Tracking Water Use To Cut Costs: Business Resource Efficiency Guide

Business Resource Efficiency Guide
Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs
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1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further Appendices
saving water procedure more complex information
important? sites
WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs II
Our vision is a world without

waste, where resources are
used sustainably.
We work with businesses and
individuals to help them reap the
benefits of reducing waste, develop
sustainable products and use
resources in an efficient way.
Find out more from the WRAP
Resource Efficiency Helpline on
0808 100 2040 or at
www.wrap.org.uk
Contents
1 Why is saving water important? 2 Appendix A: UK charging schemes 46

1.1 The true cost of water 2
Appendix B: Where do businesses use water? 58
1.2 Understanding where costs arise 2
1.3 What is a water balance? 4 Appendix C: Unit operations for a boiler and 64
1.4 Why produce a water balance? 6 cooling tower
1.5 How to use this guide 6
Appendix D: Example water balances 65
2 A six-step procedure for constructing/using 8
Appendix E: Producing and using site 70
a water balance
drainage plans
2.1 Step 1 – Obtaining top-level commitment 8
and assessing the resources required Appendix F: Calculating water flows for cooling 71
2.2 Step 2 – A preliminary review 8 towers and steam relief valves
2.3 Step 3 – Drawing up a water balance 15 Appendix G: Determining pollutant loads 73
2.4 Step 4 – Adding detail to the water balance 17
2.5 Step 5 – Using the water balance to save 30
money
2.6 Step 6 – Continuous improvement 33
3 Dealing with more complex sites 34
3.1 Gathering more data 34
3.2 Finding out more about effluent flows 34
3.3 Using the water balance to save money 40
4 Action plan 43
5 Further information 44
Home
important? sites
WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 1
Summary
Adopting a systematic approach to water

reduction can typically result in around 30%
water savings if no measures have previously
been implemented. A water balance is a
management tool that provides managers
with an overview of the major uses of
water on their company’s site, irrespective
of the company’s activity. When used to
control water use and effluent generation,
a water balance can help companies and
organisations of all sizes and types to reduce
water use, cut costs and increase profits.
This guide describes a six-step procedure for

constructing a water balance and explains
how this can help you to identify water and
cost saving opportunities.
The step-by-step approach to reducing water

use described in this guide involves:
1. Obtaining commitment and resources.
2. A preliminary review.
3. Drawing up a water balance.
4. Adding detail to the water balance.
5. Using the water balance to save money.
6. Continuous improvement.
Checklists and worksheets are provided

to help you investigate your water use and
effluent sources. Examples of cost savings
already achieved by companies are given
throughout the guide.
Home
important? sites
1 Why is saving water important?
Companies that Water is becoming an increasingly expensive Table 1: Types of water and wastewater in the UK
adopt a systematic resource with mains, sewerage and trade
approach to water effluent charges rising. However, introducing Water sources Wastewater types
reduction typically water efficiency measures is one of the
achieve a 30% easiest and most inexpensive ways to achieve
¡¡ Mains water ¡¡ Domestic
decrease in the cost savings.
(wholesome* and wastewater
amount of water unwholesome) (sewage)
they use. Most companies and organisations know how
much water they use, but may not always ¡¡ Water abstracted ¡¡ Trade effluent
use this knowledge to help them reduce from groundwater
¡¡ Surface drainage
the amount of water consumed. Companies (borehole) and
(roof and site run-
surface water
that adopt a systematic approach to water off)
reduction typically achieve a 30% decrease in
¡¡ Discharge to
the amount of water they use. By using less surface water and
water, companies save money on both water groundwater
supply and wastewater disposal. Taking action
* Drinkable.
to save water may also allow companies to
recover raw materials or product previously
lost in effluent streams. There are a number of charging schemes for
water and wastewater (sewerage and trade
This guide applies to both industrial and effluent charges) in the UK. The amount paid
commercial sites and will help you work out depends on:
where water is being used and where less
water could be used. Savings can be made ¡ the service provider;
by companies of any size or type – including ¡ the size of the meter;
companies that use comparatively little water ¡ the tariff structure agreed with your service
per site or per person. provider; and
¡¡ the year – unit costs are reviewed on an
Some sites have a finite water supply (e.g.
annual basis.
from the mains water distribution system
or groundwater and surface water sources),
Appendix A gives details of individual charging
making it difficult to increase supply to meet
schemes and how to understand your bills.
any rise in demand. Increased availability
may also be expensive. Managing water 1.2 Understanding where costs arise
more efficiently can prevent any potential site
expansion being limited by the availability As well as easily identified costs such as
of water or the need for an increased water charges for water use, sewerage, surface
supply. water and trade effluent, there are many
hidden costs associated with water use and
1.1 The true cost of water the disposal of wastewater. The true cost of
water may be more than three times the total
The type of water used on site and the
amount charged for supply and disposal.
type of wastewater generated by site
Figure 1 shows the elements making up the
operations/activities will determine how
true cost of water.
much your company pays for water supply
and wastewater disposal. Table 1 lists the
different types of water and wastewater.
1 Why is
Home 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further Appendices
saving water
procedure more complex information
important?
sites
Figure 1: The true cost of water
¡ Water charges
Easily
¡ Sewerage charges
identified costs
¡ Effluent charges
¡ Cost of energy to heat water
¡ Cost of chemicals for water treatment
¡ Cost of wasted energy (e.g. pumping)
Hidden costs ¡ Cost of chemicals for effluent treatment
¡ Cost of raw materials/product in effluent
¡ Cost of labour
Hidden costs can include:

Environmental review identifies true
¡ the energy costs associated with heating/ effluent costs
cooling water prior to use; An environmental review at a chemicals
¡ lost product or raw materials in effluent, company revealed that total effluent costs
resulting in sale losses and increased were £23,000/year and not £4,000/year as
effluent strength leading to higher trade previously thought. The review also showed
effluent charges; that, as well as paying extra effluent charges,
¡ water treatment prior to use (e.g. ion the company was losing saleable product in
exchange or membrane technologies the effluent. Following improvements and
such as reverse osmosis), including the procedural changes, the company reduced
cost of chemicals for regeneration and its effluent charges by £3,000/year and saved
replacement columns/packing materials, £8,500/year through product recovery from
and the labour costs incurred in running the effluent.
and maintaining these systems;
¡ pumping costs including energy, labour
and maintenance costs; and
¡ wastewater treatment prior to re-use or
discharge, including the cost of acid/alkali
for pH adjustment, flocculants, coagulants,
pumping costs, labour and maintenance.
1 Why is
saving water
important?
sites
1.2.1 Added value water 1.3 What is a water balance?

Water treated before use has an added value A water balance is a numerical account used
because time and money have already been to show where water enters and leaves your
spent on it before it is used for its main business, and where it is used within the
purpose. Table 2 summarises typical costs business. It typically contains information
of water. about the amount of water used by each main
process and, for some processes, can be very
Table 2: Comparable costs of different water types detailed. Presenting the water balance as a
diagram makes it easy to understand and use
Water type Typical cost as a management tool.
UK mains supply £0.60 – £1.83/m3* A water balance is based on the simple

concept: what goes in must come out...
Chlorinated water £0.85 – £2.20/m3 somewhere (see Figure 2).
Softened water £1 – £2.16/m3 It is best to start by looking at your company

as a whole and then adding details as you go
Demineralised/ £2 – £3.70/m3 along. It is also helpful to think of your site
deionised water or company as a series of blocks, with each
block representing an activity or location with
Condensate – £3.70 – £4.86/m3
gas heated ** water inputs and outputs. Figure 3 shows
water inputs and outputs for a fairly simple
Steam – gas heated ** £29.71 – £30.87/tonne site; Figure 4 is a block representation of this
site.
* UK mains supply based on standard 2011/12 tariffs.
** E
nergy costs at 3.6p/kWh for gas and boiler efficiency
of 90%.
Appendix B gives examples of water use in a
number of industrial and commercial sectors.
Figure 2: Water mass balance

