Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Michael L. Cox
Rex R. Fish
John P. Wronowicz
R. Allen Miller
Publication: E-700
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© 2015 by North American Die Casting Association, Arlington Heights, Illinois. All Rights Reserved.
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PQ2
Machine Power and
Die Compatibility
Revised by
R. Allen Miller
April 2015
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
Outline of Topics ......................................................................................................................... 1
Key Features of a PQ2 Diagram ................................................................................................... 2
Operating Point ........................................................................................................................... 3
Single vs. Multiple Cavity Dies .................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2. The Shot End ................................................................................................................. 5
The Power System....................................................................................................................... 6
Plunger Speed and Flow Rate ................................................................................................. 6
Shot Power and the Power Hyperbola ................................................................................... 7
Entrapped Air Control ............................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3. Gating .......................................................................................................................... 13
Flow Characteristics .................................................................................................................. 14
Atomized Flow .......................................................................................................................... 16
Theory and Background ............................................................................................................ 16
Selecting Gate Velocities ........................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 4. Technical Background ................................................................................................. 19
Sensible and Latent Heat .......................................................................................................... 19
Computing Fill Time ‐The Gating Equation ............................................................................... 20
Theoretical Maximum Fill Time, (tfmax) ................................................................................. 21
Metal Injection Temperature, (Ti) ......................................................................................... 21
Minimum Flow Temperature (Tf) .......................................................................................... 23
Percent Solids Allowable (S).................................................................................................. 23
Units Conversion (Z) .............................................................................................................. 24
Die Temperature (Td ) ............................................................................................................ 24
Cavity Wall Thickness (w) ...................................................................................................... 25
Empirical Constant (k) ........................................................................................................... 25
Bernoulli’s Equation .................................................................................................................. 26
Metal Pressure (P) ................................................................................................................. 29
Metal Density (ρ) .................................................................................................................. 30
PQ2 Page i
Discharge Coefficient (cd) ...................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 5. PQ2 Step‐by‐Step ......................................................................................................... 33
Master Graph ............................................................................................................................ 33
The Maximum Power Machine Line ......................................................................................... 35
Static Pressure....................................................................................................................... 35
Maximum Flow Rate ............................................................................................................. 38
Machine Line Equation ......................................................................................................... 39
Hydraulic Pressure Changes .................................................................................................. 39
Plunger Size Changes ............................................................................................................ 42
Minimum Flow (Fill) Rate .......................................................................................................... 43
Metal Pressure .......................................................................................................................... 46
Process Window ........................................................................................................................ 47
Die Line (Gate Area) .................................................................................................................. 48
Operating Point ......................................................................................................................... 50
Intersection of the Die Line and Machine Line ..................................................................... 51
Gate Area at the Operating Point ......................................................................................... 51
Machine Adjustments and the Operating Machine Line ...................................................... 52
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 6. Maximizing the Process Window ................................................................................ 57
Static Pressure Limits ................................................................................................................ 58
Fill Time Range .......................................................................................................................... 58
Optimal Gate Area and Optimal Die Line ................................................................................. 61
Machine Power Effect on Fill Time Range ................................................................................ 65
Power Required to Maximize Fill Time Range .......................................................................... 67
Power Required as a Function of Static Pressure ................................................................. 68
Minimum Power to Achieve Max Fill Time Range ................................................................ 70
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 76
Machine Selection ..................................................................................................................... 76
Plunger Selection ...................................................................................................................... 81
Static Pressure, Power, and Plunger Area ............................................................................ 82
Selecting a Plunger ................................................................................................................ 87
Chapter 1. Introduction
In order to ensure that a die casting meets quality requirements, the die caster must understand
and optimize the machine and die set up. The goal of PQ2 analysis is to predict how a given die
will operate when mounted on a machine with known performance capabilities. The analysis is
based on a process window that should be selected to match the casting quality requirements to
the process. Ideally the die / process design will operate in the middle of the selected process
window to provide the maximum ability to tolerate variability and uncertainty that will always be
present in a die casting process.
PQ2 analysis and the PQ2 diagram will facilitate decisions regarding gating, shot speeds, and shot
pressures. The designer will be able to determine if a machine is capable of producing a shot
which will produce a good quality casting. The designer will also be able to identify the
characteristics of machines and processes that will have the best chance of producing a good part
under varying conditions.
Whether planning for a new part or maximizing quality on an existing part, a well‐defined
procedure should be followed to match the part to the machine and process. Each of the
elements required for a PQ2 analysis is presented in detail, then combined in a step by step
procedure that will allow the designer to analyze and maximize the die filling process.
After the basics of PQ2 analysis are presented, attention is turned to an optimization approach
that is implemented in the NADCA PQ2 web application. The application can be used to find the
best combination of gate, machine and, plunger that will result in the biggest possible process
window. The concepts and procedures that are used are covered.
This revision of the text has drawn heavily on previous versions (Cox, Fish et al. 2008) plus
material developed by Bill Walkington (Walkington 2001), Ed Herman (Herman 1996)and from
recent research results (Miller 2010, Miller 2013).
Suggestions for further updating and improving this course are welcome and should be directed
to NADCA, Education and Training Department.
Outline of Topics
This course reviews the basics of the relationship between the pressure applied to the molten
metal, the volumetric flow rate of the metal, and the cavity fill rate which can be achieved. It
addresses the relationships between gating area, plunger size, machine power, hydraulic
pressure, atomized flow, and cavity fill rate.
The following topics will be explored:
The gate as a nozzle
The machine as a metal pump
Basic formula of PQ2
PQ2 Page 1
Introduction
Graphic representation of machine lines
Calculating metal pressure
o cold chamber machines
o hot chamber machines
o metal pressure on a pressure trace
Machine maximum performance
o dry shot speed
o hot chamber
o cold chamber
Graphic representation of the die line
o calculating manually
o gate area
Defining the process window
o limits for gate speed / metal pressure
o limits for fill time
o limits for static pressure
o drawing the window
Optimizing (maximizing) the process window
o fill time, metal pressure, and static pressure constraints/requirements
o fill time range and process window
o optimal gate area
o machine power range
o plunger diameter range
o initial operating point
Problems
o construct a PQ2 diagram to develop the initial process
o construct a PQ2 diagram for an existing process and make alterations
o compare machines against requirements and select the best option
PQ2 Page 2
Introduction
lines represent the casting quality requirements, i.e., a quality part requires a process that
operates with gate speeds between the specified min and max values and with a fill time that
does not exceed the specified maximum value. These constraints are translated into the metal
pressure and flow rate constraints that are illustrated by the two horizontal and single vertical
line on the diagram.
Figure 1‐1 Partial PQ2 Diagram
The process window is defined by the three constraints (min and max metal pressure, min flow
rate) plus the maximum power machine line. Operating at a point within this window should
produce an acceptable part.
Operating Point
The objective is to develop a design that will have the die and the machine operate (pressure and
flow rate) within the process window. Such a result is illustrated in Figure 1‐2.
The operating machine line (red line) is distinct from the maximum power machine line and
represents a setup that uses less power than the maximum available. The intersection of the die
line and the operating machine line is the operating point and in the example it falls well within
the boundaries of the process window. It is also possible to set the operating point with the
maximum power machine line but there is no possibility of dialing in additional power should the
part require it after production begins. An understanding of how to construct and interpret the
diagram will be developed as the course progresses.
PQ2 Page 3
Introduction
Figure 1‐2 Generic PQ2 diagram with an operating point
PQ2 Page 4
The Shot End
Chapter 2. The Shot End
This chapter addresses the die casting machine’s capability to move molten metal. A cold
chamber machine molten metal injection system is shown in Figure 2‐1. Many other types of
injection systems are also possible.
Figure 2‐1 Basic hydraulic injection system for a cold chamber machine
The metal flow system for hot‐chamber and cold chamber machines is shown in Figure 2‐2. While
differing in detail, from a fluid flow standpoint, both systems are identical. The system’s hydraulic
pressure causes the metal to flow through the shot sleeve or gooseneck into the runners and
gates and finally into the die cavity. In a cold chamber system, Figure 2‐1, the accumulator
supplies all of the hydraulic power for the shot system. When the shot cylinder is allowed to
move, the accumulator provides the force needed to cause fluid movement in the shot lines and
to accelerate and move the piston.
Figure 2‐2 Common Cold and Hot chamber metal pump systems.
PQ2 Page 5
The Shot End
The Power System
The speed at which the plunger will move is dependent on the system hydraulic pressure, the
losses in the system, and the back pressure caused by the gate resistance to flow, and in the
initial stages of a cycle, the inertia of the molten metal as the shot is accelerated. If there is no
molten metal in the shot sleeve, there will be no gate or inertial resistance (from molten metal)
to the motion of the shot cylinder piston leaving only the resistance of the machine elements to
restrict the speed. In this situation, the plunger will accelerate until the speed is at its maximum
because the speed will increase until the pressure losses throughout the machine system are
equal to the pressure in the accumulator. By definition there is no hydraulic pressure available
to push molten metal through the die’s gates when the system is moving at that speed. This
speed is called the dry shot speed (when the fast shot speed control valve is fully open), and is
denoted by vds . The dry shot speed is readily measurable.
The dry shot speed and the accumulator pressure (also readily measurable) are the critical
parameters in establishing the machine’s power performance. The power performance is
recorded on a PQ2 diagram and is used to match the power of the machine to the die’s gating
system as described in Chapter 5.
The PQ2 diagram defines the work that the machine can do in terms of metal flow rate (i.e.
displacement) and pressure. The machine, or more specifically the accumulator pressure, shot
cylinder area, and shot speed setting, determine the power provided by the machine and the
selection of a plunger determines the static pressure and maximum volumetric flow rate.
Together these determine the machine line. The procedures to construct and plot the line are
presented in Chapter 6
Plunger Speed and Flow Rate
There is a direct relationship between the plunger speed and the metal flow rate (volume
displacement rate) of the plunger. The flow rate is the volume displaced as the plunger moves
into the cylinder. The flow rate is plunger area times the plunger speed as given by Eq. (2.1) and
Eq. (2.2),
Q Ap v p (2.1)
and
d p2
Ap (2.2)
4
where:
PQ2 Page 6
The Shot End
Q the plunger flow (displacement) rate, in3 /s m3 /s
v p the plunger speed when pushing metal, in/s m/s
d p the diameter of the metal plunger, in m
Ap the area of the metal plunger, in2 m2
Example 2‐1
Find the flow rate (Q) when:
Plunger diameter = 4.0 in. (0.102 m)
Plunger speed = 200 in/s (5.08 m/s)
First calculate the plunger area from Eq. (2.2),
dp23.1416* 4 in
2
The output of any pump can be represented by a graph of pressure versus flow rate. As flow
increases, fluid pressure drops. All pumps have this characteristic, including die casting machine
shot‐ends. To achieve the correct filling condition, the engineer must achieve a compromise
between pressure and flow rate. The pressure – flow rate tradeoff and power will be explored
in this section.
Figure 2‐3 Flow rate as a function of pressure
PQ2 Page 7
The Shot End
The power available from the shot system is quantified by the product of the hydraulic system
pressure, the shot cylinder cross sectional area, and the dry shot speed:
Phyd Ahyd v ds (2.3)
where:
machine shot power, in‐lbf/s w
Phyd hydraulic system pressure, psi (Pa)
Ahyd = shot cylinder cross sectional area, in2 m2
vds = dry shot speed, in/s (m/s)
If the hydraulic pressure is at its maximum value and the shot speed control is fully open, Eq.
(2.3) describes the maximum shot end power available from the machine.
An alternate expression that provides a direct link to machine lines that will be used with the PQ2
diagram is found by evaluating Eq. (2.1) at dry shot conditions to obtain the maximum flow rate,
Qmax v ds Ap (2.4)
where:
Qmax maximum flow rate, in3 /s (m3 /s)
Ap = plunger cross sectional area, in2 m2
vds = dry shot speed, in/s (m/s)
Solving Eq. (2.4) for the dry shot speed and substituting the result substituted into Eq. (2.3) gives
Phyd Ahyd
Qmax PsQmax (2.5)
Ap
where:
Ps = static pressure, psi (Pa)
Static pressure is, by definition, the pressure that is applied to the metal once the cavity is full
and the plunger motion is forced to stop at the end of the plunger stroke. The forces acting on
the hydraulic piston and the shot piston are in balance at this point. The forces (pressure * area)
acting on the hydraulic piston and metal piston must be in balance as shown in Eq. (2.6)
Ps Ap Phyd Ahyd (2.6)
where:
PQ2 Page 8
The Shot End
Ps static pressure, psi Pa
Ap = plunger cross sectional area, in2 m2
Phyd hydraulic system pressure, psi (Pa)
Ahyd = shot cylinder cross sectional area, in2 m2
Eq. (2.6) somewhat analogous to the properties of induction motors that are described in terms
of no load and blocked rotor performance. Eq. (2.6) uses the no external load speed and blocked
motion to characterize power. We will see in Chapter 5 that machine lines originate at the static
pressure and terminate at the square of the dry shot flow rate, exactly the quantities that are
used to define power in equation.
Example 2‐2
Find the static pressure, dry shot flow rate and shot power for a machine and plunger with the
following characteristics:
Dry shot speed = 180 in/s (4.572 m/s)
Hydraulic pressure = 1500 psi (10.342 mPa)
Hydraulic cylinder diameter = 6 in (0.1524 m)
Plunger cross sectional area = 16 in2 (0.0103 m2)
Compute the cross sectional area of the hydraulic cylinder
d hyd
2
For a given power level, as with any pump, the shot system has a pressure‐flow rate tradeoff that
takes the form of a hyperbola. (see (Zabel 1980, Zabel 1980, Zabel 1981, Karni, Miller et al. 1991,
Miller 2010))
PQ2 Page 9
The Shot End
2
PQ P Q 2 constant (2.7)
3 3
where:
P pressure, psi (Pa)
Q volumetric flow rate, in3 /s m3 /s
shot power, in‐lbm /s W
A typical hyperbola is shown in Figure 2‐4. The two tangent lines shown on the figure are machine
lines, exactly the same type of machine line that will be considered in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
Each line corresponds to a different static pressure (intercept with the pressure axis) and dry shot
flow rate (intercept with the flowrate axis) as is expected from Eq. (2.5). When these parameters
are changed while holding the power constant, the tangent lines or machine lines slide along the
hyperbola. Changing either end of the line causes a corresponding change in the other end.
Changing either the maximum flow rate or the static pressure at constant power requires
different plungers with different cross sectional areas.
Figure 2‐4 Machine power hyperbola with machine lines
One important consequence of these relationships is that the machine line concept can be used
without requiring that a machine or plunger be specified before starting the analysis. This allows
the analysis to work from the requirements to find the power and static pressure that maximize
the process window. These procedures will be presented in Chapter 6.
of the plunger is properly controlled, the air will enter the cavity ahead of the molten metal and
be pushed through the cavity into the overflows and vents. However, the smaller the volume of
air in the shot sleeve, the less likely that any undesirable effects will result.
If a plunger is made larger, the amount of air in the shot sleeve increases. If the amount of air
increases, the slow shot speed becomes more critical. The chance of the extra air reducing
casting quality is usually less than the chance of incorrect fill time reducing casting quality.
The ideal plunger speed to control the amount of entrapped air in the shot sleeve has been
established from wave celerity theory and verified through experimentation. The critical slow
shot speed for fill percentages of 50% or less can be approximated by Eq. (2.8)
100% fi
v css c cc d p (2.8)
100%
where:
v css critical slow shot speed, in/s m/s
fi volume fraction of shot sleeve initially filled with molten metal, %
d p plunger diameter, in m
ccc empirical constant, 22.8 in0.5 /s 3.633 m0.5 /s
The shot sleeve initial fill percentage, fi is calculated using the ratio of the shot volume to the
volume of the shot sleeve,
V
fi 100% (2.9)
AL
p s
where:
V = Shot volume, volume of metal ladled into the shot sleeve, in3 m3
Ls = Length of the shot sleeve between the face of the plunger
and the face of the ejector die, in m
Ap = Shot plunger area, in2 m2
Example 2‐3
Find the initial percent fill and the critical slow shot speed required to manage the entrapped air
given the following parameters:
Plunger diameter: 4 in (0.1016 m)
Sleeve length: 40 in (1.016 m)
Total shot volume: 425 in3 (0.00696 m3)
First, compute the plunger area using (2.2) as was done in Example 2‐2:
Ap 12.56 in2 (0.0081 m2 )
Substitute the area into (2.9)
fi = Vt / Ap Ls 100% 425 in3 / 12.56 in2 40 in 100% 85%
Now use Eq. (2.8) to compute the critical slow shot speed:
vcss ccc 100% fi /100% d p 22.8 in0.5 /s 100% 85% /100% 4 in2
vcss 6.84 in/s (0.174 m/s)
Note that the term
100% fi /100%
is the percentage of the cold chamber that is above the metal, the portion containing air.
The total cavity volume may not be known until the die design is complete and a CAD model is
available or sometimes, until a casting is made. If a CAD model is not available, an estimated shot
volume can be used of the initial calculations until sample castings have been produced and shot
volumes measured.
In recent years there have been additional studies to improve the critical slow shot curve. Many
of the casting simulation programs now include the ability to optimize the slow shot. Generally,
it has been found that accelerating the slow shot, as opposed to a constant speed, is beneficial.
Servo controlled shot systems are required to implement such slow shot profiles.
Chapter 3. Gating
The gating system of a die casting die consists of a series of passages through which the molten
metal can flow into the die and then through the interior of the die to fill the cavity. The molten
metal is pushed into the gating system from outside the die by a plunger. The “cold chamber style
die casting machine usually has that plunger mounted horizontally in a thick tube called the “cold
chamber/shot sleeve” as shown in Figure 3‐1.
Figure 3‐1 Cold chamber metal flow path
Cold chamber machines have a plunger that moves parallel to the direction of die opening to
push the molten metal through the stationary die half to the parting surface and then through
the gating system. The plunger extends part way into the die pushing the molten metal ahead of
it.
The “hot chamber” machine has a vertically operating plunger in a pressure chamber located
close to the die, but not attached directly to the die. The downward motion of the plunger forces
the molten metal up through an elongated “s” shaped passage (because of the shape of that
passageway, the entire pressure chamber is called the “gooseneck”). The gooseneck is connected
to the die through a thick pipe called the “nozzle” and then into the die by passing through a
sprue hole. These “hot chamber” machine elements are shown in Figure 3‐2.
During the movement of the plunger, the molten metal is forced towards the cavity or cavities
through channels called runners. The runners are usually trapezoidal in cross section. There may
be more than one runner radiating from the biscuit or sprue, and any one runner may split into
two or more as required to direct the molten metal to various locations. As the runner
approaches the cavity, it blends from the trapezoidal shape into a slit‐like opening into the cavity.
The blended portion is called the “gate runner” and the slit‐like opening into the cavity is called
the “gate” (sometimes called the “ingate”).
