𝑅𝑅2 1
2� 2 − .𝐿𝐿
4𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Case II: when b= 0

e
The expression for current becomes
𝑉𝑉
→ i(t)= {𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 } which is indeterminate.
ad
2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

→ Now at b=0
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒
i (t) = 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = − (𝑅𝑅/2𝐿𝐿)𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
gr

Case III. When b is imaginary

𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
→ i (t) =
2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
�𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 � = 2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 . 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉 −𝑅𝑅2 1
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .2 sin�� 4𝐿𝐿2 + � t
𝑅𝑅2 1 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
2𝐿𝐿� 2 −
4𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

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A.C source:

→ R-L circuit: when switch is is closed, the current in the circuit is given by

𝑉𝑉(𝑆𝑆) 𝜔𝜔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1

I (s) = = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 � 2 + 2 � 𝑅𝑅+𝐿𝐿𝑆𝑆
𝑍𝑍(𝑆𝑆) 𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔 𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1

= �
𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔2
+ 2 � 𝑆𝑆+𝑅𝑅/𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔

→ R-L circuit connected to an ac source

𝑅𝑅
Let = 𝑎𝑎; 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
I(S) = �
𝐿𝐿 (𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)(𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔2 )
+ 2 �
(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)(𝑆𝑆 2+𝜔𝜔 )
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
i(t) = {sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 − 𝜃𝜃) − sin(𝜑𝜑 − 𝜃𝜃)𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 }
�(𝑅𝑅2 +𝜔𝜔2 𝐿𝐿2 )1�2

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𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Where θ= 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑅𝑅

Circuit Breaker ratings :

e
→ The value of resistor required to be connected across the breaker contacts which will
ad
𝐿𝐿
give no transient oscillations, is R= 0.5�
𝐶𝐶

Where L,C are the inductance and capacitance upto the circuit breaker
2Vr
→ The average RRRV =
gr

π√Lc

→ Maximum value of RRRV = wn Epeak

→ Where wn = 2πfn ,
1 1
→ Natural frequency of oscillations, fn = �
2π LC

Where L , C are the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker

1 1 1
→ Frequency of demand oscillations, f = � − 2 2
2π LC 4R C

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Breaking capacity:

→ Symmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of a.c component

x
= 2
√
→ Asymmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of total current.
𝑋𝑋 2
= �� 2� + 𝑌𝑌 2
√
Where X = maximum value of a.c component
Y = d.c component

→ Is the rated service line voltage in volts, then for 3-phae circuit? Breaking capacity = √3 ×
V × I × 10−6 MVA

Voltage across the string

→ String efficiency =
n × voltage acrosss the unit near power conductor

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Where, n = no. of insulators

Making capacity :-
e
→ Making capacity = 2.55 × symmetrical breaking capacity.
ad
The Universal Relay Torque Equation:-

→ The universal relay torque equation is given as follows

T = K1 I 2 + K 2 V 2 + K 3 VI(θ − τ) + K
gr

Distance Relays:

impedance relays :

From the universal torque equation putting 𝐾𝐾3 = 0 and giving negative sign to voltage term,
it becomes
→ T = K1 I 2 − K 2 V 2 (Neglecting spring torque)
For the operation of the relay the operating toque should be greater than the
restraining torque i.e
K1 I 2 > K 2 V 2
→ Here V and I are the voltage and current quantities fed to the relay.
V2 K
→ I2 < 1�K
2
K1
→ Z<� �K
2

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→ Z < constant (design impedance)

This means that the impedance relay will operate only if the impedance seen by the relay
is less than a pre-specified value (design impedance). At threshold condition,
K1
Z=� �K
2

Reactance Relay:

The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is 900
i.e. in the universal torque equation.
T = K1 I 2 − K 3 VI cos(θ − τ)
= K1 I 2 − K 3 VI cos(θ − 90)
= K1 I 2 − K 3 VI sin θ
For the operation of the relay
KI 2 > K 3 VI sinθ

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VI
sinθ < K1 /K 3
I2
K
Z sinθ < 1�K
3
K1
X < �K
e 3

The mho relay:-

ad
→ In the relay the operating torque is obtained by the V – I element and restraining torque due
tot the voltage elemen

T = K 3 VI cos(θ − τ) − K 2 V 2
gr

→ For relay to operate

K 3 VI cos (θ − τ) > K 2 V 2
V2 K
< 3�K cos(θ − τ)
VI 2
K3
Z < �K cos(θ − τ)
2

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