Evaporation
Water in Product
Leaks to ground Effluent
1 Why is
saving water
important?
sites
Figure 3: Water inputs and outputs for an example site
Water
1 6 4 02
supply
Meter Evaporation
Liquid and steam
raw materials
Factory Factory shop

laundry and washrooms Factory and canteen
Water in the product
Domestic wastewater/
trade effluent
Figure 4: Block representation of water inputs and outputs for an example site
Mains water
1 6 4 02 Meter
Evaporation Liquid Evaporation

and steam raw materials and steam
C ondensate recovery
Factory
Laundry and Equipment washing
wash rooms Water added to Shop and canteen
Toilets, handbasins product Toilets and sinks
and showers Boiler Dishwasher
Washing machines Steam generation Food preparation
Tumble dryers Condensate recovery
Water softening
Product Water in
the product Leaks Boiler blowdown/
condensate
trade effluent
1 Why is
saving water
important?
sites
1.4 Why produce a water balance? ¡ improved compliance with current and
A water balance helps you to: future environmental regulations;
¡ better relationships with regulators,
¡ understand and manage water and effluent employees, the general public and the local
efficiently; Mains water community;
¡ identify the areas with the greatest ¡ improved environmental management; and
opportunities for cost savings; and ¡¡ greater employee awareness of
Meter
1 6 4 02
¡¡ detect leaks. environmental issues and the importance

of waste minimisation to the company.
Small
and steambrewery saves money
rawby stopping leaks
materials and steam
Monitoring water use allowed a brewer to Remember
discover a significant water leak, which was You can’t manage what you don’t measure.
due to three faulty control valves. The valves
Factory
Laundry
were and
replaced Equipment
at a total cost of £400, leadingwashing
wash rooms 3 Water added to
The waste hierarchy is acanteen
Shop and framework
to Toilets,
reduced water use of 10,800m /year.
productThis
handbasins prioritising the most environmentally
Toilets and sinks
represented
and showersa saving of £13,000/year
Boiler in water Dishwasher
desirable options for waste. The principles
and trade machines
Washing effluent charges. Steam generation Food preparation
Tumble dryers of the waste hierarchy when applied to water
Condensate recovery
Water softening (see Figure 5) consist of four levels of waste
The main benefits of using a water balance management. Apply this hierarchy to each
uct to identify and implement
Water in opportunities to process/area that uses water or generates
reduce water use are: the product Leaks Boiler blowdown/at your site.
wastewater
condensate
¡ reductions in: 1.5 How to use this guide

-- water supply costs; This guide explains how to draw up a water
-- on-site water treatment costs; trade effluent balance for your site and then use it to save
-- on-site effluent treatment costs, money by reducing water use.
including chemicals and capital
For small to medium-sized sites, this involves
depreciation;
following the simple step-by-step procedure
-- effluent and sewage disposal costs; described in Section 2. This procedure is
-- wasted raw materials or products; and extended in Section 3 to cater for larger, more
-- management and handling costs (e.g. complex sites. Section 4 presents an action
pumping, maintenance and heating); plan applicable to all sites.
Figure 5: Waste hierarchy applied to water
1. Can you eliminate water use at source?
Yes No
2. Can you reduce the amount of water used?

No
3. Can you re-use water/wastewater?

No
4. Can you recycle/recover water/wastewater?

ry shop
No
anteen
Calculate the cost of disposal
Implement water reduction
1 Why is
saving water
important?
sites
In this guide, the term domestic wastewater

Figure 6: The four phases of a typical water
is used for domestic water and sewage
saving campaign
discharged at the domestic sewerage rate.
Trade effluent refers to effluents from
PHASE 1 – Initiation
industrial processes on which trade effluent
charges are levied, based on the strength as
well as the volume of effluent. ¡¡ Obtain commitment from senior
management.
The step-by-step approach to reducing water ¡¡ Involve staff and appoint the leader
use described in this guide involves: (‘champion’) of the water saving team.
¡¡ Find out about water saving devices and
1. Obtaining commitment and resources. their application.
2. A preliminary review. ¡¡ Talk to other interested people in your
company.
3. Drawing up a water balance.
¡¡ Develop a simple programme.
4. Adding detail to the water balance. ¡¡ Allocate sufficient resources.
5. Using the water balance to save money.
6. Continuous improvement. PHASE 2 – Water use survey and

development of a water
You may want to use this guide to help drive balance
forward a water saving campaign. Drawing up ¡¡ Identify where, how and why water is used.
a water balance for your site forms part of the
detail of a typical water saving campaign (see ¡¡ Identify the water quality requirement at
Figure 6). This process is broadly similar for each point of use.
industrial and commercial sites and usually ¡¡ Determine the water quality and
entails four phases. availability at each point of discharge.
Wholesale food distributor saves money

PHASE 3 – Evaluation of water saving
at over 100 sites
options
A wholesale food distributor fitted simple
water saving devices at 109 of its UK outlets. ¡¡ Evaluate current and future water costs
by area or item of equipment.
For an average cost of around £675/site,
water use and wastewater production were ¡¡ Identify and evaluate cost-effective water
reduced by 65% overall. Each site saved on saving devices and practices.
average around £980/year, giving a total ¡¡ Carry out trials of likely options.
reduction of £106,700/year.
Nearly 1% of turnover saved by recycling

PHASE 4 – Implementation
process effluent
A Humberside company, employing ¡¡ Train staff (if necessary).
180 people, investigated cost-saving
¡¡ Implement cost-effective water saving
opportunities while seeking improvements in
devices and practices.
environmental performance. Investment of
£20,000 in new pipework and tanks allowed ¡¡ Monitor the implemented devices and
a liquid waste stream to be recycled. This practices.
has enabled the company to save £20,000/ ¡¡ Communicate successes and savings to
year in effluent charges and £200,000/year in employees.
increased yield and reduced disposal costs.
¡¡ Obtain feedback from staff.
1 Why is
saving water
important?
sites
2 A six-step procedure for

constructing/using a water balance
For your water Use the simple six-step procedure described 2.1.2 Assessing the staff and resources
efficiency below to construct a water balance for your required
programme to be site. Then use your water balance to identify The time and effort needed to produce a water
a success, you will opportunities to make significant cost savings balance depends on your site. On a simple
need commitment by reducing water use and wastewater/ site, it could take only a few hours. On a more
from senior effluent generation.
complicated site, it could take significantly
management. longer.
2.1 Step 1 – Obtaining top-level commitment
and assessing
Allocation of resources depends on the scale
the resources required
of the process or the area to be investigated
2.1.1 Obtaining top-level commitment (e.g. one person working part-time or a
For your water efficiency programme to be mixed team of engineering, production and
a success, you will need commitment from environmental staff). Some companies have
senior management. This should be obtained successfully employed students on work
at an early stage – particularly if you do not placements to gather data.
have the necessary authority to commit
resources to produce a detailed water balance
Work experience student helps brewery save
or to investigate and implement water saving
money
opportunities.
A brewer employed a graduate trainee to map
the water system, supervise the installation of
It may be easier to obtain top-level new water meters for each main production/
commitment once you have started to develop office area, and monitor subsequent
your water balance and are in a position to: consumption. The waste reduction initiative
¡ highlight current costs; led to water saving measures and cost
¡ identify the need for more information; savings of nearly £100,000/year.
¡ suggest the scope for potential savings;
and 2.2 Step 2 – A preliminary review
¡¡ highlight some ‘quick win’ opportunities. Your preliminary review should consist of:
¡ gathering existing data (e.g. annual water