Figure 3‐2 Hot chamber metal flow path
The basic function of the gating system is to provide a system of passageways for the molten
metal to get into the cavity. Once in the cavity, the metal will solidify into the desired casting.
If the gating system in the die, the machine set‐up and the machine’s operating parameters (i.e.
speeds, pressures, and temperatures) are not properly matched, it is often very difficult to make
high quality castings. The gating system only effects the changes to the metal and die during the
filling process but these changes ultimately may affect part quality.
Flow Characteristics
The gate must control the flow of metal, and to make good castings, the gate must provide flow
that is smooth and has the right spray pattern. To achieve the right spray pattern, the metal must
pass through the gate at a very high speed. High speed allows metal to reach the far comers of
the cavity during fill. Compare this with a garden hose. If the volume of water is low or the nozzle
is open too far, the flow will not go very far. It will be lazy and not be a spray, but more like a solid
stream.
If we close down the nozzle a little bit, or we are able to increase the pressure or flow a little, the
flow goes out further. It starts to break up into drops, but the drops are very large (more like
splatters), and they don’t go very fast. This type of flow will not make good castings. The large
droplets create pre‐solidified metal droplets which do not remelt, causing internal and surface
defects. This type of flow can happen if the plunger speed is not fast enough, or the gate is too
big, or both. This type of flow looks like this.
Usually the flow must be faster to make good castings, although sometimes the very slow flow
fill (squeeze cast) can work for thick walled castings (>0.25 in./6 mm).
If we increase the pressure or flow, or make the nozzle (gate) smaller, then the flow begins to
accelerate and the drops get smaller. When the flow has reached a certain speed, the flow
becomes atomized and the best die castings will be made. (See Chapter 3 on “Atomized Jet
Flow”). This atomized flow looks like the flow from a spray paint gun.
It has high speed and small drops and it will fill the casting very fast with a great deal of energy.
The speed of molten metal through the gate in a die casting is called “gate speed”. Typical values
for gate speed are given in Table A‐2 in Appendix A. The values given in that table have been
found to be reasonable for most situations. However, each diecaster has a range they are
successful with. The following gate velocities ranges are proposed by NADCA.
Aluminum 1000 to 1600 in/s (25‐40 m/s)
Zinc 1600 to 2160 in/ s (40‐55m/s)
Magnesium 1575 to 3350 in/s (40‐85 m/s)
Variations from these values are up to the diecaster. At lower gate velocities, atomization of flow
might deteriorate thus causing casting defects. At higher gate velocities, gate and cavity erosion
could occur.
This atomization of flow can be described with principles of fluid dynamics, verified by research
studies of a great many die castings. These studies identified parameters that were used when
good castings were being made, and then recorded these parameters. It was found that the
speed of the metal through the gate and the time required to fill the castings were both very
consistent when good parts were being made and they were almost always within a certain range
to make good parts.
Two parameters, gate speed and the cavity fill time, will tell you a great deal about whether you
can make a good casting with the settings you are using. They are critical and have a major
influence on surface defects which is one of the most important factors in zinc die casting. They
are also important for other quality reasons as well.
Determining a starting gate size and fill time can be determined by using the PQ2 calculations.
Another way to determine a starting gate size and fill time is to determine a gate area based on
an estimate, and try it. If it doesn’t work, weld it, change it and try it again. Probably this trial and
error method will eventually yield a good gate. But it is a lot cheaper and easier to do the trial
and error on paper rather than on the die.
There are a number of other requirements that have to be met to make good castings, such as:
correct fill pattern and gate location
good smooth flow in the runner
good plunger control and repeatable
plunger speeds
proper venting and/or vacuum
proper thermal balance
die spray conditions
We will not review all these here, but are all needed and must be considered.
It turns out that many machines cannot provide the pressure needed to get the correct flow
conditions (fill time and gate speed) that are required for good quality castings. Trying to get the
best flow conditions requires that the gate be sized correctly to match the pressure available
from the machine.
For more information on this subject, (Herman 1996, Ward 2006).
Atomized Flow
In the previous section, it was explained that a relationship between fluid speed and exit area
was required to maintain (i.e. insure) atomized jet flow. This section describes the theory and
background needed to evaluate atomization.
When a liquid flows out of a nozzle into free space, the flow stream can be in the form of a
continuous jet, coarse particles or a fine atomized mist. The adjustable nozzle on a garden hose
makes available all of these options. As with the garden hose, the flow stream of molten metal
from the gate in a die casting die can be made to have any of these flow patterns. The type of
flow from the gate affects the quality of the die castings.
where:
D Gate parameter = (gate length * gate depth) / (gate length + gate depth)
Density of the molten metal, lb/in3 (kg/m3)
v g Gate speed, speed of the molten metal, in/s (m/s)
Viscosity of the molten metal, lb/in‐s (kg/m‐s)
s Surface tension of the molten metal, lb/s2 (kg/s2)
K Constant
This equation shows the relationship between the internal energy of the flow stream and the
surface tension of the fluid. At a specific value (i. e. the “constant”), the nozzle discharge changes
nature (e.g. from coarse particle to atomized). Eq. (3.1) simplifies somewhat by combining the
constant and the physical properties into one constant. The result is shown in Eq. (3.2)
D vg1.71 J (3.2)
where:
J = Atomization value
D = Depth of gate, in (m)
= Density of the molten metal, lb/in3 (kg/m3)
Vg = Gate speed, in/s, (m/s)
Table A‐2 in Appendix A gives “J” values for several alloys. These “J” values were derived by
substituting the viscosities and surface tensions of the specific alloys.
Example 3‐1
J = 750
D = 0.050 in (0.00127 m), depth of gate
ρ = 0.093 lb/in3 (27680 kg/m3), density of molten 380 aluminum alloy
vg = 1000 in/s (25.4 m/s), gate speed
D v g1.71 0.050 0.093 lbm/in3 10001.71 in/s 627.3
Using Eq. (3.2)
D ρ vg1.71 = ( 0.050in.)( 0.093lbs/in3)(10001.71 in/sec.) = 627.3
In this case, since 627.3 is less than 750, atomization is not assured.
When the conditions in the die satisfy Eq. (3.2), there will be a well‐developed atomized flow
from the gate. Experiments by Wallace showed that the best castings result when the flow is
atomized. When the conditions result in Eq. (3.2) being less than the ‘’J’’ value, coarse particle
flow results. Coarse particle flow generally results in the least desirable casting quality. There is
also another constant, J’, that is much smaller than ‘’J’’ defining the boundary between coarse
particle and continuous jet flows. Actual values for J’ have not been established since continuous
jet flow is not usually considered to be in the realm of die casting. Continuous jet flow results in
better casting than coarse particle flow, but is in flow speed ranges where the distinction
between die casting and gravity casting is not clear. Gravity castings are probably made with
continuous flow jets from the gates. However, there are many other distinctions between the
processes.
Note of Caution: The atomization check calculation depends on the actual dimensions of the
gate and not the total gate area. This means that when multiple gates are used with a cavity, or
when multiple cavities are present, each individual gate must be checked.
SDCE slide rule 1800 in/s (46 m/s) 950 in/s (24 m/s) 1800 in/s (46 m/s) 950 in/s (24 m/s)
NADCA flow predictor 2400 in/s (61 m/s) 1200 in/s (30m/s) 2400 in/s (61 m/s) 1600 in/s (41 m/s)
CSIRO 1600 in/s (41 m/s) 960 in/s (24 m/s) 1900 in/s (48 m/s) 1500 in/s (38 m/s)
Author’s recommendations: 1600 in/s (41 m/s) 1000 in/s (25 m/s) 2200 in/s (56 m/s) 1500 in/s (38 m/s)
Figure 4‐1 Typical temperature curve for solidifying casting
While the latent heat release doesn’t change the alloy temperature during solidification, it is still
heat that must be carried away by the die. Therefore, on a per degree basis, much more heat
must be transferred to the die per degree of casting temperature change in the solidifying range
than in the superheat region or in the fully solidified region. Consequently, the rate of change of
the curve in Figure 4‐1 is much lower in the solidifying region than in the superheat and cooling
regions.
T T SZ
t f max k i f w (4.1)
T T
f d
where:
t f max = theoretical maximum fill time, s
k = empirical constant, s/in (s/mm)
Ti = temperature of molten metal as it enters the die oF, (oC)
Tf = minimum flow temperature of the metal oF, (oC)
Td = temperature of die cavity surface just before the metal enters the cavity oF, (oC)
S = fraction solid allowed at the end of fill, expressed as a percentage, %
Z = latent heat factor, oF/%, (oC/%)
w = casting wall thickness, in (mm)
Typical values for k, Ti, and Td are given in Table A‐1, Appendix A, as are the values for Z and Tf
which are fixed for any specific alloy.
The user specifies values for the variables based on the expected process conditions and specifies
a percent solids number, S, based on the required casting quality. The theoretical maximum fill
time for the given set of inputs is then computed using Eq. (4.1). If different process conditions
are specified, the equation yields a different fill time.
The values given in Table A‐1, Appendix A, are typical values. If different conditions are expected,
the values in the gating equation should be adjusted to represent those conditions.
The variables in the gating equation are described in the following sections of the chapter. These
descriptions are intended to provide the reader with an understanding of each variable and an
understanding of how to use it.
Eq. (4.1) tends to predict best for thin castings and to underestimate the theoretical cavity fill
time for thick castings and for castings with a short flow distance, i.e. the calculated values are
less than observed in actual manufacturing conditions. (Herman 1996) explains how to use
correction factors to enable better predictions under such conditions. The NADCA Maximum Fill
Time Estimator app makes automatically makes adjustments to the estimate based on the
different heat transfer conditions that apply.
Eq. (4.1) is partially theoretical and partially empirical. Early work by (Lindsey and Wallace 1968)
on prediction fill time and (Nelson 1970) on heat transfer coefficients and other similar work
served as the foundation upon which empirical adjustments were made resulting in the equation
presented here.
Theoretical Maximum Fill Time, (tfmax)
It is very important to understand that (4.1) does not predict the ideal or optimal fill time
although it could be construed as optimal if the percent solids term, S, is viewed as optimal. In
normal usage tfmax is the theoretical limit on the maximum amount of time that can be allowed
before the solidifying metal will begin to restrict flow and/or begin to affect conditions
sufficiently that quality requirements may not be met. The limit on the amount of solidifying
material is specified by the parameter S. Fill times shorter than the computed maximum will
generally result in a lower fraction solid at the end of fill and should not restrict flow or present
quality problems.
Metal Injection Temperature, (Ti)
The metal injection temperature, Ti, in the gating equation is the temperature of the molten
metal when the metal reaches the gate. In practice, this is not a temperature that is directly
measurable or controllable. Therefore, the designer must establish the holding furnace
temperature to compensate for heat loss and process variation, to yield the appropriate metal
temperature just prior to injection. A reasonable estimate may be obtained by measuring the
temperature in the cold chamber
In cold chamber machines, there is a temperature loss as the metal is transported from the
holding furnace to the cold chamber. A typical temperature loss may be 50°F (28°C). So, the
specified holding temperature should be approximately 50°F hotter than the metal injection
temperature, Ti, used in the gating equation.
In hot chamber machines, the holding furnace temperature and metal injection temperature are
usually the same. Most nozzles and goosenecks are heated with electric elements or gas torches.
The objective of heating these components is to assure heat is not lost from the alloy as is passes
through these components. If these components are heated excessively, heat may actually go
into the alloy. It is not unreasonable to expect a 20 to 40°F (11 to 22°C) temperature increase in
the alloy from such a practice. The actual temperature increase is dependent on the inside and
outside diameters of the nozzle, the temperature of the nozzle, the length of the nozzle, and the
speed of the molten metal passing through it. Since the variables are difficult to control, the
practice (although effective) is not recommended. So, the holding furnace temperature should
usually be specified to be the same as the metal injection temperature, Ti, used in the gating
equation. However, if the slow plunger advance is used with a “hot” nozzle, the specified holding
temperature should be 20‐40°F (11 to 22°C) less than the metal injection temperature used in
the gating equation, and the nozzle temperature and slow shot speed must be accurately
controlled.
The maximum fill time is rather sensitive to the metal injection temperature. Assume for an
example that a 5 pound 380 alloy aluminum casting is to be made with the following processing
conditions:
Ti = 1200°F (649°C)
Td = 600°F (315 °C)
w = 0.100 in. (2.54 mm.)
S = 20%
From Table A‐1, Appendix A:
Tf = 1060 °F (571 °C )
Z = 6.8 °F . / % (3.8 °C / %)
K = 0.866 sec / in. (0.0346 sec/mm)
The theoretical maximum fill time computed from Eq. (4.1) is:
T T SZ
t f max k i f
T T
w
f d
1200 oF ‐ 1060 oF + 20% 6.8 oF / %
t f max 0.866 s/in
0.100 in
1060 oF ‐ 600 oF
t f max 0.0523 s
However, if the metal injection temperature is changed from 1200 °F (649 °C) to 1250 °F (677
deg. °F), the maximum fill time increases to 0.061 s. The 50 °F (28 °C) increase in metal injection
temperature increases the maximum fill time by about 17%. Such an increase in fill time might
be used to reduce runner size by 17% if the same gate speed is used (which reduces remelt) or
to allow the use of a lower powered machine.
Typically, high metal injection temperatures will help make the casting look nicer and will help fill
deep ribs and other places subject to “lack of fill.” But higher injection temperatures will tend to
increase shrinkage porosity and will accelerate heat checking and erosion of the die. The higher
injection temperatures do not add significantly to the total heat content of the alloy, but heat
checking is a temperature sensitive phenomenon, not a total heat phenomenon.
Minimum Flow Temperature (Tf)
The minimum flow temperature, Tf, in the gating equation, is a temperature that is between the
liquidus and solidus temperatures for the alloy. Typically the minimum flow temperature is
nearer the solidus. It represents the temperature below which the metal will not flow, but
instead, will behave as a solid. The values given in Appendix I for Tf are empirical estimates.
However, any error is small since it must be close to the solidus. The fill time is not sensitive to
such small errors in the value of the minimum flow temperature. The designer should not change
the value of the minimum flow temperature. The use of flow temperature is an example of an
empirical adjustment.
Percent Solids Allowable (S)
The percent solids allowable factor, S, defines the amount of alloy solidification that the casting
can tolerate during the cavity filling before presenting flow or quality problems. As the molten
metal flows through the relatively cold die, the metal loses heat to the die. Any superheat in the
metal is lost quickly as illustrated in Figure 4‐1. Then the latent heat begins to flow into the die
as the casting starts to solidify. The solidified portion is small grains dispersed in the remaining
liquid. The value of factor “S” is the percent of the mass of the metal that can be in such a solid
form at the instant the cavity fill s. In general, the smaller the percentage of solids (10 to 15
percent), the better the surface finish and fidelity of surface detail. Greater percentages of solids,
(up to 50 percent) will result in less internal porosity. This would be similar to semi‐solid casting,
wherein a partially solidified material is cast. There are no porosity defects in the partially
solidified material.
The percent solids factor applies primarily to the first metal that enters the cavity. It is that first
metal that experiences the cold die. As a result, the surface of the die increases in temperature.
Subsequent metal flowing over the die surface will experience a hotter die and will lose less heat.
Therefore, the effects of different percent of solids will be restricted mostly to those portions of
the casting farthest from the gate.
The percent solids factor, “S”, can also effect the ability of plunger pressure intensification to
feed shrinkage. Large values of “S” (e.g. 25 to 50%) will tend to reduce the effectiveness of
intensification whereas small values (e.g. less than 10%) will increase the effectiveness of
intensification. However, the selection of large values of “S” will reduce the need for effective
feeding from intensification. Thick castings may benefit from large percent solids factors, but thin
castings will generally perform better with smaller values of “S”. (The thinner the casting, the
harder it is for the intensification to be effective and the better it is to disperse the shrinkage
evenly throughout the casting.)
Units Conversion (Z)
The conversion factor, Z, is derived from the thermal properties of the alloy. It is not a process
variable and should not be modified. The SZ product is intended to account for the latent heat
that is released between the liquidus temperature and the specified fractions solid.
Die Temperature (Td )
Like metal temperature, the die temperature, Td, used in the gating equation is probably not the
same as is measured on the actual die. The surface of the die cavity experiences large
temperature fluctuations as the die is cycled. The cavity surface temperature jumps from its base
temperature to its peak temperature as the molten metal flows across it. Base temperature is
defined as the die temperature immediately prior to metal injection. The temperature used in
the gating equation for the die temperature, Td, is the base temperature.
The cavity surface temperature is constantly changing with time. In practice it is very difficult to
obtain an accurate measurement. As a general guideline the die temperature used in the gating
equation should be 50 °F (28 °C) higher than one might expect the surface temperature to be. If
a thermal analysis of the die is made to properly locate the cooling channels, the relationship of
this base temperature to any internal temperature is better understood to properly place a
thermocouple. The values in Table A‐1 Appendix Aare higher than most diecasters think they
should be. But there is often a tendency to run a die too cold.
Within reason, it is desirable to run the die hot. Higher die temperatures allow the use of longer
filling times which reduce plunger speeds. Higher die temperatures also extend the life of the die.
In fact, die temperature is the dominant factor in die life. Eq. (4.1), can be used to illustrate the
effect of die temperature on fill time. The example in the beginning of this chapter showed that
a particular situation resulted in a fill time of 0.052 sec. A die temperature of 600°F (316°C) was
used in that example. If the die temperature were to be reduced 50°F (28°C), the equation will
show that the fill time must be 0.047 sec. which is nearly ten percent shorter.
The disadvantage of a high die temperature is generally believed to be longer cycle time and
therefore lower productivity. In theory that is true. But in practice, cycle time is controlled by the
slowest solidifying element which is usually the biscuit or some localized hot spot. A localized hot
spot can be kept at a relatively low temperature, if possible, to achieve the desired production
rate without affecting the gating equation. The average temperature of the die surface
temperature at the start of cavity fill should be used in the gating equation.
Cavity Wall Thickness (w)
The cavity (or casting) wall thickness, w, is an important factor in the gating equation. If the cavity
wall thickness doubles, the ideal fill time doubles. That is because the total amount of heat
available in the metal doubles. However, die castings are rarely a constant thickness. So, the
designer must decide on what value to use as the thickness.
Although die castings are seldom the same thickness throughout, it is common for them to be
the same thickness almost everywhere with a few thinner places and an occasional rib, boss, or
other thick areas. Such castings can be considered to have a “typical” thickness upon which the
thin and thick features are scattered. For castings of this type, the typical thickness should be
used.
If the casting has a thin region that is the far from the gate, the thickness of that thin region
should be used for the thickness factor in the gating equation. The tips of the ribs or studs will
often be located at such places. They may not be the farthest from the gate in the die’s plan view,
but they are usually at the extreme end of a flow stream. Molten metal cannot flow past these
areas and warm the surface for subsequent and hotter metal to rest against. The first metal to
enter such a feature must stay there.
Another situation is when the thinnest part of the cavity is adjacent to the gate and the thickest
is farthest from the gate. In these situations, if the thickest part is also the typical thickness, the
typical thickness should be used. Otherwise, it is usually best to use the average thickness.
Empirical Constant (k)
The final factor in the gating equation is the factor “k”. This factor serves two functions. First, it
contains all the necessary conversion factors to make the units come out right. Secondly, it
describes the speed in which heat flows from the molten metal to the die which includes the heat
transfer coefficient between the casting and the die. The rate of heat flow is the result of many
things including the type of die material, the alloy being cast, the condition of the die surface,
and the release (coating) material.
The gating equation is essentially based on an analysis of convective heat transfer from the
moving alloy to the die surface. Such phenomena have been widely studied for heat exchanger
design and the general characteristics of the problem are quite well understood. Convective heat
transfer coefficients are strongly dependent on the mass flow rate and increase with increasing
flow rate. The average mass flow rate for cavity filling, as will be examined in a later chapter, is
the cavity volume divided by the fill time. As the fill time is adjusted, the mass flow rate changes
and convective heat transfer coefficient will also change. This means that the value of k that
applies in the new situation may not be the same as the value used for the initial calculation.
(Herman 1996) has an excellent discussion of using an iterative approach when necessary to
improve results. The need to adjust k is consistent with the experiences of many casters including
those at a large die caster, where it was determined that for large sized castings (over 20 lb or 9
kg) and an average wall thickness of 3.5 to 5.5 mm, the empirical constant, k, would yield better
results in the gating equation if it were 1.2 rather than 0.866. However, since a number of factors
go into determining k, it is recommended that adjustments be made on a case‐by‐case basis.
Bernoulli’s Equation
Gate speed is the speed at which molten metal moves through the gate which can be considered
to be an orifice or simple nozzle. The load on the die casting machine’s injection system comes
from the force required to push the molten metal through this orifice and can be represented as
the discharge pressure that is developed when the metal is forced through the gate at the desired
gate speed. This discharge pressure that is applied to the molten metal through the die cast
machine’s shot system to force the metal into the die cavity in the required fill time is calculated
from Bernoulli’s equation.
Bernoulli’s principle is based on an energy balance that states the energy per volume in the
system remains constant. The principle for a general case is depicted in Figure 4‐3.
For purposes of analyzing die filling, the upstream energy per volume is mostly potential energy
in the form of pressure in the accumulator (when the head or gravity term is negligible). As the
flow passes through a restriction, i.e. reduction in area, the pressure will drop and the speed will
increase as the potential energy per volume is converted to kinetic energy. In the case of die
filling, the upstream speed is at least an order of magnitude lower than the gate speed and is
assumed to be negligible. The downstream pressure is negligible since the flow is assumed to be
into an open void as illustrated in the following modified version of the previous figure.
Under these conditions the general principle reduces to the much simpler form:
1
P1 v22 (4.2)
2
Strictly, the principle applies to smooth laminar flow, conditions that are generally not present in
die casting. To account for losses due to the flow conditions and from other sources, the general
case of Bernoulli’s basic equation is modified to include a discharge coefficient as shown in Eq.
(4.3).
2
1 v
Pm g (4.3)
2 cd
This coefficient will be examined in more detail in the Discharge Coefficient section.
Figure 4‐3 Bernoulli's Principle1
Figure 4‐4 Bernoulli's principle as applied to diecasting
1
From http://ffden‐2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2005.web.dir/Jeremy_Steele/page2.htm
When performing calculations with Bernoulli’s equation we must be very careful with unit
systems. The customary US system uses the pound force (lbf) for force and pound mass (lb) for
mass while the MKS version of the metric system uses the Newton (N) for force and kilogram (kg)
for mass. Pressure is force divided by area and density is mass divided by volume in both systems.
Since the discharge coefficient is dimensionless, the units of the right side of equation (4.3) when
using the US system are
lb in2 lb
3
2
in s in s
We normally express pressure in psi, i.e. lbf/in2, units and we need one more conversion to do
that. The relationship between pound force and pound mass is
1 lbf = 1 lb * g = 1 lb * 386.2 in/s2 (4.4)
Solving for pound mass,
1 lb = 1 lbf/g (4.5)
Substituting into Eq. (4.3) gives the formula that we use when the quantities are described with
conventional US units.
Bernoulli’s Equation, US Units:
2
vg
P (4.6)
2g cd
where:
P = metal pressure, psi=lbf/in2
= liquid metal density, lb/in3
g = gravitational constant, 386.2 in/s2
vg = gate speed, in/s
cd = coefficient of discharge (dimensionless)
There are no such complexities with metric units since force and mass are defined in consistent
units,
1 N = 1 kg 1 m/s2
Where N stands for Newton, a unit of force. A standard unit of pressure in the meter – kilogram
– second system is the Pascal, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
Bernoulli’s Equation, Metric
2
vg
P (4.7)
2 cd
where:
P = metal pressure, N/m2 = Pa
= liquid metal density, kg/m3
vg = gate speed, m/s
cd = coefficient of discharge (dimensionless)
Example 4‐1
For an aluminum 380 alloy with the following properties:
Density = 0.093 lb/in3 (2574 kg/m3)
Gate speed vg = 1200 in/s (30.5 m/s)
Discharge coefficient cd = 1
Compute the metal pressure using both US (psi) and metric units (Pa). Confirm that the results
are equivalent by converting the result in Pascals to psi.
Compute the pressure in psi using Eq. (4.6),
2
0.093 lb/in3 1200 in/s
P * = 173.4 psi
2*386.2 in/s2 1
Repeat the computation using Eq. (4.7) and metric units
2
2574 kg/m3 30.48 m/s kg kg‐m
P =1,195,662 = 1,195,662 2
2 1 m‐s m ‐s
1 kg‐m N
P 1,195,662 2 2 = 1,195,662 2 = 1,195,662 Pa = 1.195662 MPa
m s m
The conversion factor for psi to Pa is 6894.76 Pa/psi. Therefore,
1,195,662 Pa / 6894.76 Pa/psi = 1,195,662 /6894.76 psi = 173.4 psi
Metal Pressure (P)
The metal pressure, P in Bernoulli’s equation is the pressure that is required to force molten
metal through the die’s gate. As shown by Eq. (4.6) or (4.7) this pressure is proportional to the
square of the gate speed. Sometimes the required pressure cannot be achieved because of
insufficient machine power. When this happens, the gate speed and therefore the fast shot speed
of the die cast machine are less than required and the proper fill time will not be achieved.
Molten metal density, ρ is one of the variables that affects the discharge metal pressure as seen
in Bernoulli’s equation. The units of density are expressed in lb/in3 or kg/m3. Typical molten
metal density values used in these calculations are listed in Table A‐3, Appendix A. Density is
temperature dependent and values appropriate for the injection temperature should be used.
Molten metal suppliers sometimes provide lower density numbers because they deliver their
metal at higher temperatures.
The concept of a discharge coefficient comes from the study of flow through orifices. Several
examples or orifices and the corresponding discharge coefficients are shown in Figure 4‐5. The
coefficient accounts for energy losses that occur due to the transition in the flow. As can be
observed, the smoother the transition from the main body of the flow to the orifice, the larger
the discharge coefficient.
The discharge coefficient, cd, as it is used in Bernoulli’s equation for gating analysis includes losses
from several sources. The calculated metal pressure includes the frictional losses in the shot
system in addition to the flow losses at the gate. The numbers used for discharge coefficient flow
losses have been established by observation and are generally considered to be as follows:
Table 4‐1 Typical Values of Discharge Coefficient
Recommended
Alloy Family Range
Value
Aluminum 0.5 to 0.6 use 0.5
Zinc 0.6 to 0.7 use 0.6
Magnesium 0.6 to 0.7 use 0.6
This is an area that should be explored and quantified by the diecaster.
Figure 4‐5 Discharge coefficients for various orifice shapes
A shot profile can be used to estimate the discharge coefficient that applies in a given situation.
If we solve (4.6) for cd
vg
cd v g (4.8)
2g p 2g p
An alternate expression for the gate speed can be constructed from the operating flow rate,
Q
vg (4.9)
Ag
where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, in3/s, (m3/s)
Ag = area of the gate, in2 (m2)
vg = gate speed, in/s (m/s)
Substituting (4.8) into (4.8) gives an alternate expression for the discharge coefficient.
Q
cd US units (4.10)
Ag 2 g p
The equivalent expression for metric units is
Q
cd metric units (4.11)
Ag 2 p
All of the variables to the right of the equals sign are measured from the shot profile or known
from the alloy properties. Discharge coefficients should be calculated for various machine and
die combinations. Keep in mind that P is the dynamic pressure required to push the metal
through the gate orifice. This is calculated from the net average hydraulic pressure required
when the metal is flowing through the gate.
From Bernoulli’s Eq. (4.6), it can be seen that metal pressure is proportional to the square of gate
speed. If the gate speed is doubled, the metal pressure and hence the injection power required
to achieve the speed is increased four times. Once the required pressure is determined from
Bernoulli’s equation, it can be plotted on the PQ2 diagram. The actual construction of the PQ2
diagram will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Bernoulli’s equation is also used to determine the metal pressure required for a specific flow rate,
Q, and a desired gate area, Ag. Substituting (4.9) into Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (4.6)
2 2
vg Q
P US units (4.12)
2g cd 2g Ag cd
For metric units, the formula for pressure as a function of Q is
2 2
vg Q
P metric units (4.13)
2 cd 2 Ag cd
This calculated value of metal pressure can then be plotted directly on the PQ2 diagram.
Master Graph
The first step is to understand what the graph is and how it is generated. Bernoulli’s principle, Eq.
(4.12) or Eq. (4.13), shows the metal pressure is linearly related to the flow rate squared, i.e. Q2.
Therefore, if values of P and Q2 that satisfy the Bernoulli equation are plotted on a graph with P
and Q2 axes, the graph will be a straight line. The graph is constructed with the vertical “y” axis
or “p (metal pressure)” as a linear scale with the “x” axis also linear but Q2 is used instead of Q.
The “x” axis is typically labeled in units of “Q (flow rate)” which is the square root of Q2. Grid
lines corresponding to the Q values will therefore fall at non‐uniform intervals. The purpose of
the adjustment to the Q axis is to obtain machine and die characteristic lines that are straight
lines. If the “x” axis were constructed as linear in Q the machine and die lines would be curved
because the relationship between p and Q is squared, as shown in Bernoulli’s formula. Table 5‐1
lists the numbers used for the horizontal axis labels and for the squared values that are plotted
throughout this chapter.
Table 5‐1 Data for Master Graph
200
Figure 5‐1 Plot of first point
Plot the next position of Q @ 300 in3/sec which is 90k on the linear scale, Figure 5‐2.
200 300
Figure 5‐2 Plot of second point
Complete building the graph by plotting the balance of the Q’s, Figure 5‐3.
Figure 5‐3 Plot of all Q values
Figure 5‐4 is the completed “master” graph with nonlinear flow rate grid lines so that the data
can be more easily plotted using the values of Q. The horizontal scale is still linear in Q2. As the
PQ2 graph is used for machine/die combinations, the “Q” scale amounts may not be large
enough. This scale can have the values increased by any multiples as required. The blank lines
under the “Q” numbers are to be used for the multiples of “Q” if needed. Blank graphs are
located in the back of the manual for future use.
Figure 5‐4 PQ2 master graph
The static pressure is the pressure on the metal under static (plunger not moving) conditions. It
is calculated from the hydraulic pressure on the cylinder that is transferred to the metal through
the plunger tip after the plunger comes to rest at the end of fill. The hydraulic pressure used is
the shot bottle pressure or the hydraulic pressure used during the cavity filling portion of the
cycle, not the final intensified pressure. Under static conditions the system is not moving and the
forces on the shot cylinder created by the hydraulic pressure must be in balance with the reaction
force from the metal side of the system. The forces acting on each piston are the pressure times
the area or,
Phyd Ahyd Ps Ap (5.1)
Solving for the static pressure gives
Ahyd
Ps Phyd (5.2)
Ap
Substituting the formula for area gives the result in terms of the diameters:
d hyd
2
d p2
Phyd Ps (5.3)
4 4
We can now easily solve for the static pressure,
dhyd
2
/4 2
dhyd
Ps = Phyd = Phyd 2 (5.4)
d p2 / 4 dp
where:
Ps = static pressure, i.e., metal pressure at static conditions, psi (Pa)
Phyd = hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
dhyd = hydraulic cylinder diameter, in. (m)
dpt = plunger diameter, in (m)
If the hydraulic cylinder has a tailrod, Figure 5‐5, the area of the tailrod has to be subtracted from
the area of the hydraulic cylinder piston as shown in Eq. (5.5) below,
d hyd
2
d rod
2
Aeff
4
4
4
d 2
hyd d rod
2
(5.5)
Figure 5‐5 Hydraulic cylinder with tailrod
We can then define an effective hydraulic cylinder diameter d h that captures the difference,
d h2 d hyd
2
d rod
2
(5.6)
2
Then, using d h2 in place of dhyd in (5.4)
d h2
Ps Phyd (5.7)
d p2
where:
Ps = static metal pressure psi (Pa)
Phyd = hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
dhyd = hydraulic cylinder diameter, in. (m)
dh = effective hydraulic cylinder diameter, in. (m)
dp = plunger diameter, in (m)
Example 5‐1
Find the system static pressure given the following information:
Hydraulic pressure: 1500 lb/in2
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 12.0 in
Plunger diameter: 6.7 in.
No tailrod
Substituting in Eq. (5.4)
d h2
Ps Phyd
d p2
Ps Phyd d hyd
2
/ d p2 1500 psi* 122 in2 / 6.72 in2
Ps 1500 psi* 144 / 44.89 1500*3.208 psi 4812 psi
The static metal pressure (4812 psi) is plotted on the vertical or “y“ axis of the graph. (Figure 5‐6)
Figure 5‐6 Plot of static pressure point
The other end of the machine line is found from the maximum flow rate. It is calculated by
multiplying the maximum dry shot speed (at the hydraulic “shot” pressure used above) times the
area of the plunger.
d p2
Qmax v ds Ap v ds (5.8)
4
where:
Qmax = maximum flow rate, in3/s (m3/s)
vds = max. dry shot speed, in/s (m/s)
dp = diameter of plunger, in. (m)
= 3.1416 (constant)
The dry shot speed is determined by placing the speed control valve wide open and making a
“dry” shot (no metal). For cold chamber machines, the usual method is to put some rags or gloves
in the sleeve as a cushion and make the dry shot. For hot chamber machines, the shot rod must
be removed and a dry shot made with a 4 x 4 or cushion on the top of the gooseneck to arrest
the rod before the cylinder bottoms out at the end of stroke.
Example 5‐2
Compute the maximum flow rate based on the following data:
dp, plunger diameter: 6.7 in (0.1702 m)
vds, dry shot speed: 160 in/s @ 1500 1b/in2 (4.064 m/s @ 10.34 MPa)
Substituting in Eq. (5.8)
Qmax v ds ( d p 2 ) / 4 160 in/s 3.1416 6.7 in / 4
2
Figure 5‐7 Plot of machine line
At this point in the construction of the PQ2 diagram, we can now start to understand some
process limitations. The machine/plunger combination in this example means that the process
can run anywhere under the line and that it is impossible to run a process above the line. This is
a key process boundary.
Machine Line Equation
Every machine line can be described with a simple equation using the static pressure and
maximum flow rate.
The slope of the machine line is the difference in pressure at the two ends divided by the
difference in flow rate
0 Ps P
Sm 2s (5.9)
Qmax 0
2
Qmax
The machine line equation is then,
Ps 2
P Ps SmQ 2 Ps 2
Q (5.10)
Qmax
This formula can be used to plot points along the machine line, and particularly, to find operating
points by computing the intersection of the machine line with a die line.
Hydraulic Pressure Changes
Changing the hydraulic pressure, the plunger area, or the shot speed setting will alter the
machine power line. A change in pressure will always result in a change of the maximum flow
rate even when no adjustment is made to shot speed control valve. With a higher pressure, more
hydraulic fluid volume will be moving thus causing an increase in the available dry shot speed.
There will also be a higher static metal pressure. With a lower pressure, the available dry shot
speed is decreased and there is a reduction in static metal pressure. Remember, the dry shot
speed has to be determined for each specific pressure used.
An increase in the usable hydraulic pressure in the shot system raises the machine power line. A
decrease in the usable hydraulic pressure in the shot system decreases the machine power line.
If a hydraulic pressure change is made, new values for Qmax and Pm must be calculated.
The relationship between the hydraulic pressure, static pressure, and the plunger areas was
developed with Eq. (5.1) that showed
Ahyd
Ps Phyd
Ap
Clearly, with no change in the plunger areas, the static pressure will rise or fall proportionally to
any change in the hydraulic pressure. If the hydraulic pressure is increased, the static pressure
increases. If the hydraulic pressure is decreased, the static pressure decreases.
The Bernoulli principle shows that pressure varies linearly with the square of the flow rate. This
2
implies that Qmax will change in the same ratio as the hydraulic pressure. That is,
P1 Q12
(5.11)
P2 Q22
where:
Q1 = original maximum flow rate, in3/s (m3/ s)
Q2 = new maximum flow rate, in3/ s (m3/ s)
P1 = original hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
P2 = new hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
Rewritten to solve for a new flow rate given a pressure change, Eq. (5.11) becomes:
Q12P2 P
Q2 Q1 2 (5.12)
P1 P1
If desired, after the new flow rate Q2 has been determined, the new theoretical dry shot speed
vds2 can be calculated from the relationship of flow rate, plunger area and speed,
Q2
vds 2 (5.13)
Ap
One implication of the relationships expressed by Eq. (5.12) is that a change in hydraulic pressure
will result in a new machine line that is parallel to the original line.
Example 5‐3
Construct a new machine line due to hydraulic pressure increase as described below:
Original hydraulic pressure P1 = 1500 psi (10.34 MPa)
New hydraulic pressure P2 = 1600 psi (11.03 MPa)
Original flow rate Q1 = 5641 in3/sec (0.0924 m3/s)
Using Eq. (5.12):
P2
Q2 Q1 5641 in3 /s 1600 psi / 1500 psi
P1
Q2 5641 1.0667 in /s 5641 1.0328 in /s 5826 in /s (0.0947 m /s)
3 3 3 3
Example 5‐4
Recalculate the static pressure Ps based on the new hydraulic pressure used in Example 5‐3.
Hydraulic pressure: 1600 psi (11.03 MPa)
Hyd. cylinder diameter: 12.0 in (0.3048 m)
Plunger diameter: 6.7 in (0.1702 m)
Using Eq. (5.7)
Ps Phyd d hyd / d p 1600 psi 12 in / 6.7 in
2 2
Ps 1600 1.791 psi 1600 3.208 psi 5132 psi (35.38 MPa)
2
Note that this value is larger than the pressure of 4812 psi that was found in Example 5‐1.