Your chances of success will be significantly
use and costs);
improved if you can also suggest some no-cost
and low-cost water saving measures, together ¡ a brief assessment of the major gaps in
with the anticipated costs and savings. your information; and
¡ deciding how detailed a water balance is
Examples from other companies may be appropriate for your company. This will
appropriate, but specific potential projects for involve:
your site will carry more weight. Examples -- estimating potential cost savings from
might include fitting passive infrared (PIR) water saving measures; and
controls in the men’s toilets or fitting water
-- deciding your budget for obtaining
saving taps.
missing information and/or constructing
a water balance.
For each process or area, use the checklist

given in Figure 7 to review water use and
wastewater generation.
2 A six-step
Home 1 Why is 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further Appendices
procedure
saving water more complex information
important? sites
Walk around your site or building. Use a

note-pad to make sketches and notes on
activities and operations that use water.
Tell other people what you are doing and
ask them for their views on water use and
current practices. Your tour of the site and the
information you obtain may highlight some
‘fast start’ projects that will help you to secure
top-level commitment.
Figure 7: Example water review checklist
Checklist Comment
Process/area
¡¡ Is the process/activity really necessary?
Water use
¡¡ Is it necessary to use water for the process/
activity or is there a cost-effective alternative?
¡¡ How can I reduce water use?
¡¡ Could I use lower quality water?
¡¡ Can I recover and re-use water anywhere?
¡¡ Is the use authorised and legal?
Wastewater
¡¡ Is it necessary to produce this wastewater/
effluent?
¡¡ Is clean water going down the drain and,

if so, why?
¡¡ Is the discharge authorised and legal?
¡¡ Can the wastewater/effluent be re-used

in a process or used for lower grade duties
(e.g. cleaning)?
¡¡ Would it be cost-effective to treat the

wastewater/effluent on site for re-use?
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
2.2.1 Gather existing data

To reduce the risk of errors in your
Table 3 provides a checklist of the type of calculations, use the same units for water use
information you will need to produce a water (e.g. litres or m3) depending on the size
balance. of your flows.
Start by collecting information that already Water volume conversion
exists within the company. Check whether the 1m3 = 1,000 litres = 220 gallons
information appears accurate and consistent.
For example, check the meter readings on 1 gallon = 0.0045m3 or 4.5 litres
your latest water bill and find out when your
water meter(s) was last calibrated.
Table 3: Useful existing data
Type of data Description
Water supply and treatment costs ¡¡ Water supply bills

¡¡ Abstraction licence fee
¡¡ Pumping, chemicals, operating, maintenance and
labour costs
Water treatment ¡¡ System type and capacity
Water and effluent quantities ¡¡ Meter readings in and out of site, on individual
machines/process areas
¡¡ Data on rainfall or groundwater inputs
Water and effluent quality ¡¡ Analysis of on-site water treatment and effluent
samples (either in-house, by external laboratories
or by water company)
¡¡ Equipment specifications from suppliers
Effluent treatment costs ¡¡ Pumping, chemicals, operating, maintenance and
labour costs
Effluent discharge costs ¡¡ Trade effluent and sewerage bills
¡¡ Charges for discharge to controlled waters
Effluent removed off site in tankers ¡¡ Waste disposal contractor’s bills for tanker
transport, treatment and disposal
¡¡ Quantities and quality of tankered liquids
Site plans ¡¡ Water distribution and drainage plans, including
water sources and location of meters
Details of process or unit operation ¡¡ Process flow and pipe/process technical drawings,
including manufacturers’ specifications
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Locate your water meter

Correct meter size results in cost savings
Most commercial and industrial properties
have a metered water supply. The water Correcting the size of its water meter for
meter is usually located by the boundary of current operations meant that a carpet
the property, often near a road. If the site has manufacturer reduced its annual water supply
more than one incoming water mains, each costs by 89% (£10,530).
supply should be fitted with a meter.
As a minimum, your mains supply meter(s)

will allow you to monitor water consumption
of the site on a routine basis (daily, weekly or
monthly).
How to read your water meter

Metered companies are responsible for the
water use recorded on their meter – including
wastage and leaks.
Figure 8 shows a typical water meter. The

white digits in the ‘blue box’ display cubic
metres (m3) and those digits shown in red
display 1/10th (100 litres) and 1/100th
(10 litres) of a cubic metre. Thus, the reading
on the example meter shown in Figure 8 is What to do with your meter data
2004.87m3. The figures shown in the dials Recording meter readings on a regular basis
provide a more detailed reading than 1/100th (daily, weekly or monthly) will allow you to
of a cubic metre. identify trends in water consumption.
Other ways of measuring flow are described

in Section 2.4.5. Section 3.2.2 contains Recording water consumption in a graphic
information about flow meters. format makes it much easier to analyse your
pattern of water usage.
Figure 8: Typical water meter
To ensure you compare like with like, it is
a good idea to normalise your data. For
NUMBE
RIAL R example, express water use in terms of
SE production (m3 water per tonne of product)
m3 or workforce (m3 water per employee).
This benchmark can be used to identify
excess use or to demonstrate genuine
CLASS: reductions in water use.
Qn m 3/h 9 0 1
Pn bar 8 2
Figure 9 and Figure 10 present water

7 3
6 5 4
Cert N .
o
9 0 1
8 2 0.001 consumption data for an example site.
7
6 5 4
3
Although the data are recorded clearly in a
0.0001 suitable format in the table (Figure 9), the
graph presented in Figure 10 shows the
water consumption trends more clearly.
The increase in water use from March to
August becomes very apparent.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Figure 9: Example of metered water

consumption at an example site
Month Water use (m3)
2008 2009 2010 2011
January
170 140 213
February
153 127 220
March
170 150 317
April
160 147 307
May
170 150 377
June
103 120 560
July
93 120 573
August
103 120 573
September
177 193 187
October
180 200 197
November
177 193 187
December
173 147 213
Figure 10: Graph showing trends in water use at the example site
2008 2009 2010 2011

700
600
500
Water use (m3 )
400
300
200
100
0
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
2 A six-step
procedure
Key
saving water more complex Mains water information
? To be assessed
important? sites
Sub-meter
also wish, at this stage, to define the scope

WRAP’s monitoring tool is available at of future work (e.g. whether to analyse the
www.wrap.org.uk and can help you to easily whole site or to consider one area in more
record and track where water is being used in detail).
your company and analyse your findings. There
are monitoring spreadsheets for recording To decide how detailed your water balance
water consumption data once a week, five days should be, consider the potential benefits
a week and seven days a week. versus the cost.
2.2.2 Are there major gaps in your ¡ What is the likelihood of identifying cost-
knowledge? effective opportunities to save water?
In your preliminary review, aim to account ¡ How much money could you save?
for at least 80% of the water you pay for – ¡¡ How much will it cost to investigate water
including any major leaks. Examine your data use in more detail?
and decide whether your overview of water
use and costs is adequate or whether there For sites with significant water consumption,
are major gaps. the potential savings will be more than
sufficient to justify drawing up a detailed
If more information is needed, it is likely to be water balance.
in specific areas. Investigating your main uses
of water (or higher value water – see
Section 1.2.1) is likely to provide most of your Water balance leads to halving of mains
cost saving opportunities. water consumption
A soap manufacturer used a systematic
Begin to develop a picture of your business – approach to identify and quantify water
along the lines of Figure 3 (see Section 1) – as use, and then implemented measures to
soon as possible. This will help you to identify reduce mains water consumption. A detailed
gaps in available information and to focus water survey revealed how and where water
your efforts. You will develop the picture and was being used. A water balance was then
add detail during Steps 3 and 4 (see prepared using data obtained from existing
Sections 2.3 and 2.4 respectively). invoices and meters. A 50% reduction in
mains water use and associated cost savings
You may prefer to leave the decision on what were achieved over a period of four years
extra information and measurements you through a combination of good housekeeping
need until you have produced your first water measures and plant modifications.
balance diagram (i.e. the equivalent of Figure
4 complete with numerical data). You will For sites that have relatively low water use,
achieve this in Steps 3 and 4. an alternative criterion for deciding whether
to produce a detailed water balance is the
2.2.3 How detailed a water balance should size of annual water and effluent bills. For
you produce? example, a multi-site organisation decided
A simple water balance covering the few not to investigate water saving opportunities
largest water-using activities may be at sites where water and effluent bills were
sufficient to control and reduce major uses less than £300/year. However, the installation
of water and related resources. You need to of simple, water saving devices, such as
decide how detailed a water balance is likely percussion (push) taps, toilet cistern volume
to be cost-effective for your company. How adjusters and flushing controls, at over two-
far to go is a matter of judgement, about thirds of its sites produced significant overall
which general advice is given below. You may cost savings.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
2.2.4 Estimating potential savings Many people use at least twice as much
Cost savings can arise from reductions in: water as is needed to perform a given task
(e.g. washing down a piece of equipment
¡ water use (e.g. in domestic or process use); with a continuously running hose). Typical
reductions in water use for various projects
¡ on-site water pumping and associated
are shown in Table 4.
maintenance;
¡ water treatment (e.g. lower chemical costs 2.2.5 Deciding your budget
and filter backwash);
Once you have estimated the potential
¡ water heating or cooling requirements; savings, use your company’s method for new
¡ effluent pumping; project appraisal to determine how much
¡ effluent treatment; and money might be available to obtain missing
¡¡ effluent discharge. information and/or construct a water balance.
As a general rule of thumb: Identify the maximum project budget