If the hydraulic pressure is reduced, the same calculations are performed with the lower pressure
and resultant slower dry shot speed. The dotted lines on Figure 5‐8 show the change of the
machine line that results from each change.
Figure 5‐8 Effects of changing hydraulic pressure
Increasing or decreasing the plunger size with the other variables constant changes the machine
power line dramatically.
Example 5‐5
Using the data from Example 5‐2, plot a new machine power line using a plunger of 7.0 in
diameter.
Given:
Hydraulic pressure: 1500 psi (10.34 MPa)
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 12.0 in (0.3048 m)
Plunger diameter: 7.0 in (0.1778 m)
Substituting in Eq. (5.7)
d2
Ps Phyd h2
dp
Ps 1500 psi 12.0 in / 7.0 in 1500 psi * 144 in2 /49 in.2
2 2
Ps 1500 * 2.939 psi= 4408 psi (30.39 MPa)
Substituting the appropriate values into Eq. (5.8)
Qmax v ds d p2 / 4 160 in/s * 3.1416 * 7.0 in / 4
2
Qmax = 160 in/s 3.1416 7.0 in / 4 = 160 in/s 38.48 in2
2
Figure 5‐9 Effect of plunger change
Figure 5‐10 provides a graphical representation of the effect of plunger tip variations. A smaller
tip results in a larger static pressure and a lower maximum flow rate. A larger tip leads to a
smaller static pressure and larger maximum flow rate. Compare the pattern of changes to the
tangent lines shown on Figure 2‐4.
Figure 5‐10 Characterization of the effects of plunger change
Each machine in the die cast facility should have dry shot speeds determined at specific shot
pressures. This will allow the designer and process engineer to determine a starting point for
future setup parameters. After the machine performance line is determined, the next step is to
determine where the process should run under the line.
T T SZ
t f max k i f
T T
w
f d
where:
t f max = theoretical maximum fill time, s
k = empirically derived constant, s/in (s/mm)
Ti = temperature of molten metal as it enters the die oF, (oC)
Tf = minimum flow temperature of the metal oF, (oC)
Td = temperature of die cavity surface just before the metal enters the cavity oF, (oC)
S = fraction solid, expressed as a percentage, allowed at the end of fill, %
Z = units conversion factor, oF/%, (oC/%)
w = casting wall thickness, in (mm)
The maximum fill time should always be selected based on the part quality requirements. The
gating equation is one way to obtain an estimate, but the maximum fill times can also be selected
by experience or general practices as shown in Table A‐4 in Appendix A for aluminum castings.
The cavity volume is the total volume past the gate that will be filled with metal. This volume
can easily be obtained from CAD models of the die design and can also be computed from
castings produced with the die. Volumes are calculated by taking the mass of the casting (without
biscuit and runner but including overflows) and dividing by the molten metal density. Densities
for selected alloys are provided in as shown in Table A‐3, Appendix A.
m
Vcav (5.14)
where:
Vcav = cavity volume, volume of metal flowing through the gates, in3 (m3)
m = mass of metal passing through the gates, lb (kg)
= molten alloy density, lb/in3 (kg/m3)
Once the volume and fill time are known, the minimum flow rate Qmin can be calculated by:
Vcav
Qmin (5.15)
t fmax
where:
Qmin = theoretical minimum fill rate, in3/s (cm2/s)
Vcav = casting and overflow volume, in3 (cm3)
t fmax = theoretical maximum fill time, s
The minimum flow rate is plotted as a vertical line on the PQ2 diagram and forms the minimum
flow rate, maximum fill time, boundary for the process.
Eq. (5.15) is a special case of the general relationship between fill time and flow rate,
Vcav
tf (5.16)
Q
Eq. (5.16) can be used to find the fill time corresponding the flow rate at any point on the
diagram.
Example 5‐6
Calculate the theoretical minimum fill rate to produce an aluminum casting per the following
parameters:
Mass of metal through gate: 33.72 lb (15.30 kg)
Die temp. at metal injection: 400°F (204.4 °C)
Metal temp. at gate: 1180°F (637.8 °C)
Casting thickness: 0.277 in (7.0358 mm)
Allowed % solids at end of fill: 30%
H‐13 die steel and 380 aluminum alloy
The balance of the variables can be found in Table A‐1, Table A‐2and Table A‐3 of Appendix A.
T Tf S Z
t f max k i w
T T
f d
1180 oF ‐ 1060 oF+30%*6.8 oF / %
t f max .866 s/in 0.277 in
1060 oF ‐ 400 oF
120 oF + 204 oF 324 oF
t f max .866 s/in 0.277 in .866 s/in 0.277 in = 0.118 s
660 oF
o
660 F
The volume of metal required to fill the cavity is determined from Eq. (5.14).
Vcav = m / ρ = 33.72 lb / 0.093 lb/in3 = 363 in3 (0.0005949 m3)
Substituting the volume and the maximum fill time into (5.15) gives the required minimum flow
rate.
Plot the flow rate value computed in the example on the PQ2 diagram as a vertical line (Figure
5‐11) to display the second process constraint.
Figure 5‐11 Illustration of minimum fill rate
The PQ2 diagram shows that an acceptable process must run to the right of the fill rate line and
below the maximum power machine line.
Example 5‐7
The cavity defined in Example 5‐6 is filled in 0.065 s. What is the flow rate at the operating point?
Using Eq. (5.16)
Vcav
Q =363 in3 / 0.065 s = 5585 in3 /s (0.09152 m3 /s)
tf
Metal Pressure
To further identify a proper die cast process, gate areas and the speed of the metal as it passes
through the gate play a major role. The next step is to identify the metal pressure required to
move metal through the gate at different values of gate velocities.
First, the die caster picks maximum and minimum values for gate speed required to produce a
quality part based on experience and NADCA recommendations.
Second, Bernoulli’s principle (Eq. (4.6) if using US units or Eq. (4.7) if using the metric system) is
applied to convert the required speed through the gate to the upstream pressure requirements
(see Figure 4‐4). The resultant pressures are plotted as horizontal lines on the PQ2 diagram to
form the top and bottom boundaries of the process window. NADCA recommended ranges of
gate speeds for different alloys are provided in Table A‐2. Too low of gate speed may result in
non‐atomized filling whereas too high of gate speed could result in die erosion. It is extremely
important to recognize that the published limits are only a starting point. The actual values
selected should be based on the part quality requirements and any special issues that the part
presents.
Example 5‐8
Calculate the maximum and minimum metal pressure lines for an aluminum die casting per the
following parameters:
Maximum gate speed: 2500 in/s (63.5 m/s)
Minimum gate speed: 2000 in/s (50.8 m/s)
Coefficient of discharge: 0.5
Aluminum density: 0.093 lb/in3 (2574 kg/m3)
Gravitational acceleration. (g): 386.2 in/s2
Substituting the maximum gate speed constraint into Eq. (4.6):
2
vg
2
0.093 lbm/in3 2500 in/s 0.093*25,000,000
Pmax psi 3010 psi 20.75 MPa
2g c d 2*386.2 in/s2 0.5 772.4
Following the same procedure for the minimum gate speed:
2
0.093 lbm/in3 2000 in/s 0.093*16,000,000
Pmin psi 1926 psi 13.28 MPa
2*386.2 in/s2 0.5 772.4
Plot these values as horizontal lines on the PQ2 diagram (Fig. 5‐12) to complete the process
window.
Figure 5‐12 Diagram with min and max metal pressure
Process Window
The region on the PQ2 diagram that is inside all the boundaries that have been calculated, shown
by the shaded portion in Figure 5‐13, is called the “process window.” A process with an operating
point within this window should meet the process constraints and produce a quality part.
Figure 5‐13 Diagram with process window
With the process window established, the next section explains how identifying a process point
within the shaded section determines the gate area.
The metal pressure required to push the metal through the gate at this speed is obtained from
Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (4.6)
2 2
vg vg
P US units or P metric units
2g cd 2 cd
depending on the units system in use.
Substituting the gate speed from Eq. (5.18) we obtain the relationship between flow rate, gate
area, and pressure as shown in (5.19) or (5.20)below.
Q 2
P Q 2 Sd Q 2 (US units) (5.19)
2g Ag c d 2g Ag c d 2
Q
2
P Q2 Sd Q2 (metric units) (5.20)
2 Ag c d 2 Ag cd
2
The form of Eq. (5.19) is that of a straight line through the origin of the PQ2 diagram. This line is
called the die line and it represents the gate’s resistance to metal flow. The term multiplying Q2
in (5.19) is the die line slope and the details of the term depend on the choice of units system
Specifically, the two forms of the slope equation are:
Sd ; (US units) (5.21)
2g Ag cd
2
or
Sd ; (metric units) (5.22)
2 Ag cd
2
where Sd = the die line slope, psi/(in3/s)2 in Eq. (5.21) and (Pa/(m3/s)2) in Eq. (5.22).
Note that the gate area is in the denominator of the slope which means that as the gate area is
increased, the slope decreases and vice versa.
The die slope using Eq. (5.21) when starting from a given gate area, or the geometry of the PQ2
diagram can be used when working from a diagram.
Example 5‐9
Calculate the slope of the die line based on the following information:
Aluminum 380 alloy density: 0.093 lb/in3 (2.574 g/cm3)
Coefficient of discharge: 0.5
Gate area: 1.5 in2 (9.6774 cm2)
Acceleration due to gravity (g): 386.2 in/s2
Using Eq. (5.21)
0.093 lbm/in3
psi/ in3 /s
0.093 2
Sd
2g Ag c d 2*386.2 in/s2 1.5 in2 0.5 772.4 0.5625
2 2
Sd 0.000214 psi/ in3 /s 0.000176 MPa/ m3 /s
2 2
To plot the line, plot one point at the origin and pick a value of Q toward the right end of the Q
axis and use Eq. (5.19) to calculate the pressure corresponding to selected flow rate.
Example 5‐10
Using the slope computed in Example 5‐9, compute the pressure at Q=5000 in3/s and plot the die
line.
50002 in3 /s 5349 psi 36.88 MPa
psi 2
P Q 2 Sd Q 2 0.000214
2g Ag cd in /s
2 3 2
A plot of the line on the graph from the previous example is shown with Figure 5‐14.
Figure 5‐14 Diagram with a die line
The gate area corresponding to a given die line can also be computed using Eq. (5.19). First
rewrite the equation slightly and rearrange the terms.
P
Q 2g Ag cd 2
2
or
2g Ag cd
2
Q2
P
and then solve for the square of the gate area.
Q2
Ag2 US Units (5.23)
2gcd2 P
The gate area is then
Q2 Q
Ag , US units (5.24)
2gc P 2
d cd 2gP
or
Q2 Q
Ag , metric units (5.25)
2
2c P
d cd 2P
Eq. (5.24) or Eq. (5.25) can be used to find the gate area corresponding to the die line passing
through any Q2, P point. We will use this approach in the next section.
Operating Point
Any point within the process window corresponds to an acceptable process in terms of the
requirements of the part. Any point in the window can be run on the diecasting machine with
appropriate choice of gate area and shot speed and/or hydraulic pressure.
The best starting point is to pick a point that is in the center of the process window. (Note that
the horizontal axis is nonlinear, so the geometric center of the window may not be the process
center. This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 6). Centering the process this way helps
to ensure that normal variations associated with the diecast process will not result in an
operating point that is outside of the process window.
Intersection of the Die Line and Machine Line
An operating point is the intersection of a machine line and a die line. The equations for these
lines are given by Equations (5.10) and (5.19). The intersection is computed by simultaneously
solving for the common Q2, P point.
machine line: P Ps SmQ2
die line: P Sd Q2
Equate the two equations and solve for Q2:
Ps SmQ2 Sd Q2
Ps (5.26)
Q2
Sd S m
Substitute into the die line equation to obtain P.
Ps
P Sd (5.27)
Sd S m
Equations (5.26) and (5.27) provide a way to compute the flow rate and pressure at the operating
point in terms of the machine line and die line.
Gate Area at the Operating Point
Once a process point is selected, the total gate area can be determined. As discussed in the
previous section, the die line is computed from the gate area and is a straight line originating at
the origin. The operating point must fall on the die line and fall within the window.
Figure 5‐15 Die line through an operating point
The die line can be constructed using a desired operating point. From the operating point, draw
a vertical line down to the “Q” axis and a horizontal line to the “Pm” axis and list the values (Figure
5‐16).
Pm = 2500 psi
Q = 3200 in3/sec.
Figure 5‐16 P and Q values of the operating point
We obtain the gate area by substituting the values from the PQ2 diagram into Eq. (5.24) or (5.25)
Example 5‐11
Using the operating point shown in Figure 5‐16 and the following data, find the gate area.
cd = 0.5
g = 386.2 in/s2
ρ = 0.093 lb/in3
P = 2500 lb/in2
Q = 3200 in3/s
Using Eq. (5.24)
Q 3200 in3 /s 0.093 lb/in3
Ag
cd 2gP 0.5 2*386.2 in/s2 *2500 lb/in2
0.093 s2 /in2
Ag 6400 in3 /s 1.404 in2 9.058 cm2
2*386.2 *2500
Machine Adjustments and the Operating Machine Line
The point selected as the operating point is within the process window but there is one more
step to complete before we have a complete setup. We have the maximum power machine line
and we have the desired operating point, but we don’t have the machine setup needed to realize
the operating point. The operating machine line passes through the operating point and
establishes the hydraulic pressure and dry shot speed necessary to realize this operating point.
We need to find another machine line that will pass through the point that we used in the
previous example. The new line corresponds to an adjustment of the machine operating
pressure, the plunger speed, or possibly both.
The equation of a machine line is given by Eq. (5.10) and we can rearrange terms to find an
expression for Qmax as a function of the operating point Q2, P.
Ps
2
Qmax Q2
P Ps
(5.28)
Ps
Qmax Q
Ps P
If it desired to reduce the system pressure when assigning the operating point, and consequently
reducing the static pressure, the pressure should be adjusted first. Then Eq. (5.28) is used to find
Qmax so that the operating machine line can be constructed.
Example 5‐12
Find the machine line that passes through the operating point that was used in Example 5‐11.
Use the static pressure found in Example 5‐1.
The given data is
P = 2500 lb/in2 (17.24 MPa)
Q = 3200 in3/s (0.0524 m3/s)
Ps = 4812 psi (33.18 MPa)
From Eq. (5.28)
Ps
Qmax Q
Ps P
4812 psi
Qmax 3200 in3 /s
4812 psi ‐ 2500 psi
The machine line base on the static pressure and maximum flow rate from Example 5‐12 is
shown on Figure 5‐17.
Figure 5‐17 Machine line ‐ die line intersection
The dry shot plunger speed based on this machine line is computed using Eq. (5.8).
Example 5‐13
Find the dry shot plunger speed for the following conditions:
From Eq. (5.8)
Qmax
v ds
Ap
v ds 4617 in /s 35.26 in = 130.9 in/s 3.325 m/s
3 2
Fast Shot Plunger Speed, Gate Speed, and Fill Time
Once the flow rate and pressure at the operating point are known, the plunger speed, gate speed
and fill time under operating conditions can be determined.
The fast shot plunger speed and the fill time are computed from the flow rate at the operating
point. The plunger speed is the flow rate divided by the plunger area
Q Q 4Q
vp 2 (5.29)
Ap d p / 4 d p2
The gate speed computation is similar to (5.29) but uses the gate area. From Eq. (5.18)
Q
vg
Ag
The fill time at the operating point is computed by dividing the cavity volume by the flow rate,
Vcav
tf (5.30)
Q
Example 5‐14
Find the fast shot plunger speed, the fill time and the gate speed at the operating point computed
in Example 5‐13.
We know from the previous calculations
Ap 35.26 in2 0.0227 m2
Q = 3200 in3/s (0.0524 m3/s) at the operating point
Vcav = 363 in3 (0.005949 m3)
From Eq. (5.29), the fast shot plunger speed is
Vp = 3200 in/s3 / 35.26 in2 = 90.75 in/s (2.305 m/s)
From Eq. (5.30), the fill time is
tf = 363 in3 /3200 in3/s = 0.113 s
From Eq. (5.18) the gate speed is
Vg = = 3200 in/s3 / 1.404 in2 = 2279 in/s (57.89 m/s)
Note that the operating fill time is about 5 milliseconds faster than the maximum allowed fill time
that was previously found to be 0.118 s.
Summary
These calculations and the development of the PQ2 diagram determine a good starting point in
running a die casting process. Fine tuning of the process comes from evaluation of the castings
produced. If surface finish on the casting is the critical specification, fill time is the parameter to
be altered. If porosity is the critical specification, then static pressure, which is governed mostly
by the plunger size selected, may be the parameter to be altered. The PQ2 diagram allows the
engineer to adjust the process on paper for the machine/die combination to assure that the
process is feasible instead of cutting and welding on the die a number of times.
Remember, the formulas are good for predicting the conditions during die fill and they assume
that there is zero back pressure in the cavity. The PQ2 process does not predict what will happen
after the die is full and pressure is applied to the semi‐solid metal in the cavity. It also may not
predict the response once the cavity is nearly full and backpressure begins to build. As we saw
with Figure 4‐4, the use of Bernoulli’s principle in this application is dependent on the assumption
that the pressure in the cavity is close to zero.
The basic steps are as follows:
1. Determine the process constraints (same as Chapter 5 but with two additional static
pressure constraints)
a. Minimum gate speed, minimum metal pressure
b. Maximum gate speed, maximum metal pressure
c. Maximum fill time
d. Minimum static pressure
e. Maximum static pressure
2. Compute the optimal gate area from the constraints
3. Compute the minimum machine power level required to maximize the fill time ratio (FTR)
using the optimal gate area from step 2 and the constraints from step 1.
4. Compute the maximum usable machine power level. Machines with power greater than
the maximum used can be used and maximize the FTR, but would not be operated at full
power
5. Specify the actual machine parameters (same as Chapter 5) and compute the minimum
and maximum plunger diameter that can be used with the machine and achieve the
maximize FTR.
6. Adjust the machine shot speed and/or hydraulic pressure to realize an initial operating
point centered in the process window (same as Chapter 5).
times associated with the process window is determined by the die line, the minimum flow rate
line, and the two metal pressure lines. The machine line may result in additional restrictions, but
the maximum range for any given set of requirements is controlled by the other factors defining
the window, not the machine line.
Eq. (5.15) shows that the maximum fill time and minimum fill rate are inversely proportionally.
The same relationship applies in general, not just at the maximum fill time, minimum flow rate
point. Fill time is inversely related to the flow rate as presented in (6.1)
Vcav
tf (6.1)
Q
where:
tf = fill time , s
Vcav = cavity volume, in3 (m3)
Q = flow rate, in3/s (m3/s)
Another version of Eq. (6.1) is derived by substituting Q from Eq. (5.17) into (6.1) to give the result
in terms of gate speed and gate area:
Vcav
tf (6.2)
vg Ag
where:
tf = fill time , s
Vcav = cavity volume, in3, m3
vg = gate speed, in/s (m/s)
Ag = gate area, in2/s (m2/s)
A typical PQ2 diagram minus the machine line is shown in Figure 6‐1. It is clear from the figure
that the longest fill time (smallest flow rate) that is possible with a given die line (gate area) is
determined by the point where the die line enters the (partial) process window.
Similarly, the shortest possible fill time is controlled by the point where the die line leaves the
window. In general the exit point will also depend on the machine line because the exit point
could be on the machine line. However, no matter what machine line is used, the minimum fill
time cannot be less than the value determined by the die line intersection with the maximum
metal pressure line, the point where the die line exits the window. The difference between the
maximum fill time and the minimum fill time, the fill time range, cannot be longer than the range
that is established by the die line and the constraints. The placement of the machine line cannot
increase the fill time range defined this way, but it might reduce it.
Figure 6‐1 Min and Max Fill Time
Using Eq. (6.1) along with the figure, the fill time range, with units of seconds, is
Vcav Vcav
t f range t fhigh t flow (6.3)
Qlow Qhigh
It takes a little algebra to compute Qlow and Qhigh as a function of the die line slope, but it is
otherwise easy to compute the fill time using (6.1) and confirm that the fill time range increases
as the die line slope increases for situations similar to Figure 6‐1 where the die line intersects the
minimum metal pressure line to the right of the minimum flow rate line, i.e. Qlow > Qmin. The fill
time range increases with increasing die line slope, i.e. increases with decreasing gate area, until
the die line, minimum flow rate line, and minimum metal pressure line all intersect at the same
point as illustrated in Figure 6‐2.
Figure 6‐2 Die line with maximum fill time range
If the gate area is decreased even more so that die line slope is even steeper, the diagram will be
similar to Figure 6‐3. The maximum fill time that is possible with this die line is unchanged from
Figure 6‐2 since the die line enters the window at its intersection with the minimum flow rate
line. However, the minimum fill time increases in magnitude (gets longer) since the intersection
with the maximum metal pressure line is moving closer to the Qmin line. The range, therefore, is
decreasing.
Given the pattern of increasing then decreasing fill time range from Figure 6‐1 to Figure 6‐3, the
maximum range occurs when the Qmin line, the Pmin line, and the die line all intersect at the same
point, the point that forms lower left corner of the partial process window as shown in Figure
6‐2. The die line that passes through the (Qmin, Pmin) point as shown in Figure 6‐2 results in the
largest possible fill time range.
Figure 6‐3 Die line with smaller gate
There are several ways to compute the optimal gate area but the simplest is as follows:
Ag = optimal gate area, in2 (m2)
Vcav = cavity volume, in3 (m3)
t f max = maximum fill time, s
v g min = minimum gate speed, in/s, (m/s)
Example 6‐1
Given the following:
Aluminum 380 casting
100 in3 cavity volume
Minimum and maximum gate speeds as recommended by NADCA
Maximum allowed fill time of 0.075 s
Gate areas of 1.000 in2 (6.4516 cm2) and 1.500 in2 (9.6774 cm2) to be considered.
Coefficient of Discharge = 0.5
Find the fill time range for each gate and plot the die lines.
The recommended gate speeds from Table A‐2 are
vgmin = 1000 in/s (25.4 m/s)
vgmax = 1600 in/s (40.64 m/s)
For the 1.000 in2 gate:
At the minimum gate speed, using Eq. (6.2)
Q vg Ag 1000 in/s * 1.000 in2 1000 in3 /s
Vcav 100 in3
t f max = 0.100 s
Q 1000 in3 /s
Since 0.100 s is longer than the allowed maximum of 0.075 s, the maximum consistent with the
requirements is t f max 0.075 s
At the maximum gate speed,
Q v g Ag 1600 in/s * 1.000 = 1600 in3 /s
Vcav 100 in3
t f min = 0.0625 s
Q 1600 in3 /s
The fill time range is therefore 0.075 s – 0.0625 s = 0.0125 s
For the 1.500 in2 gate:
At the minimum gate speed, from Eq. (6.2)
Vcav 100 in3
t f max = 0.0667 s
v g Ag 1000 in/s * 1.500 in2
At the maximum gate speed,
Vcav 100 in3
t f min =0.0417 s
v g Ag 1600 in/s * 1.500 in2
Therefore,
ft range = 0.0667 s – 0.0417 s = 0.025 s.
To plot the diagram with the die lines we need the min and max metal pressure constraints, the
flow rate at the maximum fill time and a point on each die line.
The flow rate at the maximum fill time is computed using Eq. (6.1):
Vcav 100 in3
Qmin 1333 in3 /s 0.02184 m3 /s
t fmax 0.075 s
1,776,889 in3 /s
2 2
Qmin
The minimum and maximum metal pressures are computed using Eq. (4.6),
2
vg
P
2g cd
2
0.093 lb/in3 1000 in/s
Pmin = 483 psi 3.33 MPa
2*386.2 in/s2 0.5
2
0.093 lb/in3 1600 in/s
Pmax = 1233 psi 8.5 MPa
2*386.2 in/s2 0.5
The die line for the 1.000 in2 gate passes through the origin and the Q2=10002=1,000,000 (in3/s)2,
P=482 psi point. The die line for the 1.500 in2 gate passes through the origin and the
Q2=16002=2,560,000 (in3/s)2, P=482 psi point. A plot of the lines is shown in Figure 6‐4. Note the
relationship of each line to the intersection of the Qmin and Pmin lines.
1.0 in2 gate
1.333 in2 gate
1.5 in2 gate
Figure 6‐4 Example die lines
Example 6‐2
Determine the gate area that maximizes the fill time range for the data given in Example 6‐1 and
compute the fill time range.
Using Eq. (6.5)
A
Vcav / t fmax
100 in /0.075 s 1333 in
3
2
1.333 in2 8.6 cm2
g
v gmin 1000 in/s 1000
We know from the constraints that the maximum fill time is 0.075 s. The minimum fill times
occurs when the gate speed is at its maximum value, or,
Vcav 100 in3
tf =0.0469 s
vg Ag 1600 in/s * 1.333 in2
Therefore,
ft MaxRange = 0.075 s – 0.0469 s = 0.0281 s,
The maximum range is slightly longer (about 3 milliseconds) than that found for the 1.5 in2 gate.
The die line for this gate is shown in red in Figure 6‐4.
Figure 6‐5 Machine line comparison
The middle machine line (red line) intersects the Pmax line at the same point as the die line. This
flow rate at this point is labeled Qref on the figure.
The characteristics of the higher power (black line) are as follows:
Intersects the Pmax line at a Q value larger than Qref
Intersects the die line above the Pmax line and outside of the process window
To produce operating points within the process window with this machine line, either
1. the machine power must be reduced at least enough that the machine line passes
through the Pmax line at the Qref point or
2. the gate area must be increased so that die line slope is reduced enough that the
machine line and die line intersect on or below the Pmax line. The fill time range
with this option is shorter than the fill time range with option 1
The characteristics of the lower power line (green line) are summarized below:
Intersects the die line inside the process window resulting in a feasible operating point.
Intersects the Pmax line at a Q value smaller than Qref
The minimum fill time is greater than the minimum fill time using the red line. (t and Q
are inversely related)
The fill time range with this machine line is less than that with the red machine line.
We can conclude from these observations that, at least for a fixed static pressure larger than the
maximum metal pressure, there is a well‐defined minimum power level needed to achieve the
full range of fill times. The minimum power is that of the red line in Figure 6‐5machine line.
The machine line corresponding to the minimum power needed to maximize the available fill
time range is shown in Figure 6‐6. The key feature is that the machine line, maximum metal
pressure line, and die line all intersect at the same point and the die line intersects the window
at the lower left corner.
Figure 6‐6 Optimal PQ2 diagram
If the machine power is sufficient to place a machine line thought the (Qref , Pmax) point, then
every point on the die line falling between the metal pressure lines is a potential operating point.
The fill time range possible with the machine is exactly the same as the range based on the
requirements as shown in Figure 6‐2. Consequently, the ratio of the two ranges is equal to 1 and
the machine can deliver the full range of fill times that are allowed by the constraints.
The ratio is defined as follows:
Any diagram with the characteristics shown in Figure 6‐6 will have an FTR = 1. All such solutions
can therefore achieve the full range of operating points consistent with the constraints. No
solution can have an FTR > 1. An FTR < 1 means that the some portion of the window cannot be
reached. An FTR < 1 usually, but not always, means that some fraction of the shorter fill times
and higher gate speeds allowed by constraints cannot be achieved with the proposed solution.
This does not mean that a solution with FTR < 1 is unacceptable or unusable but it does mean
that there is some loss of flexibility to make process modifications.
The reference flow rate that is used in the evaluation of the machine lines in the above
development is easily determined from the requirements using the geometry of the window or
the die line equation. Either way,
Pmax 2
2
Qref Qmin (6.7)
Pmin
or equivalently
Pmax
Qref Qmin (6.8)
Pmin
Note that the Qref definition is based on the optimal die line.
2
The short horizontal blue lines originating on the pressure access of the figure are markers noting the static
pressure limits. Any machine line that satisfies the static pressure constraints will start at a static pressure between
these limits.
2. For guidance in machine selection, what is the minimum power required to meet the
static pressure and other process constraints while maximizing FTR?
Figure 6‐7 Static pressure and fill time range
The relationship between static pressure and power for all solutions for which FTR = 1 can be
found using the machine line equation, Eq. (5.10), and one of the machine power equations, Eq.
(2.6).
As pointed out in the previous section, for FTR=1, the machine line must pass through the (Qref,
Pmax) point. The first step in finding the required power‐pressure relationship is to evaluate Eq.
(5.10) at (Qref, Pmax):
Ps 2
P Ps 2
Q
Qmax
P
PMax Ps 2s Qref
2
Qmax
Then solve for Qmax
Ps
2
Qmax 2
Qref
Ps PMax
Ps
Qmax Qref
Ps PMax
Then use Eq. (6.8) to substitute for the reference flow rate:
Ps Ps P
Qmax Qref max Qmin , Ps Pmax (6.9)
Ps Pmax Ps Pmax Pmin
This equation is valid only if the static pressure is greater than the maximum metal pressure (note
that the square root blows up or becomes imaginary if this condition is not met.) This means that
the machine line won’t intersect with the maximum metal pressure line even with infinite power
if the static pressure is less than the maximum metal pressure.
With the maximum flow rate determined, the required power can be computed using Eq. (2.5).
The result is Eq. (6.10) below:
Ps Ps P
Ps Qmax Ps Qref Ps max Qmin , Ps Pmax (6.10)
Ps Pmax Ps Pmax Pmin
Example 6‐3
Using the data provided for Example 6‐2, compute the power required to achieve an FTR = 1 if
the static pressures is 3000 psi (20.68 MPa).
From the previous example:
3
Q min =1333 in /s (0.0218 m3/s)
Pmax =1233 psi 8.5 MPa
Pmin =482 psi 3.323 MPa
Use Eq. (6.10) to compute the power,
Ps Pmax
Ps Qmin
Ps PMax Pmin
3000 psi 1233 psi
3000 psi *1333 in3 /s
3000 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi
3000 2.084 1333 in‐lbf/s 8,333,967 in‐lbf/s = 694,497 ft‐lbf/s 941,612 W
The interpretation of the result is that a machine with shot power of 694,500 ft‐lb/s or more has
sufficient power to achieve FTR=1 at a static pressure of 3000 psi. The solution has the largest
possible fill time range and the largest possible process window consistent with the process
constraints (metal pressures and maximum fill time).
Minimum Power to Achieve Max Fill Time Range
The question of what is the minimum power required to achieve FTR=1 is more difficult to
answer. Eq. (6.10) gives the basic relationship between static pressure and power for machines
that achieve FTR = 1. A plot this function using typical parameters is shown in Figure 6‐8 and the
shape of the curve provides insight into the answer to the question.
Figure 6‐8 Power vs static pressure
This curve always has a minimum at Ps=1.5Pmax no matter the specific values of the parameters.
Assuming that the process constraints include a minimum and maximum limit for the static
pressure, i.e., PSmin PS PSmax , the static pressure that requires the smallest amount of power to
achieve FTR=1 can be found. The solution conditions are summarized in Table 6‐1. As shown in
the table, the solution depends on the relative magnitude of the maximum metal pressure and
the static pressure.
Table 6‐1 Static pressure that minimizes power
Condition Solution
PSmax < 1.5*Pmax Ps Psmax
PSmin 1.5*Pmax PSmax PS 1.5*Pmax
1.5*Pmax <PSmin Ps Psmin
The logic expressed in the table can be explored with the aid of Figure 6‐8.
If the entire range of static pressures that can be used falls completely below the
minimum point of the curve, the pressure requiring the smallest amount of power is the
largest allowed value, the maximum static pressure (row 1 of the table).
If the entire range of static pressures that can be used falls completely above the
minimum point of the curve, the pressure requiring the smallest amount of power is the
smallest allowed pressure, the minimum static pressure (row 3 of the table).
If the minimum point of the curve falls inside the range of static pressures allowed, the
pressure requiring the smallest amount of power is at the pressure at the minimum point
of the curve, 1.5Pmax (row 2 of the table).
The conditions will be further explored with the following examples.
Note that these conditions are only valid if the minimum static pressure allowed exceeds the
maximum metal pressure. Situations that do not meet this condition are managed by the PQ2
app, but won’t be considered here. Carefully selected limits that make sense for the casting and
process under analysis will avoid anomalous conditions and results will be consistent with the
table.
Example 6‐4
The range of acceptable static pressures for a casting is 3000 psi to 4500 psi (20.68 MPa to 31.03
MPa). The maximum fill time and gate speed constraints and other data are as given in Example
6‐3. Determine:
1. The minimum machine hydraulic power required to achieve an FTR=1 subject to the
static pressure constraints and the other process requirements.
2. The maximum usable power level that results in FTR = 1 and keeps the static pressure
within the specified limits.
Question 1:
To answer question 1, first check which case from Table 6‐1 applies. From Example 6‐3:
Pmax = 1233 psi (8.5 MPa).
Therefore:
1.5 Pmax = 1850 psi (12.75 MPa)
Since 3000 psi is the smallest static pressure that can be used and since 3000 psi >1850 psi, row
3 of Table 6‐1 applies. Therefore, the minimum static pressure limit, Ps = 3000 psi, requires the
least amount of power. The power required at 3000 psi, from Example 6‐3, is 694,497 ft‐lbf/s
(941,612 W). Therefore, machines with hydraulic power of at least 694,497 ft‐lbf/s (941,612 W)
will meet all requirements and are capable of achieving an FTR = 1.
Question 2:
The shape of the curve in Figure 6‐8 or Figure 6‐9 below shows that the power required increases
with increasing static pressure over the range of usable static pressures. The largest power usage
therefore occurs at the upper static pressure limit. Therefore the maximum static pressure, 4500
psi (31.03 MPa) determines the maximum usable power.
At 4500 psi,
4500 psi 1233 psi
4500 psi *1333 in3 /s
4500 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi
4500 1.871 1333 in‐lbf/s = 11,259,844 = 938,320 ft‐lbf/s 1,272,191 W
The maximum usable power is therefore 938,320 ft‐lbf/s (1,272,191 W).
The relationship between the static pressure constraints and the metal pressure constraints for
Example 6‐4 are shown in Figure 6‐9. The figure should help to illustrate the applicable table
entry. The figure illustrates that the power required to achieve FTR = 1 increases as the static
pressure is increased above 3000 psi. Therefore for this case, the lowest power consistent with
the static pressure constraints is the lower value of 3000 psi (20.68 MPa).
The power levels found in Example 6‐4 corresponds to the upper and lower machine lines in
Figure 6‐7, (long dashed line – higher power; short dashed line – lower power). Machines with
power greater than 938,320 ft‐lbf/s (1,272,191 W).can be used and can achieve an FTR=1, but
the machine will have to be throttled back to bring the operating machine line into the process
window. Use of operating power in excess 938,320 ft‐lbf/s (1,272,191 W) will result in operating
points outside the process window unless the gate area is increased. Such a change, however,
will reduce the feasible fill time range.
Figure 6‐9 Power vs static pressure ‐ case 1
Example 6‐5
Repeat the previous example using static pressures constraints of
The static pressure and metal pressure constraints for this case are illustrated in Figure 6‐10.
Since 1800 psi < 1850 psi, row 1 of Table 6‐1 applies a static pressure of 1800 psi (12.410 MPa)
requires the smallest quantity of power. Figure 6‐10 shows that there is a small difference in
power required between PSmin = 1650 psi and PSmax = 1800 psi, but curve is slowly decreasing and
the lower power value occurs at the larger pressure of PSmax = 1800 psi, the limit closest to the
minimum point of the curve (minimum at 1.5Pmax = 1850 psi).
Figure 6‐10 Power vs static pressure ‐ case 2
At 1650 psi (11.376 MPa):
1650 psi 1233 psi
1650 psi *1333 in3 /s
1650 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi
1650 3.182 1333 in‐lbf/s
6,997,551 in‐lbf/s = 583,129 ft‐lbf/s 790,617 W
At 1800 psi (12.410 MPa):
1800 psi 1233 psi
1800 psi *1333 in3 /s
1800 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi
1800 2.850 1333 in‐lbf/s
6,837,627 in‐lbf/s = 569,802 ft‐lbf/s 772,548 W
As expected, this time the minimum power level occurs at the upper static pressure limit and the
lower static pressure requires higher power. The PQ2 diagram illustrating the result in shown in
Figure 6‐11. Note that machine line with the longer dashes signifying the upper bound power
has a lower slope than the line with the shorter dashes that signify the minimum level of power.
Figure 6‐11 Lower pressure ‐ higher power
Example 6‐6
Repeat Example 6‐4 using the following static pressure limits:
The power – static pressure relationships for this case are shown in Figure 6‐12.
The static pressure limits bracket 1.5 Pmax = 1850 psi placing the solution, from Table 6‐1, at the
minimum point, 1850 psi.
At a static pressure of 1850 psi (12.410 MPa):
1850 psi 1233 psi
1850 psi *1333 in3 /s
1850 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi
1850 2.770 1333 in‐lbf/s 6,829,724 in‐lbf/s = 569,144 ft‐lbf/s 771,656 W
The maximum usable power could occur at either end of the static pressure range and each point
must be tested. We already computed the power at 1800 psi in Example 6‐5. We need the value
at 2100 psi.
At a static pressure of 2100 psi (14.479 MPa):
1233 psi 2100 psi
2100 psi *1333 in3 /s
482 psi 2100 psi‐1233 psi
2100 6.209 1333 in‐lbf/s = 6,967,991 in‐lbf/s = 580,666 ft‐lbf/s 787,277 W
This value is slightly larger than the 569,802 ft‐lbf/s found for 1800 psi, so the maximum usable
power is 580,666 ft‐lbf/s at 2100 psi. The PQ2 diagram for this solution is shown in Figure 6‐13.