Identification of the maximum project budget
¡ if no water saving measures have so far
can help to determine the areas on which
been implemented, savings could be 30%
to concentrate. This helps to assess and
or more of your water-related costs;
eliminate projects that are unlikely to be
¡ if you have implemented some water cost-effective.
saving projects but not applied a systematic
approach, you may still make some Maximum project budget (£) = Calculated
significant savings, especially where higher saving (£/year) × Required payback period
value water consumption is reduced; and (years)
¡¡ do not forget the possibility of reducing the
amount of raw materials and product lost
in effluent. This can be significant.
Table 4: Typical achievable reductions in water use
Water saving initiative Typical reduction*

Per project Per site
Commercial applications
Toilets, men’s toilets, showers and taps 40% (combined)
Industrial applications
Closed loop recycle 90%
Closed loop recycle with treatment 60%
Automatic shut-off 15%
Countercurrent rinsing 40%
Spray/jet upgrades 20%
Re-use of wash water 50%
Scrapers 30%
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) 40%
Pressure reduction Variable
Cooling tower heat load reduction Variable
* Assuming no water measures have previously been put in place.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
2.3 Step 3 – Drawing up a water balance For more complex sites, use a site plan and
This step involves: process flow diagrams to help you produce a
pictorial representation of the site.
¡ producing a simple pictorial representation
of the site; When drawing your picture, remember that:
¡ translating this picture into a block
¡ you are looking for major water-using
diagram; and
activities as part of an operation, process
¡¡ adding volumes of major water and or a piece of equipment where:
wastewater flows to your block diagram
-- water enters;
to produce an initial water balance.
-- a function occurs; and
2.3.1 Produce a pictorial representation -- water or effluent leaves; and
of your site ¡¡ inputs and outputs may be in a different
For any water balance, the first step is to form (e.g. liquid raw materials, steam
produce a pictorial representation of your site. and product). To help you, examples of
All premises – whether a complex site or a water-using activities in a hotel and on an
single building – can be described by a series industrial site are shown in Appendix C.
of activities or operations. Figure 3 in
Section 1 shows a typical example.
Define major water-using operations by the
type of activity carried out, such as cooking
Identify and mark on your picture:
or drying (i.e. removing water from product).
Alternatively, designate activity areas
¡ major uses of water;
according to boundaries where flows can be
¡ the location of on-site water meters (there measured easily. If a water-using operation
is usually one on the mains supply entering becomes unmanageable, try splitting it into
a site); and smaller units.
¡¡ the points at which domestic wastewater
and/or trade effluent enter the site
drainage system.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
2.3.2 Draw a block diagram Section 2.4). Aim to produce as complete an

Now translate your picture into a more account as possible of where the water is
manageable form by drawing a block diagram going on the site.
that indicates the relationships between
operations. Figure 11 shows the block Use the information gathered in your
representation of Figure 3. The major water- preliminary review to begin to construct a
using activities at this site are the laundry/ water balance for your site. If necessary, use
washrooms, the factory and the shop/canteen. a site plan and process flow diagrams to help
Each major activity on the site is represented you. Add the information you can but, at this
by a box, which lists the significant water stage, you may not be able to account for
uses. Water feeding to the different activities a significant proportion of your water use.
is represented on the diagram by arrows In Step 4, you will add detail to your water
connecting the relevant boxes. Standard balance by carrying out more investigations
practice is to show water inputs at the top and and measuring flows.
water outputs at the bottom of the diagram.
All water, including the mains water supply, Figure 12 shows an initial water balance for
should also be shown. the example company depicted in Figure
11. At this stage, only certain flows have
2.3.3 Add data to the diagram to produce an been quantified (mains water input to the
initial water balance site, water input to the factory, liquid raw
material input to the factory, water in the
To produce the water balance, add the
product, wastewater output from the factory
volumes of all major water and effluent flows
and sewage/trade effluent leaving the site).
to the block diagram. The units used should
The completed water balance for this site is
be consistent and are typically m3/day. Obtain
shown in Figure 20 (see Section 2.4.7).
numerical values for water/effluent flows
from investigations and measurements (see
Figure 11: Block representation of a simple example site
Mains water
1 6 4 02 Meter

Factory
wash rooms Water added to Shop and canteen
Water softening
Product Water in
condensate
trade effluent
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
0
WRAP Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovWater
Tracking DecUse to Cut Costs 17
Figure 12: Initial water balance for a simple example site
Key Mains water

? To be assessed
Sub-meter
Inputs
Outputs
Recirculation Meter 1 6 4 02 85m 3/day
1m3/day ?
Evaporation Evaporation
and steam Liquid raw materials and steam
75m 3/day
? ? ?
Factory
washrooms Water added to Shop and canteen
Water softening
65m3/day
Water in
? the product Leaks Boiler blowdown/ ?
5m3/day ? condensate
79m 3/day
trade effluent
Total
84m 3/day
For an example of a non-industrial site, see cost-effective to make measurements to

the detailed water balance exercise for a identify 95% or more of your water use. This
medium-sized hotel in Appendix D. issue should have already been considered as
part of your preliminary review.
2.4 Step 4 – Adding detail to the water
balance This step has various stages and involves:
Now add detail to your initial water balance by:
¡ identifying water supplies;
¡ working out which activities/processes are ¡ investigating water use;
likely to use the most water under both ¡ identifying sources of effluent;
normal and abnormal operating conditions;
¡ considering other water losses;
¡ measuring flows to add information to your
¡ quantifying water use and effluent flows
water balance; and
through direct measurement, monitoring
¡¡ continuing to account for more and more of and, where necessary, estimating non-
your total water input until you decide that process uses;
it is no longer cost-effective to make new
¡ recording your information as a water use
measurements.
chart and on a spreadsheet;
Your preliminary review (see Section 2.2) ¡ adding the data obtained to your block
may have enabled you to account for 80% or diagram to complete your water balance;
less of the site’s water use when you drew up and
your initial water balance. Depending on the ¡ accounting for any discrepancies.
amount of water you use, it may be
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
2.4.1 Identify water supplies ¡ Is water treated on site? If so, how?