There is very little difference in the two machine lines.
Figure 6‐12 Power vs static pressure ‐ case 3
Figure 6‐13 Mid‐range static pressure specifications
Summary
The static pressure – power analysis addressed in this section provides guidance for machine
selection. Once all process requirements/constraints, including the static pressure constraints
are established, the minimum power needed to achieve the maximum fill time range and the
upper bound on the usable power provide explicit information that can be used to compare
machine options. Even in cases where only one machine is available, the analysis provides
information about the compromises, if any, that the machine will impose on the process window.
Machine Selection
Consider the example that was used throughout the last section.
Aluminum 380 casting
Cavity Volume Vcav = 100 in3 (0.001639 m3)
Minimum Gate Speed vgmin = 1000 in/s (25.4 m/s)
Maximum Gate Speed vgmax = 1600 in/s (40.64 m/s)
Minimum Metal Pressure Pmin = 482 psi (3.323 MPa)
Maximum Metal Pressure Pmax = 1233 psi (8.501 MPa)
Minimum Static Pressure PSmin = 3000 psi (20.65 MPa)
Maximum Static Pressure PSmax = 4500 psi (31.03 MPa)
Maximum Fill Time tfmax = 0.075 s
Discharge Coefficient cd = 0.5
We found the minimum and the maximum usable power levels that can achieve FTR = 1 for the
given static pressure limits and other conditions are:
These power levels are references for machine comparisons.
Example 6‐7
The first die casting machine to be considered has the following parameters and performance
characteristics:
Maximum hydraulic pressure = 2000 psi (13.79 MPa)
Measured dry shot speed = 150 in/s @ 2000 psi (3.81 m/s @ 13.79 MPa)
Hydraulic cylinder diameter = 5.0 in (0.127 m)
No tailrod
Is this machine capable of achieving an FTR=1 with the above process requirements and if not,
determine the maximum fill time range that can be realized?
We first need to calculate the machine hydraulic power. Using Eq. (2.3)
2000 psi 150 in/s
4
5,890,486 in‐lbf/s = 490,874 ft‐lbf/s 665,536 W
Since 490,874 ft‐lbf/s < 694,497 ft‐lbf/s, the machine power is less than the minimum and
consequently does not have sufficient power to achieve FTR = 1. The machine line will intersect
the minimum metal pressure line to the left of the Qref point on the PQ2 diagram but it may still
yield operating points inside the process window.
To determine the FTR that this machine can actually achieve, we need to compute the minimum
fill time that can be realized. The gate area and die line to be used are still the optimums defined
earlier and the minimum fill time is determined from the flow rate at the point where the
maximum power machine line intersects the die line.
We can use the power computed above, together with Eq.(2.6), to find the resulting maximum
flow rate.
Ps Qmax
1963 in3 /s 0.03217 m3 /s
5,890,486 in‐lb/s
Qmax / Ps
3000 psi
We need the flow rate at the operating point, i.e. the intersection of the die line and machine
line. The intersection point is given by Eq. (5.26) and Eq. (5.27). These equations express the
intersection point in terms of the slopes of the lines so we first need to find the slopes. The
optimal die line slope is given by Eq. (6.4) and the machine line slope by Eq. (5.9).
0.000271 psi/ in3 /s
Pmin 482 psi 2
Die Line Slope: Sd Sd
Qmin 1333 in3 /s
2 2
0.000779 psi/ in3 /s
P 3000 psi 2
Machine Line Slope: Sm 2s
1963 in3 /s
2
Qmax
From Eq. (5.26)
2,857,687 in3 /s
Ps 3000 psi 2
Q2
Sd Sm 0.000271 psi/ in3 /s +0.000779 psi/ in3 /s
2 2
Q 1690 in3 /s 0.02769 m3 /s
The fill time is then
FTR is the ratio this range and the maximum range that was computed in the previous section:
FTR
tfmax t fmin mach
0.075 s ‐ 0.059 s 0.016 s
0.56
t fmax t fmin req
0.075 s ‐ 0.0469 s 0.028 s
This machine can achieve a little more than half of the fill time range allowed by the process
window. The PQ2 diagram is shown in Figure 6‐14. The green dashed line is the machine for the
machine we have been analyzing. The machine line – die line intersection is inside the process
window and the machine is usable but the opportunity to adjust the operating point is somewhat
more limited than it would be for a larger FTR. Without reducing the static pressure, it is not
possible to increase the fill time range and reducing the static pressure would place it outside of
the specified range. Increasing the gate area would also allow faster fill times but at the expense
of eliminating some of the longer times near the lower left corner of the window, thus reducing
the overall fill time options.
Figure 6‐14 Requirements and machine line
Example 6‐8
Repeat Example 6‐7 using a machine with a 6.5 in (0.1651 m) diameter hydraulic cylinder, all
other parameters the same.
The machine hydraulic power in this case is:
2000 psi 150 in/s
4
9,954,922 in‐lbf/s = 829,577 ft‐lbf/s 1,124,755 W
This power magnitude is larger than 694,497 ft‐lbf/s, the minimum required to maximize FTR,
but less than the maximum usable power or 938,320 ft‐lbf/s. This means that the machine can
achieve an FTR=1 over a reasonable range of static pressures as shown in Figure 6‐15 but it cannot
achieve FTR=1 for the full range of static pressures.
Figure 6‐15 6.5 in plunger diameter
The maximum static pressure that can be utilized can be found by solving Eq. (6.10) for the static
pressure using the power level found above. The static pressure in this case is Ps=3847 psi (26.48
MPa) which is the pressure at which the long green dashed machine line in Figure 6‐15 intersects
the pressure axis.
The green machine with the short dashes is the machine throttled back the minimum power
level. The green line with the long dashes is below the magenta dashed lines because, as we saw
with Example 6‐8, the machine power is less than the maximum usable power. The machine does
not have sufficient power to both maximize the fill time range at static pressures larger than 3847
psi, i.e. the gap between the green and magenta machine lines with long dashes shown in Figure
6‐15. If desired, the static pressure can be increased above 3847 psi, but the minimum fill time
will increase.
Example 6‐9
Reconsider Example 6‐8 using a third machine that has a 6.5 in (0.1651 m) hydraulic cylinder and
a 180 in/s (4.572 m/s) dry shot speed.
The machine power in this case is as follows:
Phyd Ahyd v ds
6.5in
2
2000 psi 180 in/s
4
11,945,906 in‐lbf/s = 995,492 ft‐lbf/s 1,349,706 W
This power exceeds the maximum usable power that was earlier found to be 938,320 ft‐lbf/s.
This means that in addition to achieving FTR = 1, this machine is sufficiently powerful to support
the full range of static pressures.
The PQ2 diagram for Example 6‐9 is shown in Figure 6‐16. Since the machine exceeds the
maximum usable power, the diagram contains two green machine lines and these lines exactly
match the machine lines that were constructed from the requirements. This machine can meet
the full range of specifications with no compromise. The machine power is throttled back to the
maximum usable power level to construct the green line with the long dashes. The power is
further throttled to the minimum power level to construct the green line with the short dashes.
These are referred to as the upper bound and lower bound machine lines.
Figure 6‐16 Machine with excess power
Plunger Selection
Once a machine is selected and the upper and lower bound machine line (if both exists) are
determined, plunger recommendations can be made based on the static pressure and power of
each line. Recommendations take the form of minimum and maximum plunger diameters. All
plungers with diameters within this range achieve FTR=1. That is, any plunger in this range will
result in FTR = 1.
If there is only a single machine line resulting from the machine analysis, there is only one plunger
diameter recommendation
The logic behind the plunger diameter calculations is somewhat complex because of the
interaction of static pressure and power and only straightforward cases are included here. The
NADCA PQ2 app, however, implements the detailed logic needed for all cases.
Static Pressure, Power, and Plunger Area
The definition of static pressure, Eq. (5.1) is the starting point for relating the plunger diameter
to the static pressure. From Eq. (5.1) is clear that the static pressure changes if the hydraulic
pressure is changed with no change in plunger area. The operational hydraulic pressure might
be less than the maximum and this possible difference must be accounted for when making the
plunger area calculation. To accomplish this, a hydraulic pressure factor is used. The factor is
defined as follows:
Phyd fp Phyd max , 0 fp 1 (6.11)
where:
Phyd Operating Hydraulic Pressure
Phyd max Maximum Hydraulic Pressure
fp Hydraulic Pressure Factor
Using Eq.s (6.11) and (5.1), the static pressure equation can be rewritten as:
fp Phyd max Ahyd Ps Ap (6.12)
Solving (6.12) for the plunger area,
The largest diameter is calculated using the formula for the area of a circle and solving for the
diameter.
dp2max
Apmax
4
The machine analysis that was presented in the previous section results in either one or two
machine lines depending on the specifics of the data. In the case of one machine line, the static
pressure from that line is used with (6.15) to find the largest diameter (it is also the smallest when
only one machine line is present).
In the case of two machine lines, the maximum plunger diameter is computed from the machine
line that emanates from the lower static pressure. The lower of the two values is used because
the static pressure appears in the denominator of Eq. (6.15) and the smaller of the two pressures
gives the larger diameter.
Example 6‐10
Find the maximum diameter plunger that will meet the process constraints and achieve an FTR =
1 when used with the machine specified in Example 6‐9. The data are summarized below:
Aluminum 380 casting
Cavity Volume Vcav = 100 in3 (0.001639 m3)
Minimum Gate Speed vgmin = 1000 in/s (25.4 m/s)
Maximum Gate Speed vgmax = 1600 in/s (40.64 m/s)
Minimum Metal Pressure Pmin = 482 psi (3.323 MPa)
Maximum Metal Pressure Pmax = 1233 psi (8.501 MPa)
Minimum Static Pressure PSmin = 3000 psi (20.65 MPa)
Maximum Static Pressure PSmax = 4500 psi (31.03 MPa)
Maximum Fill Time tfmax = 0.075 s
Discharge Coefficient cd = 0.5
We found in Example 6‐7 that this machine has sufficient power to maximize the FTR but does
not have sufficient power to achieve the full range of the static pressures allowed by the static
pressure constraints. The PQ2 diagram is shown Figure 6‐15.
The minimum value of the static pressure is needed to calculate the maximum plunger diameter
using Eq. (6.15). In this case the minimum static pressure is 3000 psi (20.68 MPa). Therefore:
Phyd max
d p max d hyd
Ps
2000 psi
d p max 6.5 in* =6.5 in*.816 = 5.31 in 0.135 m
3000 psi
Smallest Diameter
The smallest plunger diameter that is compatible with an FTR = 1 solution is more complicated
to find due to the interaction of pressure and power. Static pressure and power must be
considered simultaneously, especially for cases when the machine has more power than the
maximum usable power.
Similar to what we did with the hydraulic pressure, a speed reduction factor is used to account
for power reductions that are due to shot speed adjustments. The speed reduction factor
accounts for independent speed reductions that are not due to hydraulic pressure reductions.
An equation for the operating shot power in terms of the maximum machine power and the
speed and pressure reduction factors is shown in Eq. (6.16).
The hydraulic pressure reduction proportion is raised to the 3/2 power because a reduction of
the hydraulic pressure results in a reduction of the dry shot speed without adjustments to the
speed control system. This behavior was noted in Chapter 5 where it was noted that decreasing
the hydraulic pressure results in a parallel machine line at lower static pressure and slower dry
shot speed.
To find the minimum plunger diameter, we need the static pressure from, Eq. (6.12), and
Equations (6.16) and (6.10) to relate static pressure and power when FTR=1. Equating (6.10) and
(6.16) gives the starting point for the analysis:
Ps P
fs fp3/2max Ps max Qmin (6.17)
Ps Pmax Pmin
Solve Eq. (6.12) for fp and substitute the result into Eq. (6.17) leading to Eq. (6.18):
3/2
Ps Ap Ps P
fs max Ps max Qmin (6.18)
P Ps Pmax
hyd max Ahyd Pmin
Square both sides of (6.18) and solve for the term involving Ap , and after a little algebra, obtain
Eq. (6.19) below:
P Ahyd
3 2
hyd max P Q
2
f A 3
max min (6.19)
s p
Ps Pmax Pmin max
All of the variables on the right side of Eq. (6.19) are machine parameters or process constraints
with the exception of the static pressure term. The right side of (6.19) is a constant for a given
static pressure and since the equation is an equality, the value of Ap with fs < 1 is larger than the
value with fs = 1. Therefore the minimum plunger area is computed using Eq. (6.19) with fs = 1.
The result is Eq. (6.20).
1/3
P 1 Qmin
2
The right side of Eq. (6.20) decreases as PS increases so Ap decreases as PS increases. Therefore,
the plunger area is minimized when the static pressure is the largest.
Eq. (6.20) should be evaluated at the largest static pressure that we can use and still satisfy the
constraints and achieve FTR=1. That is, use the static pressure of the machine line with the
steeper slope when there are two machine lines resulting from the machine evaluations.
Examples with two green dashed machine lines are shown in Figure 6‐15 and Figure 6‐16.
Example 6‐11
Find the minimum plunger diameter and static pressure that will achieve an FTR=1 given the data
used in Example 6‐10 with the exception that the machine dry shot speed is 180 in/s (4.572 m/s).
These data were used in Example 6‐9 and the PQ2 diagram for the example is shown Figure 6‐16.
We need the following to evaluate Eq. (6.20):
Vcav 100 in3
Qmin 1333 in3 /s 0.02184 m3 /s
t fmax 0.075 s
6.5 in
2 2
d hyd
Ahyd 3.14 * 33.18 in2 0.0214 m2
4 4
max 11,945,906 in‐lbf/s (from Example 6‐9)
Use Eq. (6.20) is used to compute the minimum plunger diameter with the given data.
1/3
P 1 Qmin
2
1/3
1333 in3 /s
2
2 1233 psi 1
Apmin 2000 psi*33.18 in * *
482 psi 4500 psi‐1233 psi 11,945,906 in‐lbf/s
Apmin = 66,366 lbf 0.000214in /lbf=14.18 in 0.009148 m
2 2 2
Solving for the diameter using the formula for the area of a circle:
4 Ap min 4*14.18 in2
d pmin = 4.25 in 0.108 m
3.14
Combining this result with the maximum diameter computed in the previous example, any
plunger in the range
4.25 in d p 5.31 in 0.108 m d p 0.135 m
will meet all process constraints and will achieve an FTR=1 with the machine used for the analysis.
Example 6‐12
Repeat Example 6‐11 using the machine and process specifications that were used for Example
6‐8. The machine for this example has a lower shot speed and lower maximum power. The PQ2
diagram is given in Figure 6‐15.
This example has the added difficulty of finding the static pressure that corresponds to the
steeper machine line in Figure 6‐15. We know from Example 6‐8 that the maximum power is
and we know that Eq. (6.10) provides the relationship between static pressure and power. But,
solving Eq. (6.10) for the static pressure given the power requires solving a cubic polynomial. This
can be done and there are standard methods to use, but we won’t address the specifics here.
The PQ2 app provides the solution and we will use that result here.
Ps=3847 psi (26.52 MPa)
1/3
1 P Qmin
2
1/3
1 1233 psi 1333 in3 /s
2
Apmin 2000 psi*33.18 in 2
* *
3847 psi‐1233 psi 482 psi 9,945,922 in‐lbf/s
Solving for the diameter,
4 Apmin 4*17.260 in2
d p min = 4.69 in 0.119 m
3.14
Selecting a Plunger
The range of plungers found in the previous example was:
Any plunger in this range can be used with the selected machine and achieve and FTR = 1. All of
these plungers are therefore equivalent with respect to FTR. However different choices will
result in different static pressures all of which are acceptable with respect to the stated limits. If
a larger diameter plunger is selected, the static pressure will be lower and process adjustments
to set an operating point are restricted to changing the plunger speed. The larger plunger will
also have a lower fill percentage, assuming plungers of the same length, which may have negative
effect on entrapped air. On the other hand, a larger plunger will require a lower plunger speed
to achieve the same flow rate and therefore may result in a lower impact spike at the end of fill.
Therefore in terms of adjustment flexibility, a smaller plunger may provide more adjustment
options but there are other tradeoffs and any plunger within the range should produce a good
part assuming that the static pressure limits were carefully set.
Since the approach described in this chapter is based upon maximizing the fill time range, one
approach to centering the operating point is to use the midpoint of the fill time range to set the
initial operating point. An example of an initial operating point is shown in Figure 6‐17. The black
line is the machine line at the maximum power with the selected plunger. It is clear from the
intersection of the black machine line with the maximum metal pressure line and the die line that
this solution maximizes the fill time range. The red machine line results in a fill time that is
average of the minimum and maximum fill time, i.e., the fill time that is midway between the min
and max. Since the red and black machine lines originate at the same static pressure, this
adjustment was made via a reduction in the shot speed.
A procedure to set an initial operating point similar that shown in Figure 6‐17 is described. The
approach used for the example requires that the die line is optimal with respect to FTR and passes
through the low left corner of the window. Similar procedures can be easily developed for the
general case but attention to a number of specific cases is required. The general solution is
implemented in the NADCA PQ2 app, but won’t be covered here.
Figure 6‐17 Initial operating point
Figure 6‐18 is the PQ2 diagram that will be used to start the adjustment. The die line is optimal.
Since the dashed green machine line intersects the maximum metal pressure line at a flow rate
less than the reference flow rate (magenta machine line intersects the maximum metal pressure
line at the reference flow rate) FTR < 1 and the machine power is less than the minimum needed
to reach FTR = 1. The black machine line intersects the pressure axis above the green dashed line
and above the minimum static pressure marking indicating that the plunger is slightly smaller in
area than needed to maximize FTR. The crossing dashed green and black machine lines mean
that a slight gain in static pressure is being traded for a slight loss in fill time range.
Figure 6‐18 Starting point ‐ setting operating point
The objective is to find an operating point that centered between the maximum fill time and the
minimum fill time. The maximum flow rate (minimum fill time) is determined by the intersection
point of the black machine line and the die line.
To find the fill time at the intersection point of the die line and machine line we need the flow
rate at the intersection. Q can be computed as a function of the die and machine line slopes
using Eq. (5.27):
Ps Ps
Q2 , Q
Sd Sm Sd Sm
The minimum fill time is computed from this flow rate and the cavity volume using Eq. (5.16):
Vcav S Sm
t fmin Vcav d (6.21)
Q Ps
The slope of the die line, for the optimal gate area, is
Pmin
Sd 2
Qmin
and the slope of the machine line is
Ps
Sm 2
Qmax
The fill time at the desired operating point is the average of the minimum and the maximum,
t fmin t fmax
t fO (6.22)
2
and the corresponding flow rate is
Vcav
QO (6.23)
t fo
The pressure at the operating point is computed by evaluating the die line at this flow rate
2
V
PO S cav (6.24)
tf
d
O
The operating machine line passes through the points (0, PS) and (Qo, Po) so the slope is
PO PS
SmO
QO2
These relationships are sufficient to setup the operating point. The procedure is illustrated in the
next example.