The main water sources from which ¡¡ How is water transferred (e.g. by pump,
organisations can obtain their water are shown gravity or manually)?
in Table 5. In most modern buildings, water
from the mains and any abstracted water Figure 13 shows an example assessment
are kept separate from rainwater. When of site water sources. The next stage is to
looking at water sources, make sure there is measure flows (see Section 2.4.5).
no crossover between these water systems.
Some companies collect and treat rainwater Look at your water and effluent bills to get
for use within their processes. an idea of the quantities of water used and
the amount of effluent discharged from the
Table 5: Main sources of water
site/area. Focus on the larger flows first.
Type Supply route

2.4.2 Investigate water use
Depending how complex your site is, use
Mains Metered flow via
a water company
one or more of the following approaches to
supply pipe identify and investigate major uses of water.
Surface water Extracted from a river, ¡ Walk around the site/process looking at
abstraction stream, lake, reservoir everything to find water-using points and
or canal equipment.
Groundwater Pumped from ¡ Identify the location of water meters and
abstraction borehole(s) discuss with staff where water is used in
Rainwater collection From a storage tank their area.
¡ Where visible, trace water supply pipes
from sources to water use points.
To help identify where water is used and ¡¡ Obtain drawings of the water supply
which activities/processes use the most system, where necessary.
water, start by finding out about where your
water comes from and how it is treated and At the same time, make a note of effluent
distributed on site. sources and trace pipework back to water
supplies. This will save you time and effort
¡ How is water supplied to the site (e.g. later. The identification of effluent sources is
mains, river, reservoir and/or borehole)? described in more detail in Section 2.4.3.
¡ Is water stored on site (e.g. in tanks or
lagoons)? What is the storage capacity?
Figure 13: Example water sources assessment
Source Processes/ Treatment Storage (type Transfer Use and Quantity

areas served and capacity) method frequency (m3/day)
Mains Product None None Pumped Production To be

hours investigated
Borehole Product Softening Tank Pumped Downtime of To be

(5m3) mains pumps investigated
(5 days/year)
River Gardens None None Pumped and Summer To be

gravity investigated
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
When collecting data, also gather supporting 2.4.3 Identify sources of effluent
information such as: The next stage is to find out where effluent is
generated and being disposed of.
¡ number of employees on site or per shift;
¡ type of product being produced; ¡ Obtain drawings of the effluent drainage,
¡ number of lines operating; and surface water drainage and foul sewer
systems. If these are not available, it may
¡¡ procedures (e.g. number of rinses or cycles
help to develop diagrams for your site.
on washing operations).
Appendix E provides guidance on how to
produce and use site drainage plans to
You may wish to develop a diagram to help you
identify sources of effluent.
keep track of your findings. Such a diagram
can be particularly useful if no plan of the ¡ Walk around your site/process finding
water supply distribution system is available. out where water goes and looking for
sources of effluent. Make a note of your
¡ Identify the points where water enters the observations.
site or is abstracted on site. ¡ Talk to other people about where effluent
¡ Trace the water supply pipes from these is produced.
points to any plant/equipment that uses ¡¡ Locate any effluent meters or sampling
water. points.
¡¡ Draw a flow diagram of pipework
connections. As well as discharges to sewer or
watercourses, find out about liquid wastes
Water use survey helps wallpaper and slurries removed off site in tankers.
manufacturer achieve significant savings
By mapping its site water services and Use the list of typical effluent sources in
developing a water balance, a wallpaper Table 6 to help you identify all your sources of
manufacturer reduced water consumption at effluent and water losses.
one of its sites by nearly 40%. These actions,
together with recommendations from process
improvement teams investigating site water
use, highlighted how water was being used
and where it was being wasted. Estimated
annual savings of £143,000 were achieved at
virtually no cost.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Table 6: Typical effluent sources and water losses
Effluent sources/water losses Examples
General
Water treatment units Filter backwash, wet sludges, chemical spillages, ion exchange regeneration,
reverse osmosis effluents
Water storage, including boiler system Leaks and overflows
Storms/surface water run-off Additions to effluent drains
Groundwater Infiltration to effluent drains
Fire-fighting water systems Leaks, unnecessary use, wrong connections, safety/pump testing
Car park Vehicle washing wastewater
Fuelling depot Spilt fuel and oils to drain
Refrigeration units Condensate
Laboratories Condensate, cooling water, liquid effluents, mains water vacuum pumps
Drying processes Evaporation
Hot processes Steam, condensate
Oil interceptors Water/effluent removal
Storage tanks Bund water/effluent drainage, tank overflows, delivery pump/shaft seal leaks
Site cleaning Hoses
Commercial
Laundry Effluent, steam, evaporation from dryers
Kitchens Effluent, steam, liquid wastes
Toilets/bathrooms/washrooms Effluent, steam
Swimming pool and leisure facilities Wash block effluent, swimming pool water
Boiler/heating systems/air-conditioning Blowdown, condensate, steam
Gardens and water features Excess water run-off, overflows
Vehicle washing Effluent, detergents
Industrial
Cooling tower Blowdown, evaporation, spray/mist
Steam system Steam leaks and relief valve discharges, steam trap condensate, steam and
evaporation, boiler scale and sludge, blowdown
Condensate recovery Vent losses to atmosphere, leaks and overflows
Condensate Loss to product, loss to drain (excluding recovery)
Process/production Effluent, evaporation, water in product
Scrubbers/strippers Overflows, mist/vapour
Safety showers Leaks, unnecessary use
Effluent treatment plant Treated effluent, sludge, aerosols, liquid wastes (e.g. reverse osmosis
concentrate)
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Domestic wastewater usually goes down a

foul sewer for treatment by your local water Remember to check for water losses in:
company or sewerage provider. Uncollected
and uncontaminated rainwater should ¡¡ products and by-products;
preferably be discharged to a soakaway or to ¡¡ emissions to atmosphere (e.g. evaporation,
a surface water drain. steam, mist, spray and losses from
pressure relief valves);
To avoid unnecessary treatment charges: ¡¡ spillages, leaks and overflows;
¡¡ slurry and sludge wastes;
¡ check that rainwater is not entering the
foul sewer; ¡¡ hoses and taps left on;
¡ keep domestic sewage and surface water ¡¡ cooling water (including once-through); and
drainage separate from trade effluent; and ¡¡ leaks from underground tanks or pipes.
¡¡ label or colour code all drains. Make sure
that staff are aware of the difference. 2.4.5 Quantify water use and effluent flows
Once you have identified all major water uses
2.4.4 Consider other water losses and effluent sources, the next stage is to
To complete your water balance, you need place them in order from largest to smallest.
to consider other ways in which water is lost Do this through a combination of common
from your site/process, for example: sense, your own knowledge and discussions
with other people.
¡ water may ‘leave’ the site in product (e.g. in
soft drinks manufacture); and ¡ Starting with the largest anticipated water
¡¡ as steam (e.g. some food processing uses use/flow, find out how much water is used
large quantities of steam). each time and how often it is used. Simple
but effective methods include recording
Without information about these other losses, meter readings or timing water flow into a
it will be difficult to complete a representative container of known volume (see Figure 14).
water balance for your site. ¡ Starting with the largest effluent source,
find out how much effluent is generated
each time and how often it is generated.
The effluent flow may be the same as the
flow of water used.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Figure 14: Two simple ways of measuring flow, (a) record meter readings (b) using a bucket and
stopwatch approach
(a)
(b)
Water flow can be measured either in Bucket and stopwatch approach

pipelines or in channels. There are numerous The direct measurement technique described
options for flow measurement, each with its below involves performing a spot check on
Key
own advantages and disadvantages. More the flow from a piece of equipment or process
Sub-meter
details are given in
Inputs
Section 3.2.2. Mains water
using a bucket or another container and a
Outputs stopwatch (or a wristwatch with a second
You can quantify flows in a number of ways.
Recirculation hand). The flow rate can be calculated from
In order of preference,
Values fromthese are:
earlier assessment the volume of water/effluent collected over
shown in Figure 12 Meter 85m 3 /day
Newly assessed values a known
1 6 4 02
time. You may need to undo a pipe
¡ measure directly: connection temporarily to allow water/
-- flow meter measurements; and effluent to flow into your container. This
0.05m 3/day 1m3/day 3 /day
-- bucket and stopwatch approach; technique,1mwhich will not be applicable to all
Evaporation Liquid flows, isEvaporation
described below.
¡ calculate from other measurements
and steam rawwhere
materials and steam
applicable; 5m 3/day 75m 3/day
4m3/day
¡ Assess health and safety requirements
¡ calculate from manufacturers’ published
(e.g. use gloves and safety glasses).