Example 6‐13
Set the operating point at the midpoint of the fill time range and find the operating machine line
based on the following data. Also determine the gate speed and plunger speed at the operating
point.
Cavity Volume = 100 in3 (0.001639 m3)
Gate Area = 1.333 in2 (8.60 cm2)
Hydraulic Cylinder Diameter = 6.5 in (0.1651 m)
Maximum Hydraulic Pressure = 1500 psi (10.34 MPa)
Maximum Dry Shot Speed = 150 in/s (3.81 m/s)
Plunger Diameter = 4.5 in (0.1143 m)
Minimum Static Pressure = 3000 psi (20.65 MPa)
Maximum Static Pressure = 4500 psi (31.03 MPa)
Minimum Metal Pressure = 482 psi (3.323 MPa)
Maximum Metal Pressure = 1233 psi (8.501 MPa)
Maximum Fill Time = 0.75 s
Discharge Coefficient =0.5
The static pressure and the die and machine lines are needed to calculate the fill time range. First
compute the static pressure using (5.4)
2
d 6.5 in
2
Ps Phyd hyd
d 1500psi* =1500*2.09 psi=3130 psi 21.58 MPa
p 4.5 in
Then compute the maximum flowrate for the machine at full power using Eq. (5.8)
d hyd
2
The die line slope and machine line slopes can now be computed and are:
0.000271 psi/ in3 /s
Pmin 482 psi 2
Sd
Qmin 1333 in3 /s
2 2
= ‐0.000550 psi/ in3 /s
Ps 3130 psi 2
Sm ‐
2386 in3 /s
2 2
Qmax
Now use Eq. (6.21) to find the minimum fill time that is determined by the intersection of the die
line with the maximum power machine line,
Sd Sm 0.000271+0.000550
t fmin Vcav 100in3 s/in3 = 0.051 s
Ps 3130
The average fill time at the operating point from Eq. (6.22) is
0.075 s + 0.051 s
t fO = 0.063 s
2
The operating point is computed using the flow rate at this fill time and the die line:
Vcav 100 in3
QO =1585 in3 /s 0.0260 m3 /s
t fo 0.063 s
PO Sd Q 0.00027 psi/ in /s * 1585 in /s = 680.7 psi 4.689 MPa
2 3 2 3 2
O
The gate speed is obtained using Eq. (5.18) and evaluating at the operating condition:
QO 1585 in3 /s
vg =1189 in/s 30.20 m/s
Ag 1.333 in3
The plunger speed is computed using equation (5.29),
Qo 1585 in3 /s
v po = 99.66 in/s 2.531 m/s
Ap π* 4.5 in2 /4
The operating machine line passes through the points (0, 3130 psi) and (1585 in3/s, 680.7 psi).
The diagram for these data is plotted in Figure 6‐19. In this example, at the operating conditions
the hydraulic pressure is at the machine’s maximum value and the shot speed is reduced to about
75% of max. The fill time at the operating point is about 0.0631 s which is less than the maximum
allowed by the process constraints. The gate speed is calculated to be about 1189 in/s which is
a little below 1300 in/s that is the middle of the range allowed by the process constraints. The
full gate speed range allowed cannot be covered because the machine does not have enough
power. The FTR for the solution is 0.85 implying that 85% of the range is covered. The PQ2
diagram for this operating point is illustrated by the intersecting red lines shown in Figure 6‐19.
Figure 6‐19 Mid‐range fill time starting point
An alternative to setting the initial starting point is to use the midpoint of the gate speed range.
The calculation is a little simpler in this case since we need only the min and max flow rates that
are feasible. Denote the lower bound and upper bound flow rates in terms of the lower and
upper bound gate speeds as follows.
QLow vgL Ag
QHigh vgH Ag
The average flow rate is then a function of the average speeds,
The plunger speed at this operating condition is
Qavg
vp (6.26)
Ap
The pressure at this flow rate can be computed directly from the die line,
P Sd Qavg
2
(6.27)
The operating machine line can be easily plotted using these data.
Example 6‐14
Using the data from Example 6‐13, set the operating point so that the gate speed at the operating
point is the average of the minimum and maximum speeds that are feasible with the solution.
The machine specified in Example 6‐13 does not have sufficient power to realize the 1600 in/s
maximum gate speed allowed by the constraints so we need to use the maximum that can be
achieved. We found in the previous example that the flow rate at this maximum is
100 in3
QHigh =1961 in3 /s 0.03214 m3 /s
0.051 s
The minimum flow rate is determined by the maximum fill time and was found to be
The average flow rate is therefore
1961 in3 /s+1333 in3 /s
Qavg =1647 in3 /s 0.0270 m3 /s
2
The plunger area was found to be 15.9 in2 so the plunger speed at the new operating point is
1647 in3 /s
v po =103.6 in/s 2.631 m/s
15.9 in2
The fill time at this operating point is 0.061 s, slightly faster than the fill time range midpoint
found in the previous example.
The diagram for this solution is shown in Figure 6‐20. There is an obvious similarity with Figure
6‐19 but slightly more distance from the operating point to minimum flow rate line.
Figure 6‐20 Diagram with operating point at gate speed range midpoint
There is no best way to set the initial operating point. The choice in practice should be based on
the type of adjustments that are most likely to be needed.
lines) shown in Figure 2‐4. Since the shape of the hyperbola is generally in the direction of lower
pressures and the slope of the tangent machine lines is always negative, the static pressure is
always the largest magnitude pressure for any given machine line.
For these reasons it does not make practical or physical sense to specify static pressure limits
that are lower than the metal pressure limits. Such constraints do not and cannot represent
realistic process requirements. An example PQ2 diagram in which the static pressure constraints
fall between the metal pressure limits is shown in Figure 6‐21. The metal pressure limits are
depicted by the longer horizontal blue lines. Static pressure limits are depicted by the short
horizontal blue lines. In the example the static pressure limits are placed completely within the
metal pressure limits. Even with infinite shot power, the upper metal pressure limit cannot be
reached if the plunger is sized based on the static pressure limits. This makes the maximum metal
pressure line completely meaningless. Even with infinite power, as depicted by the horizontal
magenta line, it is not possible to reach metal pressures larger than the static pressure.
Figure 6‐21 Static pressure less than metal pressure
It is certainly possible to achieve acceptable operating points within the window shown on the
figure, but the metal pressure and static pressure constraints are inconsistent as specified.
Situations like this can always be avoided by carefully considering and selecting both the metal
pressure constraints and the static pressure constraints consistent with the part quality
objectives.
The metal pressure constraints are generally derived from gate speed requirements using
Bernoulli’s principle. The calculation involves the alloy density (see the metal pressure section in
Chapter 5), and sometimes, as with some of the data provided for the higher density zinc alloys,
what are thought to be realistic gate speed and static pressure constraints result in metal
pressure limits that demonstrate the behavior shown in Figure 6‐21. It is important to verify the
magnitude of the metal pressure constraints and the static pressure limits and reconcile the
inconsistencies before performing an analysis.
Summary
An optimization approach to performing PQ2 analysis was described in this chapter. The metric
used to quantify and compare solutions is the fill time ratio (FTR) that measures the proportion
of the maximum possible fill time range as determined by the process requirements that is
achievable by the process. The optimization methods are implemented in the NADCA PQ2 web
application which does the calculations and manages the special cases freeing you to focus on
the design decisions.
The fill time and gate speed requirements are used to find the gate area that will deliver the
widest possible range of operating points. Guidance is provided to help select a machine and
plunger that can take full advantage of the range of operating points that are possible with the
gate. This sequence guarantees the largest possible process window even when the machine
options are limited. Following the steps of the procedure enables you to find the smallest
machine power level and static pressure combination that will maximize the process window and
to explicitly tradeoff static pressure and shot speed. The guidance provided can virtually
eliminate trial and error guesswork associated with finding the right gate, machine, plunger
combination needed for the part.
The optimal gate that is derived from the requirements also has the advantage of being “steel
safe.” If for any reason the initial maximum fill time estimate turns out to be too long and fill
times need to be shortened to meet surface finish or other quality specifications, the modified
gate can be obtained by enlarging the first gate.
References
Cox, M. L., et al. (2008). PQ2 Machine Power and Die Compatibility, North American Die Casting
Association.
E. A. Herman, J. F. W., A. A. Machonis (1975). Copper Alloy Pressure Die Casting. New York, NY,
International Copper Research Association, Inc.
Herman, E. A. (1996). Gating Die Casting dies, North American Die Casting Association.
Karni, Y., et al. (1991). Selection of Process Variables for Die Casting, Ohio State University.
Lindsey, D. and J. F. Wallace (1968). Heat and Fluid Flow in the Die Casting Process. 5th National Die
Casting Congress. Detroit, MI.
Miller, R. A. (2010). An Extension to PQ2: Selecting Die and Machine to Maximize Operating Flexibility.
NADCA Congress Transactions, North American Die Casting Assosication.
Miller, R. A. (2013). An Improved Metric for Optimizing the PQ2 ‐ Based Operating Window. 2013 Die
Casting Congress and Tabletop, North American Die Casting Association.
Nelson, C. W. (1970). Nature of Heat Transfer at the Die Face. 6h SDCE International Die Casting Congress.
Cleveland, OH.
Walkington, W. (2001). Seven Steps to Quality Gating Design, North American Die Casting Association.
Ward, M. (2006). Gating Manual, NADCA.
Zabel, D. (1980). The PQ2 Diagram: Part II ‐ the pressure available line. Die Casting Engineer.
Zabel, D. (1980). The PQ2 Diagram: Part I ‐ The Pressure Required Line. Die Casting Engineer: 46‐51.
Zabel, D. (1981). The PQ2 Diagram: Part III ‐ The Intersection Point. Die Casting Engineer.
Data Tables
Table A‐1 Parameters for fill time calculations
Table A‐2 Typical gate speeds and values for the J Factor
Typical Gate
Speed vg Gate Speed Ranges3 J Factor
Table A‐3 Selected properties of die casting alloys
°F °C BTU/lb‐°F J/g‐°C BTU/lb‐°F J/g‐°C lb/in3 g/cm3 °F °C
Mg 1105 596 0.333 1.417 155 365 0.066 1.8 800 425
Al 360,380, 384 1100 593 0.269 1.051 183 396 0.093 2.76 850 455
Al 390 1225 663 0.269 1.051 183 396 0.093 2.76 850 455
Zn 12, 27 909 487 0.133 0.555 77.9 181 0.181 5.01 600 315
Zn 3, 5, 7 728 386 0.098 0.409 43.3 100 0.245 6.8 550 290
Fe 2600 1425 0.321 0.398 143 98.3 0.084 7.86 2000 1095
Cu 60/40 1700 927 0.090 0.377 72.0 168 0.3 8.3 1150 620
Cu85‐5‐5‐5 1850 1010 0.085 0.356 67.9 158 0.318 8.8 1150 620
Pb 540 282 0.033 0.131 10.0 23.3 0.4 11.07 400 205
3
For large castings above 15 lb, some casters recommend gate speed ranges 2000 – 2500 in/s
Appendix A Data Tables
Table A‐4 Typical fill times for aluminum castings
Typical Wall thickness of segment Cavity Fill Time, tf
inches mm s
0.035 0.90 0.012 ‐ 0.021
0.050 1.30 0.017 ‐ 0.029
0.075 1.80 0.026 ‐ 0.044
0.100 2.50 0.035 ‐ 0.059
0.120 3.20 0.042 ‐ 0.071
0.140 3.50 0.055 ‐ 0.085
0.160 4.00 0.080 ‐ 0.115
0.180 4.50 0.110 ‐ 0.140
Table A‐5 Typical values for static pressure4
4
From Walkington, W. (2001). Seven Steps to Quality Gating Design, North American Die Casting Association.
Table A‐6 Symbols and units conversions for calculations
Conversion
Symbol English Multiplier Metric Designation
m lb 0.454 kg Mass
ρ lb/in3 27,679.9 kg/m3 Density
lb/gal 0.12 kg/l
V in3 1.6387e‐005 m3 Volume
t s ‐ s Time
w in 0.0254 m Thickness
Q in3/sec 1.6387e‐005 m3/s Fill Rate
v in/sec 0.0254 m/sec Speed
A in2 0.00064516 m2 Area
L in 0.0254 m Length
fi % ‐ % Fill %
d in 0254 m Diameter
P psi 6894.757 Pa (N/m2) Pressure
0.069 bar (kg/cm2)
Formulas
Area of a Circle
d2
A
4
where:
A area of the circle, in2 (m2 )
d diameter of the circle, in (m)
constant, pi, 3.1416
Force and Pressure
F P A or P F / A
where:
F force, lbf N= kg m / s2
P pressure, psi Pa=N/m2
A area, in2 , m2
Casting Volume
m
V
where:
V casting volume, in3 , (m3 )
m casting mass, lb, (kg)
alloy density lb/in3 (kg/m3 )
Flow Rate at Plunger
Q Ap v p
where:
Q plunger displacement (flow) rate, in3 /s (m3 /s)
Ap area of the plunger, in2 (m2 )
v p speed of the plunger when pushing molten metal, in/s (m/s)
Flow Rate at Gate
Q Ag vg
where:
Q plunger displacement (flow) rate, in3 /s (m3 /s)
Ag area of the gate, in2 (m2 )
vg average speed of the molten metal through the gate, in/s (m/s)
Critical Slow Shot Speed
100% fi
v css c cc d p
100%
where:
V = Shot volume, volume of metal ladled into the shot sleeve, in3 m3
Ls = Length of the shot sleeve between the face of the plunger
and the face of the ejector die, in m
Ap = Shot plunger area, in2 m2
Atomization
D vg1.71 J
where:
J = Atomization value
D = Depth of gate, in (m)
= Density of the molten metal, lb/in3 (kg/m3)
Vg = Gate speed, in/s, (m/s)
Maximum Fill Time
T T SZ
t fmax k i f w
T T
f d
where:
t fmax = theoretical maximum fill time, s
k = empirically derived constant, s/in (s/mm)
Ti = temperature of molten metal as it enters the die oF, (oC)
Tf = minimum flow temperature of the metal oF, (oC)
Td = temperature of die cavity surface just before the metal enters the cavity oF, (oC)
S = fraction solid, expressed as a percentage, allowed at the end of fill, %
Z = units conversion factor, oF/%, (oC/%)
w = casting wall thickness, in (mm)
Bernoulli’s Equation – US units
2
vg
P
2g cd
where:
P = metal pressure, psi=lbf/in2
= liquid metal density, lb/in3
g = gravitational constant, 386.2 in/s2
vg = gate speed, in/s
cd = coefficient of discharge (unit less)
Bernoulli’s Equation – metric units
2
vg
P
2 cd
where:
P = metal pressure, N/m2 = Pa
= liquid metal density, kg/m3
vg = gate speed, m/s
cd = coefficient of discharge (unit less)
Gate Speed
Q
vg
Ag
where:
vg = gate speed, in/s (m/s)
Q = volumetric flow rate, in3/s, (m3/s)
Ag = area of the gate, in2 (m2)
Static Metal Pressure
Ahyd Arod 2
d hyd d rod
2
Ps Phyd
Ap d p2
where:
Ps = metal pressure at static conditions, psi (Pa)
Phyd = hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
dhyd = hydraulic cylinder diameter, in. (m)
drod = tail od diameter, in. (m)
dp = plunger diameter, in (m)
Ahyd = hydraulic cylinder area, in2. (m2)
Arod = tailrod area, in2. (m2)
Ap = plunger diameter, in2. (m2)
P1 Q12
P2 Q22
where:
Q1 = original flow rate, in3/s (m3/ s)
Q2 = new flow rate, in3/ s (m3/ s)
P1 = original hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
P2 = new hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
Flow Rate Change From Pressure Change
Q12P2 P
Q2 Q1 2
P1 P1
where:
Q1 = original flow rate, in3/s (m3/ s)
Q2 = new flow rate, in3/ s (m3/ s)
P1 = original hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
P2 = new hydraulic pressure, psi (Pa)
Cavity Volume from Casting Mass
m
Vcav
where:
Vcav = cavity volume, volume of metal flowing through the gates, in3 (m3)
m = mass of metal passing through the gates, lb (kg)
= molten alloy density, lb/in3 (kg/m3)
Sd
2g Ag cd
2
where:
P = Metal pressure, psi
Q = Flow rate, in3/s
=Density, lb/in3
G = Acceleration due to gravity, 386.2 in/s2
Ag = Gate area, in2
Cd= Discharge coefficient
Die Line and Die Line Slope (Metric Units)
P Q 2 Sd Q 2
2 Ag cd
2
Sd
2 Ag cd
2
where:
P = Metal pressure, MPa
Q = Flow rate, m3/s
=Density, kg/m3
Ag = Gate area, m2
cd= Discharge coefficient
Machine Line Equation
Ps 2
P Ps 2
Q
Qmax
where:
P = Metal pressure, psi (MPa)
PS = Static pressure, psi (MPa)
Q = Flow rate, in3/s (m3/s
Qmax = Max flow rate (dry shot), in3/s (m3/s)
Machine Line Slope
Ps
Sm 2
Qmax
where:
PS = Static pressure, psi (MPa)
Qmax = Max flow rate (dry shot), in3/s (m3/s)
Operating Point
Ps
Qo2
Sd S m
Ps
Po Sd
Sd Sm
where:
Qo = Flow rate at operating point, in3/s (m3/s
Po = Metal pressure at operating point, psi (MPa)
PS = Static pressure, psi (MPa)
Sd = Die line slope, see above
Sm = Machine line slope, see above
Fill Time Range
Fill Time Range t f max t f min
where:
t f max = maximum fill time (s)
t f min = minimum fill time (s)
where:
Qmin = Minimum flow rate, in3/s (m3/s)
vgmin = Minimum gate speed, in/s (m/s)
Vcav = Cavity volume, in3 (m3)
t f max = maximum fill time (s)
Ps P
Ps max Qmin , Ps Pmax
Ps Pmax Pmin
where:
Qmin = Minimum flow rate, in3/s (m3/s
Pmax = Maximum metal pressure, psi (MPa)
PS = Static pressure, psi (MPa)
= Machine shot power, in‐lbf/s (W)
Example Problems
Problem 1 Initial Setup
Determine the total gate area at a metal pressure midway between the maximum and minimum
gate velocities and required fast shot speed to produce an aluminum casting in a die cast machine
with the following parameters:
Hydraulic Cylinder Dia.: 5.0 in (no tailrod)
Plunger Dia.: 3.0 in
Max. Hydraulic Pressure: 1200 lb/in2.
Dry Shot Speed @ max pressure: 140 in/sec
Casting Weight (metal through gate) 4.0 lb
Wall thickness: 0.120 in
Requires good surface finish: S = 10%
Gate speed range: 1000 ‐ 1600 in/sec
Density of Aluminum: 0.093 lb/in3
Coefficient of Discharge (cd): 0.5
Die parameters:
Plunger diameter 3.0 in
Working sleeve length 30 in
Total shot weight 7.0 lb
Total metal thru gates 5.5 lb
Average gate thickness 0.050 in
Total gate area 0.260 in2
Wall thickness 0.130 in
Process parameters:
Die temperature at start of fill 550 oF
Metal temperature at gate 1200 oF
Process shot hydraulic pressure 2000 psi
Process slow shot speed 5 in/s
Process fast shot speed 70 in/s
Process fill time 0.120
Coefficient of Discharge (cd) 0.5
Machine A:
Maximum hydraulic pressure: 1500 psi
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 6 in
Dry shot speed @ 1500 psi: 240 in/s
Machine B:
Maximum hydraulic pressure: 3000 psi
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 5 in
Dry shot speed @ 1500 psi: 354 in/s
1. Determine the optimal gate area for each cavity.
2. Determine if Machine A or Machine B is the better option. If necessary, consider adjusting
the number of cavities in the die.
3. Recommend a plunger diameter.
Hydraulic Cylinder Diameter: 5.0 in (no tailrod)
Plunger Dia.: 3.0 in
Max. Hydraulic Pressure: 1200 lb/in2
Dry Shot Speed @ max pressure: 140 in/s
Casting Mass (metal through gate): 4.0 lb
Wall thickness: 0.120 in
Requires good surface finish: S = 10%
Gate speed range: 1000 ‐ 1600 in/s
Density of Aluminum: 0.093 lb/in3
Coefficient of Discharge (cd): 0.5
1. Compute the static pressure using Eq. (5.4)
d2
Ps Phyd hyd , Eq. (5.4)
d p2
Ps = 1200 lb/in2 * (5.0 in)2 / (3 in.)2 = = 1200 lb/in2 * (25 / 9)
Ps =1200 lb/in2 * (2.778 in.2) = = 3333 lb/in2
2. Compute the maximum flow rate using Eq. (5.8)
d p2
Qmax v ds Ap v ds
4
Qmax 140 in/s*3.1416* 3 in /4
2
Qmax 140*3.1416*9/4 in3 /s
Qmax 140*7.07 in3 /s = 990 in3 /s
3. Compute the maximum fill time using Eq. (4.1)
T T SZ
t fmax k i f w
T T
f d
t fmax 0.866 s/in *
1200 °F ‐ 1060 °F + 10% 6.8 °F/ % 0.120 in
1060 °F ‐ 650 °F
t fmax 0.866 *
140 68 0.120 s = 0.053 s
410
4. Compute the minimum flow rate using Eq. (5.14) and (5.15)
Vcav = m/ρ = 4.0 lb / 0.093 lb/in3 = 43.0 in3
Qmin Vcav / t f max
At the minimum gate speed condition,
2
0.093 lb/in3 1000 in/s 0.093 4,000,000
Pmin psi 482 psi
2 386.2 in/s2 0.5 772.4
At the max gate speed condition,
2
0.093 lb/in3 1600 in/s 0.093 10,240,000
Pmax psi 1233 psi
2 386.2 in/s2 0.5 772.4
The midpoint of the pressure range is therefore
P = (482 + 1233) /2 psi = 857.5
6. Find the corresponding value of Q using the machine line equation, Eq. (5.10)
Ps 2
P Ps 2
Q
Qmax
3333 psi
857.5 psi = 3333 psi Q2
990 in /s
3 2
3333 857.5
9902 in3 /s 727,944 in3 /s
2 2
Q2
3333 ‐
3
Q = 853 in /s
7. Compute the gate area that will place the die line through the ( 853 in3 /s , 857.5 psi )
point. The required gate area is computed from Eq. (5.24)
Q 853 in3 /s 0.093 lb/in3
Ag
cd 2gP 0.5 2*386.2 in/s2 * 857.5 psi
Ag 1706 * .000375 in2 = 0.639 in2
8. Compute the plunger fast shot speed using Eq. (5.29).
Q 853 in3 /s 4*853
vp = in/s = 120.7 in/s
Ap π* 3 in /4 3.1416*9
2
9. Compute the gate speed using Eq. (5.18)
Q 853 in3 /s
vg = 1583 in/s
Ag 0.539 in2
10. Compute the fill time at the operating point using Eq. (5.30)
Vcav
tf = 43.0 in3 / 853 in3/s = 0.050 s
Q
A PQ2 diagram for the example is shown in Figure D‐1.
Figure D‐1 Diagram for worked example 1
Problem 2 Solution
Determine if an existing process for a 380 aluminum casting is acceptable, or determine what
changes can be made to improve the process. The casting has minimal final machining and the
surface will be painted. Internal porosity is not an issue, but surface finish is a major issue (i.e. S
= 10%). The gate speed constraints follow the NADCA recommendations.
Machine parameters:
450Ton machine
Hydraulic Cylinder Diameter 5.0 in (no tailrod)
Maximum hydraulic pressure 2000 psi
Maximum dry shot speed 150 in/s
Die parameters:
Plunger diameter 3.0 in
Working sleeve length 30 in
Total shot weight 7.0 lb
Total metal through gates 5.5 lb
Average gate thickness 0.050 in
Total gate area 0.260 in
Average casting wall thickness 0.130 in
Process parameters:
Die temperature at start of fill 550 °F
Metal temperature at gate 1200 0F
Process shot hydraulic pressure 2000 psi
Process slow shot speed 5 in/ s
Process fast shot speed 70 in/s
Process fill time 0.120
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) 0.5
Steps:
1. Plot PQ2 diagram for existing process
a. Establish machine operating line.
b. Establish die line.
i. Using actual flow rate, Q
ii. Using actual pressure as required to maintain actual gate speed
c. Test for atomization
d. Check for critical slow shot speed
2. Determine and plot theoretical fill time.
3. If necessary, optimize cold chamber size and gate area.
4. Recommend optimum slow shot speed.
1. Plot PQ2 diagram for existing process.
a) Establish maximum power machine line.
Compute the static pressure using Eq. (5.7)
Compute the maximum flow rate using Eq. (5.8)
d p2 π 3 in
2
3.1416*9 3
Qmax vds 150 in/s* =150* in /s= 1060 in3 /s
4 4 4
b) Compute the die line for the given gate area
The flow rate at the given plunger speed is computed from Eq. (2.1)
Q v p Ap 70 in/s * 7.07 in2 495 in3 /s
The gate speed at this flow rate is
vg Q / Ag 495 in3 /s / 0.260 in2 = 1903 in/s
The metal pressure to sustain this speed from Bernoulli’s equation is
2
vg
2
0.093 lb/in3 * 1904 in/s
Pm
2g cd 2*386.2 in/s2 .5
3 2 2
0.093 lb/in *14,485,936 in /s
Pm 1744 psi
772.4 in/s2
The die line slope is therefore
= 0.00712 psi/ in3 /s
Pm 1744 psi 2
Sd
495 in3 /s
2 2
Q
The die line passes through the origin and the ((495 in3/s)2 , 1744 psi )point on the
diagram.
c) Maximum fill time
For the requirements given, the maximum fill time is
T T SZ
t fmax k i f w
T T
f d
D vg1.71 J using J = 750 for the 380 alloy. The constant D is gate area divided by the gate
length plus the gate depth.
.26 in2 .26
D = in = 0.0495 in
.05 in+.26/.05 in 5.25
lb in1.71 lb in1.71
D v g1.71 0.0495 in *0.093 lb/in3 * 1904 in/s
1.71
1868 > 750
in2 s1.71 in2 s1.71
e) Critical Slow Shot Speed
We need the shot sleeve initial fill percentage which we can compute from the total shot
volume and the volume of the shot sleeve.
The shot volume V is
V m / 7.0 lb / 0.093 lb/in3 =75.3 in3
The fill percentage is computed using Eq. (2.9)
V 75.3 in3
fi 100% *100% = 35.5%
AL 7.07 in2 *30 in
p s
The critical slow shot speed is computed using (2.8)
100% fi 100% ‐ 35.5%
v css c cc d p 22.8 in0.5 /s* 3 in=25.47 in/s
100% 100%
Evaluation and conclusions:
A PQ2 diagram of the process based on the given information if shown in Figure D‐2. The black
machine line is the maximum power machine line. The red machine line and red die line are
constructed based on the given operating conditions.
There are a number of issues with the process as given.
1. The operating point is outside of the process window with a gate speed that is higher than
the recommended maximum and a fill time that is longer than the theoretical maximum
(0.1195 s vs 0.0465 s).
2. The slope of the die line places the operating point above the maximum metal pressure
line. This indicates that the gate area is too small and should be increased.
3. The shot speed is throttled back increasing the fill time, but as can be seen from the
position of the maximum power machine line (black machine line), even at full speed the
operating point would be way outside of the process window. In fact the metal pressure
would be more than twice the desired maximum. The small plunger results in a large
static pressure but, because the machine has limited power, the plunger speed is limited.
A larger diameter plunger is needed to reduce the slope of the machine line and allow
more speed at the expense of lower static pressure.
Figure D‐2 Diagram for worked example 3
4. Gate flow is atomized and well above the atomization limit, assuming that a single gate is
used, but this is due to a very high gate speed of 1904 in/s.
5. The slow shot speed of 5 in/s is well below the critical slow shot speed of 25.5 in/s. This
leaves the process susceptible to entrapped air.
A diagram constructed using the optimizing principles presented in Chapter 6is shown in Figure
D‐3. This diagram is based on a gate area of 1.2884 in2, considerably larger than the 0.260 in2
gate that was specified. The dashed green line is the machine line for the machine parameters
given with this example but with a plunger that optimizes the fill time ratio. The two magenta
machine lines bracket the minimum machine power that maximizes the fill time ratio and the
maximum machine usable power level. The fact that the dashed green line falls below the
magenta lines shows that the machine selected for this example does not have sufficient power
to maximize the fill time ratio – i.e. it does not have sufficient power to fill the cavity at the
minimum fill time associated with this process window. The plunger diameter used to draw this
figure maximizes the fill time ratio given the machine constraints, i.e. provides the largest process
window possible with this machine. This plunger is about 4.08 in in diameter.
Figure D‐3 Optimization‐based diagram
Figure D‐4 Results with 4 in shot sleeve
Figure D‐4 shows similar results with a 4.0 inch shot sleeve and 1.2884 in2 gate. The fill time
range with this setup is 0.0362 s to 0.0459 s, slightly less than with the larger sleeve. FTR is 0.56
so 56% of the requirements based window is available. The nominal operating condition is set at
the mid‐point of the fill time range and has a fill time of 0.0410 s. The fast shot speed is 115 in/s
and the static pressure is 3125 psi. If the sleeve length is left at 30 in the initial fill percentage is
about 20% and the critical slow shot speed is 36.5 in/s. Reducing the length to 18 in increases
the fill percentage to about 33% and reduces the critical slow shot speed to 30.4 in/s.
The slowest plunger speed that still results in a feasible operating point is shown in Figure D‐5.
Feasible operating points require plunger fast shot speeds of about 117 in/s to 130 in/s.
Figure D‐5 Process with 4 in sleeve at slowest shot speed
For comparison purposes, results with a sleeve 3.75 in diameter and the 1.2884 in2 gate are
shown in Figure D‐6. The results are similar to the 4 in diameter case. The fill time range this
time is 0.0395 s to 0.0459 s with an FTR of 0.37. The fast shot plunger speed is 125.41 in/s with
a gate speed of 1075 in/s. The static pressure is slightly higher at 3556 psi. The sleeve fill
percentage is 22.7 % with a critical slow shot speed of 34.1 in/s. This shot sleeve and gate area
would also provide a reasonable process window. Figure D‐7 illustrates the process at the
slowest feasible fast shot speed. Plunger speeds of 117 in/s to 130 in/s are feasible with this
process and shot sleeve.
Figure D‐6 Results with 3.75 in diameter sleeve
Figure D‐7 Process with 3.75 in sleeve at slowest fast shot
Problem 3 Solution
A casting is to be produced in a 3‐cavity die. Basic information about the casting, process
conditions, and two machines that are available is given below.
Casting alloy: aluminum 380
No special surface finish requirements: S=25%
Gate speed limits: 1250 in/s < vg < 1700 in/s
Porosity is a concern: 4500 psi < static pressure < 5500 psi
Critical Wall Thickness: 0.09 in
Part Volume: 45 in3
Overflow Volume: 7 in3
Injection temperature: 1150 oF
Average die surface temperature 500 oF
3 cavity die, all cavities identical
Machine A:
Maximum hydraulic pressure: 1500 psi
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 6.0 in
Dry shot speed @ 1500 psi: 240 in/s
Machine B:
Maximum hydraulic pressure: 3000 psi
Hydraulic cylinder diameter: 5.0 in
Dry shot speed @ 1500 psi: 354 in/s
1. Determine the optimal gate area for each cavity.
2. Determine if Machine A or Machine B is the better option to produce this casting. If
necessary, consider adjusting the number of cavities in the die.
3. Recommend a plunger diameter.
Question 1:
The optimal gate area can be found using Eq. (6.5).
Vcav
Ag
v gmin t fmax
First determine the total volume of metal will pass through the gates of all three cavities.
Volume per cavity = part volume + overflow volume = 45 in3 + 7 in3 = 52 in3
Total volume for the die = 3*52 in3 = 156 in3
Second compute the maximum fill time using Eq. (4.1)
Now compute the total gate area.
Vcav 156 in3
Ag = 3.449 in2 Total
vgmin t fmax 1250 in/s * 0.0362 s
Since the cavities are identical, the gate area is divided equally among the 3 cavities:
3.449 in2
Gate area per cavity: Ag = 1.150 in2
3
Question 2:
The shot power of each machine must be compared to the minimum required and the maximum
usable power level needed to achieve an FTR=1.
The metal pressures at the minimum and maximum gate speed limits are needed to draw the
PQ2 diagram and for the power calculations. Use Eq. (4.6) for this calculation.
At 1250 in/s:
2
vg
2
0.093 lb/in3 1250 in/s
P * 753 psi
2g c d 2*386.2 in/s2 .5
At 1700 in/s:
2
vg
2
0.093 lb/in3 1700 in/s
P * 1392 psi
2g c d 2*386.2 in/s2 .5
The machine lines based on the requirements will pass through the upper and lower static
pressure limits and through the Qref, Pmax point.
Compute the value of Qref using Eq. (6.7)
2
1392 psi 156 in3
34,355,954 in /s
P 2
Q 2
ref max Qmin
2
3
A PQ2 diagram based on the requirements and the optimal gate area is shown in Figure D‐8
Figure D‐8 Optimal gate area, problem 3
The power levels corresponding to the two machine lines can be computed using Eq. (6.10)
At Ps = 4500 psi,
Ps 4500 psi
Ps Qref 4500 psi * * 5860 in3 /s
Ps Pmax 4500 psi‐1392 psi
31,730,424 in‐lbf/s = 2,644,202 ft‐lbf/s
At Ps = 5500 psi,
Ps 5500 psi
Ps Qref 5500 psi * * 5860 in3 /s
Ps Pmax 5500 psi‐1392 psi
37,292,924 in‐lbf/s = 3,107,744 ft‐lbf/s
Machine power for the candidate machines is computed using Eq. (2.3)
Machine A:
π 62 in2
A Phyd * Ahyd vds 1500 psi * *240 in/s
4
A = 10,178,760 in‐lbf/s = 848,230 ft‐lbf/s
Machine B
π 5.02 in2
B Phyd * Ahyd vds 3000 psi * *354 in/s
4
B = 20,852,321 in‐lbf/s = 1,737,693 ft‐lbf/s
The power of both machines is less than the minimum power required to achieve an FTR=1 so
the solutions, if feasible at all, will be somewhat limited. The PQ2 diagrams for each machine are
shown in Figure D‐9 and Figure D‐10.
It is clear from Figure D‐9 that Machine A has no possibility of reaching the process window if a
three cavity die is used. The green dashed machine line (represents the machine) does not come
close to the minimum flow rate line so an acceptable operating point is not possible. FTR = 0 for
this machine with the three cavity die.
Figure D‐9 Diagram for machine A with 3 cavity die
Machine B also has an FTR = 0 as can be seen from Figure D‐10 and can place no operating points
inside the process window with the three cavity die, although it is very close.
Figure D‐10 Diagram for machine B with three cavity die
Since the three cavity die is not feasible, examine the power required if two or one cavity versions
of the die are implemented. Inspection of Eq.s (6.7) and (6.10) shows that the flow rate and
consequently the power required will scale linearly with the cavity volume so the results above
can be scaled proportionally to the total cavity volume. The results can also be recomputed using
the basic formulae if desired. The gate area for each cavity will remain the same but the total
gate area for the die will also scale with volume.
Power Required – Two Cavity Die:
At Ps = 4500 psi,
2
2,644,202 ft‐lbf/s = 1,762,801 ft‐lbf/s
3
At Ps = 5500 psi,
2
3,107,744 ft‐lbf/s = 2,071,829 ft‐lbf/s
3
Power Required – One Cavity Die:
At Ps = 4500 psi,
1
2,644,202 ft‐lbf/s = 881,401 ft‐lbf/s
3
At Ps = 5500 psi,
1
3,107,744 ft‐lbf/s = 1,035,915 ft‐lbf/s
3
Comparing the results obtained with the minimum and maximum usable machine power values
found earlier, neither machine meets the minimum power requirement to achieve FTR = 1 for
the two cavity die, but Machine B is very close. Machine A is close with one cavity. Machine B
exceeds the maximum usable power with one cavity. Diagrams for these cases are shown below.
Figure D‐11 Machine A with two cavity die
Machine B with the two cavity die, Figure D‐12, has an FTR=0.97 so this solution can achieve
nearly the full fill time range and meets all of the process constraints. This is probably the best
option. With the sacrifice of some of the fill time range, the static pressure could be raised above
the minimum, if desired, with this solution.
Machine A with one cavity is a poor second choice since it provides about the same range of
operating flexibility but at the cost of two of the three cavities.
Figure D‐12 Machine B with two cavity die
Figure D‐13 Machine A with one cavity die
Question 3.
Use the two cavity die with Machine B. Since the machine power does not exceed the minimum
requirement for FTR = 1, there is only one plunger that will maximize FTR. The diameter of this
plunger can be computed using Eq. (6.15)
A 4 in diameter or slightly smaller would increase the static pressure somewhat without too big
a sacrifice in FTR. A 3.875 in diameter plunger would be a good option. The diagram for this
choice is shown in Figure D‐14 where the black machine line is the maximum power line with this
plunger choice. Some potential upper end fill time is lost, but FTR = 0.79 so a reasonable amount
of adjustment is still possible. A 4 in plunger would raise the FTR to 0.91 at a static pressure of
4688 psi.
Figure D‐14 Machine B, two cavity die, 3.875 in plunger0