information; Factory
Laundry and Equipment Assemble equipment (e.g. bucket, timer,
¡ washing
¡ calculate from typical use information; and
washrooms Water added to
note-pad, pen and ropeShop
forand canteen bucket
lowering
¡¡ estimate and
from knowledge of the process.
showers Boiler into drain). Dishwasher
Washing machines Steam generation
¡ Find a measuring point Food preparation
where it is possible
to catch all the flow in the bucket.
Water softening
65m 3/day
Water in
5m3/day condensate
5m3/day
≈ 5m3/day ≈ 4m3/day
70 m3/day
79 m3/day
2 A six-step
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further Appendices
procedure Domestic wastewater/
saving water procedure more complex
Total trade effluent information
important? sites
3
¡ Position the empty bucket and start model and note any modifications. If possible,
the stopwatch (or note the exact time) compare these data with actual water use.
immediately the bucket starts to catch the Savings are possible if the unit is operating
flow. at above its recommended consumption.
¡ Remove the bucket, stop the timer and note
the time when the bucket is nearly full (but Estimating water use based on knowledge
not overflowing). of the process
¡ Measure the contents of the bucket in litres If necessary, you may have to estimate water
using either graduations on the bucket or a use based on your knowledge of the process.
measuring cylinder. For example, for a tank filled each time for
a pre-rinse and a wash, measure the tank
¡ Calculate the flow rate in litres/second by
dimensions and calculate the volume of water
dividing the volume of effluent collected in
used. Remember to allow for partial filling or
litres by the number of seconds over which
overflows.
collection took place.
¡¡ Alternatively, calculate the flow based on
the weight of the effluent and assuming the Take measurements to cover all operations
effluent has the density of water (i.e. where affecting water or effluent quantities. In
1kg of effluent occupies 1 litre). particular, check intermittent activities (e.g.
cleaning) where water use is often variable
and wasteful. More information about
Measure the flow at representative times, measuring water use and flow is given in
including both continuous and intermittent Section 3.2.2.
discharges. As this is a one-off measurement,
repeat the test to determine variations in
flows or average flow rates. Monitoring washing/cleaning operations
Monitor washing and cleaning operations by
estimating or recording hose or tap use (for
Using manufacturers’ data
example, frequency, duration and flow rate)
If direct measurement is not practicable, and calculating water/effluent quantities.
consider obtaining data from manufacturers’ Figure 15 shows an example calculation of
brochures, such as water use for washing water use by a hose. The same calculation
equipment. Take care to use data for the exact can be applied to effluent generation.
Figure 15: Example calculation of water use by a hose
Calculation Result
Instantaneous flow/average flow rate A Measured 0.5 litres/second = 1,800 litres/hour

Length of event B Measured 2 hours
Amount/event C A×B 3,600 litres
Frequency of event D Measured Twice a day
Daily total E C×D 7,200 litres/day
Daily flow F E/1,000 7.2m3/day
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Estimating non-process uses Table 7: Typical rates of domestic water use

If you have combined domestic and effluent
sewers, you may need to estimate domestic Item Average water use
sewage quantities. Typical values for domestic
water consumption are shown in Table 7. Toilets 6 – 9 litres/flush
Water use in toilets can be estimated from Sinks 3 – 6 litres/event

the frequency of use and cistern volume. Showers 45 – 65 litres/event
WC cistern volumes can be calculated from (higher use for power
measurements obtained by gently tying up the showers)
ballcock before flushing the toilet and filling
Baths 60 – 170 litres/event
the cistern from a graduated bucket.
Dishwasher 20 – 40 litres/event
Use in washbasins can be estimated by Laundry 60 – 100 litres/event
temporarily disconnecting the ‘U’ bend and (washing machine)
running the waste into a large, graduated
plastic bucket while using clean water to Vehicle washing Ranges from 100 litres/
vehicle using buckets up
simulate normal use, such as washing hands.
to 900 litres/vehicle using
a hose
2.4.6 Record your information
When tracking water use, it is important to Garden hose 8 – 30 litres/minute
(500 – 1,800 litres/hour)
keep accurate records of your findings for
future use. You can do this either as a water Residential 150 litres/day/person
use chart or on a worksheet. occupant
Employee 25 litres/day/person
Water use chart (full-time,
Producing a simple block diagram will no canteen)
help you to determine flows for your water
Employee 40 litres/day/person
balance. Figures 16 and 17 show example (full-time,
charts for a commercial site and an industrial with canteen)
site respectively.
Figure 16: Water use chart: commercial example
Location: Hotel Date: 31/03/12

Time: 14.30 hrs
Unit operation: Laundry Investigator: M Brown
Source: Mains water
Metered/unmetered
Use 1: Washing machine Use 2: Sink
Volume: 2.4m3/day Volume: 0.24m3/day
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Figure 17: Water use chart: industrial example
Location: Brewery Date: 31/03/12

Time: 10.30 hrs
Unit operation: Cooling tower Investigator: D White
Source: Mains water
Metered/unmetered
Use 1: Make-up water Use 2: Hose
Volume: 7m3/day Volume: 5.4m3/day
Worksheet
Entering quantity and cost data on a
worksheet will help you use the water
balance to identify and prioritise water saving
opportunities (see Section 2.5).
Keep units consistent and choose the time

period that is most convenient for you.
The example worksheets shown in Figures 18

and 19 are based on weekly use.
Figure 18 shows an example worksheet for

a fictitious commercial site (the same site
used to produce the water use chart shown in
Figure 16). The number of times the sinks are
used is calculated assuming three employees,
each washing their hands eight times a day
for five days per week. The calculations
assume negligible use of liquid detergent/
fabric softener and negligible water losses
as steam/evaporation.
Figure 19 shows an example worksheet for a

fictitious industrial site (the same site used to
produce the water use chart shown in Figure
17). The amount of evaporation is calculated
from the volume of make-up water minus the
volume of blowdown and assuming no leaks
and/or overflows. The calculation assumes
that hose use amounts to 15 hours/week
(3 hours/day, 5 days/week) at a flow rate of
0.5 litres/second (1.8m3/hour).
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Review carried out by: M. Brown Date: 31/03/12
Review carried out at: Hotel Time: 14.30
2 A six-step
procedure
Water supply costs: 120 pence/m3
Effluent discharge costs: average 80 pence/m3
sites
Dept Process Water Effluent
3 Dealing with
Input/event Number of events Total input Cost of input Output/event Number of events Total output Cost of output
more complex
(m3) per week* (m3/week) (£/week) (m3) per week* (m3/week) (£/week)
Laundry Washing 0.1 120 12.0 £14.40 0.1 120 12.0 £9.60
machine
Sinks 0.01 120 1.2 £1.44 0.01 120 1.2 £0.96
4 Action plan
5 Further
information
Total
Figure 18: Calculating the weekly cost of water use and effluent generation: example commercial site
* Use the time period appropriate for your site.

26
Appendices
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Review carried out by: D. White Date: 31/03/12
Review carried out at: Brewery Time: 10.30
2 A six-step
procedure
Water supply costs: 120 pence/m3
Effluent discharge costs: average 80 pence/m3 for hose use with moderate pollution assuming 42 pence/m3 for blowdown
(based on volume charges only)
sites
Dept Process Water Effluent
3 Dealing with
Input/event Number of events Total input Cost of input Output/event Number of events Total output Cost of output
more complex
(m3) per week* (m3/week) (£/week) (m3) per week* (m3/week) (£/week)
Cooling Water 5 7 35.0 £42.00 – – – –

tower make-up
Hose 1.8 15 27.0 £32.40 1.8 15 27.0 £21.60
(per hour)
4 Action plan
– – – – 3.0 7 21.0 –
Blowdown – – – – 2.0 7 14.0 £5.88
5 Further
information
Total
Figure 19: Calculating the weekly cost of water use and effluent generation: example industrial site
* Use the time period appropriate for your site.

27
Appendices
(a)
2.4.7 Completing the water balance ¡¡ the amounts of these flows (in consistent
Adding the information obtained from your units).
investigations of water use and effluent
generation to your block diagram should In theory, the total of all the inputs should
enable you to complete your water balance. equal the total of all the outputs for either
In some cases, it may now be easier to expand individual unit operations or the whole process.
the diagram by dividing a‘block’ into two or However, this is rarely the case in practice.
(b)
more activities. Aim initially for an accuracy of ±10% on the
total amount of water you can account for.
The water balance should be a schematic
representation of your process showing: Figure 20 shows the completed water balance
for the example company from Step 3 (see
¡ all known points of water flowing into the Section 2.3). The company has now produced
process; data for all flows and identified major water
leaks from the factory. In this example,
¡ all known points of water flowing out of the
84m3/day out of the input of 85m3/day of water
process, as effluent, liquid waste, product
has now been accounted for.
or evaporative loss (see Appendix F for
steam); and
Figure 20: Completed water balance for a simple example site
Key
Sub-meter
Mains water
Inputs
Outputs
Recirculation
Values from earlier assessment
shown in Figure 12 Meter 1 6 4 02 85m3/day
Newly assessed values
0.05m 3/day 1m3/day 1m3/day

75m 3/day
5m 3/day 4m3/day
Factory
washrooms Water added to Shop and canteen
Water softening
65m 3/day
Water in
5m3/day condensate
5m3/day
≈ 5m3/day ≈ 4m3/day
70 m3/day
79 m3/day
Total trade effluent
84m 3/day
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Further example water balances for an Before carrying out a ‘night flow test’,
industrial site and a hotel are shown in switch off any automatic devices (e.g. urinal
Appendix D. automatic flushing devices), but don’t forget
to switch them back on afterwards. Calculate
the rate of water leakage from the difference
If the inputs and outputs shown in your water
between the meter readings and the time
balance are not equal, consider:
between meter readings.
¡¡ Where else is water coming from or
Alternatively, when no water is being used, lift
effluent going to?
manholes and check for effluent flows.
¡¡ Are there hidden losses (e.g. an undetected
leak)? There is also the possibility of groundwater
¡¡ How accurate is the information? leaking into drains and stormwater/rainwater
¡¡ Can it be improved? additions to drains.
2.4.8 Account for discrepancies New meters identify expensive water leak
As well as checking that there are no hidden A company manufactures high-quality
losses, it is also important to look for packaging at one of its sites. Historically, the
inconsistencies in your data. Table 8 lists ways site only metered incoming mains water, but
of identifying inconsistencies. this did not provide sufficient information on
water use. As part of the company’s water
Detecting leaks efficiency campaign, 28 meters were installed
The methods outlined in Table 9 will help you around the site and water use was recorded
to detect major leaks. and monitored. A major leak, costing
£11,000/year, was identified and repaired.
Table 8: Identifying discrepancies in your water balance
Method Reason for inconsistency/solution
General
Walk around site ¡¡ Incorrectly set valves or control systems, leaks, broken
valves, pipes or other equipment.
Hold discussions with staff ¡¡ Previously unidentified or cross connections, or unidentified
take-up by product.
Institute employee suggestion scheme ¡¡ Excessive or unnecessary use.
Hold ‘no-blame’ brainstorming ¡¡ Unknown or unauthorised use.
Check for recycled flows or re-use ¡¡ Double accounting.
Examine previous water and effluent ¡¡ If changes cannot be explained by process modifications,
bills then investigate further. For example, relate water to output
(i.e. m3 per unit of production, department or area).
Meters
Check meters are read correctly ¡¡ Train staff.

Check for faulty meters ¡¡ Service and calibrate meters regularly.
¡¡ Perform tank level test (i.e. pass a known volume of water out
of a tank and check that the meter records the event correctly).
Check meters are suitable for ¡¡ Check specification of size and type.
application and installed correctly
¡¡ Check proximity to pipework obstructions such as bends.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Table 9: Leak detection methods
Type Method
Look ¡¡ Inside – walk around the site or process, examining water-using plant and supply
pipework carefully.
¡¡ Outside – look for lush vegetation or continuously boggy/damp areas. Check the
proximity of these areas to supply pipes.
Listen ¡¡ When the area is quiet, listen for drips or flow of water.
Test ¡¡ Carry out a ‘night flow test’ and listen for flow at meters:
-- read the water meter when all employees have left and all processes have
stopped;
-- read the meter again some time later before anyone returns and uses water; and
-- if the water meter shows a significant increase, suspect a leak and investigate
further. Use sub-meters around the site to carry out detailed investigations in
different areas.
Contractors ¡¡ Use a leak detection service provided by a water company or external contractor.
2.5 Step 5 – Using the water balance to save Suggestions for reducing water use are given
money in Table 10. Many of these suggestions are
As you carry out investigations for your water no-cost and low-cost measures. The others
balance, you may find taps left on, faulty are likely to cost more, but are still worth
valves and leaks. You can often take action considering.
to sort out such problems immediately.
Use the cost data from your completed water
Note down what you have done and record the use worksheet (see Section 2.4.6) to help
anticipated savings. you prioritise and implement measures to
reduce water use and wastewater/effluent
Many of the benefits of producing a water generation.
balance arise from increasing people’s
awareness of the importance of using water Water balance leads dairy to significant cost
efficiently. However, the full effects will only benefits and water savings
be gained by analysing each use of water
carefully. A detailed water balance prepared by staff
at a milk processing factory highlighted the
2.5.1 Identifying opportunities to reduce areas where significant amounts of water
water use were used and wastewater generated. A
major source of wastewater was evaporative
Use the water balance to identify major water condensate. This warm and relatively clean
uses and sources of wastewater/effluent wastewater stream is now recovered, treated
generation. Then use the checklist in Figure 7 by reverse osmosis and re-used for a number
(see Section 2.2) to help you analyse water of applications on site including boiler feed
use and effluent generation. Your answers to make-up water and hot CIP operations.
the questions in this checklist will help you to The reliance on mains water has reduced
identify opportunities to reduce water use and significantly, with potential savings of up to
thus save money. Photocopy this checklist as 1,100m3/day.
necessary for use by your water saving team.
Ask the people who operate water-using

equipment for their suggestions for
reducing water use and wastewater/effluent
generation.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Issue Technique Examples Potential cost
General Good housekeeping (i.e. using water Use dry cleaning methods initially to minimise water use to one short wash (i.e. use scrapers or Low
wisely). brushes first to remove material from equipment for disposal as solid waste).
Reduce unnecessary garden watering or water with perforated pipes instead of a hose or sprinkler to Low
reduce water loss by evaporation.
2 A six-step
procedure
Keeping foul sewer, trade effluent and Ensure rainfall run-off (from uncontaminated areas) drains to surface water drains or collect for re-use. High
surface water drains separate.
High-grade and low-grade water supply Collect rainwater for low-grade uses (e.g. garden watering and yard washing). Low
systems.
Monitoring Measuring to manage. Set staged goals for reducing water use. Low
sites
Real-time reporting. Report water use and effluent generation daily or weekly so that excessive use can be identified and Low
remedial action taken immediately.
3 Dealing with
more complex
Training Waste reduction culture. Promote with progress reports, competitions, suggestion schemes, etc. Low
Table 10: Cost-effective water saving opportunities
Environmental awareness and water Use leaflets, posters, stickers and department/group meetings to educate employees. Low
savings.
Improved Equipment repair. Repair leaking valves, seals and pipes, dripping taps and overflowing cisterns immediately. Low
maintenance
4 Action plan
Preventive maintenance. Service equipment regularly to reduce unplanned downtime of machinery and associated washing Low
operations.
Operations Production scheduling. Reduce need for washing by progressing from light/clean to dark/dirty items or production, re-using Low
wash water where possible.
Procedural changes. Encourage the use of showers rather than baths where possible. Low
5 Further
Optimise the number of cleaning rinses and rinsing methods. Low
information
Replace worn-out equipment with low-water use models. On dishwashers and washing machines, High
also look for features such as quick washes for lightly soiled loads.
Replace manual cleaning with cleaning-in-place (CIP) automated systems. High

Key: Low = easy no-cost and low-cost measures (i.e. less than a few hundred pounds); High = higher cost, more detailed measures.
31
Appendices
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Issue Technique Examples Potential cost
Operations Modification of operational techniques. Try to use machines (e.g. dishwashers and washing machines) only when they have a full load. Low
(continued)
Rinse items in a sink rather than under running water. Low
Avoid washing rinses that overflow. Use a mixer or hot water or allow equipment to soak in order to Low
2 A six-step
procedure
use water efficiently.
Reduce the size of washing bowls or other vessels to decrease the amount of water needed to fill them. High
Use sprays or jets of high pressure water instead of larger quantities of low pressure water. High
sites
Collect wash water, effluent, blowdown or condensate, treat it and re-use. High
Improved instrumentation and control. Use pressure reducers or flow restrictors to reduce water use (e.g. on hand washing basins and hoses). Low
3 Dealing with
more complex
Install automatic flushing devices on urinals and/or reduce toilet cistern volumes. Low
Use automatic shut-off valves for hoses (i.e. trigger guns) and tank filling pipework. Install push taps Low
on basins.
Install tamper prevention devices (e.g. locks for valves) to prevent unauthorised adjustment. Low
Use automatic controls where possible (e.g. automatic blowdown control). High
Table 10: Cost-effective water saving opportunities (continued)
4 Action plan
Consider using block valves (i.e. non-adjustable) instead of adjustable valves to avoid incorrect High
settings.
Replacement of process. Microwave food instead of boiling it. Low
Consider dry cleaning for clothes and fabrics. Low
5 Further
Use air cooling instead of water cooling. High
information
Matching quality and availability Re-use the last rinse – usually clean – as initial rinse of next wash cycle – usually dirty Low
to requirements to re-use water. (i.e. countercurrent rinsing).
Re-use cooling water for another use (e.g. washing) or re-use after treatment (e.g. in a heat High
exchanger).
Key: Low = easy no-cost and low-cost measures (i.e. less than a few hundred pounds); High = higher cost, more detailed measures.
32
Appendices
2.5.2 Examples to give you ideas 2.6 Step 6 – Continuous improvement

The following examples are intended to give Your first water balance should be reviewed
you ideas about how your company could save and updated regularly. The review will allow
money by reducing water use. you to demonstrate that savings are being
made.
Company example 1
Water use in a commercial building was Regular recording of flows, water and effluent
monitored using water meters and a water costs, meter readings and updating of site
balance was developed. Comparison of water drainage plans will minimise the work
use in different areas revealed markedly required during a water balance review.
different water use between two washrooms,
even though they were a similar size and
had a similar level of use. Investigations During your regular review:
identified a leaking pipe, a broken tap (water
was running continuously) and a faulty valve ¡ gather more detailed data (if necessary);
leading to excessive water for toilet flushing. ¡ improve estimated data by measurement
Simple repairs saved 500m3/year of water and or better estimation;
associated wastewater charges. ¡ update water supply and drainage system
drawings/plans as appropriate; and
Company example 2 ¡¡ incorporate any relevant changes
During a survey of its water distribution (e.g. methods, products and employee
system, a company noticed that cooling water numbers).
was discharged straight to drain after only
one use. Following investigation, it proved With time, your water balance will become
cost-effective to install a cooling unit to increasingly accurate as you account for and
enable water re-use. eliminate discrepancies (see Section 2.4.8).
Company example 3
To maintain motivation, let everyone in the
Investigations at a site identified taps
company know about the success of the
running continuously in workshops to
water saving initiative through your intranet,
provide cold drinking water (the supply
via posters on notice-boards, in company
pipes came through hot process areas) and
newsletters, etc.
to cool milk for tea. Significant amounts of
water and money were saved by installing Send regular reports to top-level
chilled drinking water fountains and small management to maintain their commitment
refrigerators for milk or bottled water. to water saving.
Company example 4
One company found that its water balance did
not ‘balance’; the site meter registered much
more water as being used than had been
measured. To investigate the discrepancy,
each water-using operation was examined
more closely. In one area, it was found that
a hose was frequently left on unnecessarily
during a washing operation. Fitting a
trigger gun to the hose solved the problem
and reduced water and effluent charges
significantly.
2 A six-step
procedure
important? sites
3 Dealing with more complex sites
Talk to the relevant At larger, more complex sites, it takes longer 3.2 Finding out more about effluent flows
staff to obtain the to refine the initial water balance and to For more complex sites, you need to
necessary details identify and implement all cost-effective investigate:
and records. water saving opportunities.
¡ discharges to sewers and watercourses;
This section builds on Section 2 by explaining
¡ effluent removed off site in tankers; and
how you can investigate water and,
particularly, effluent flows in more detail to ¡¡ other liquid wastes (e.g. small quantities
uncover further water saving opportunities. removed from the site in drums).
3.1 Gathering more data Talk to the relevant staff to obtain the
For Step 2 – A preliminary review (see necessary details and records.
Section 2.2), it is necessary for more complex
sites to gather more data. Table 11 provides
other sources of information that will help
you to complete the water balance for a more
complex site.
Table 11: Additional relevant data for more complex sites
Subject Details
Site levelling data Site plan showing levels.

Drainage network details Condition, age, size and materials of construction.
Water quality standards Internal specifications for different plant/areas.
Water storage System type and capacity.
Water and effluent transfer Whether pumped, gravity-fed or manual.
Effluent removed from site Use of tankers and drums.
Effluent disposal standards Trade effluent consent conditions.
Effluent volume and strength Basis for calculation and billing (i.e. application of Mogden
Formula).
Correspondence with regulators Details of any problems or pollution incidents.
Rainfall data Run-off volume and rate calculations (e.g. Met Office data).
Process details Process equipment arrangements, sketches and plans.
Operational practices Cleaning routines, number of employees and shift patterns.
Substances and chemicals Quantities used.
Health and safety data sheets.
Future development proposals Possible changes in production or number of employees.
Potential future costs Changes to charging scheme.
Increases in treatment/disposal costs.
Forthcoming legislation.
Historical data Past environmental, engineering, health and safety reports.
3 Dealing with
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 4 Action plan 5 Further Appendices
more complex
saving water procedure information
sites
important?
3.2.1 Carry out a drain entry point survey ¡ what the water is used for to produce an
The points at which pipes or channels effluent (e.g. cleaning);
containing effluent enter the site drainage ¡ possible contaminants (e.g. raw material,
system are known as drain entry points. product and detergents);
Carry out a site survey of drain entry points, ¡ details of the pipe or channel through
measuring and recording all potential
which the effluent joins the drainage
effluent flows to the drains. Figure 21 shows
system;
an example record from a drain entry point
survey for a fictitious site. ¡ flow rate;
¡ whether the flow is intermittent or
3.2.2 Examine each effluent flow in more continuous;
detail ¡ frequency of flow; and
You now need to examine the effluent ¡¡ duration of flow.
characteristics at each drain entry point.
Useful information includes: Record your observations and measurements
on a suitable worksheet. Figure 22 shows
¡ source of effluent; an example worksheet for the same site as
¡ number of sources of each type of effluent; Figure 21.
¡ a description of the effluent (e.g.
temperature, clarity and colour);
3 Dealing with
more complex
sites
important?
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Site: Amberly Road Feeding to drain entry point number: 14
Location: Building 3 Exact location: Manhole in path by north face
2 A six-step
procedure
Department: Processing Marked on map number: 2 of 3
Investigator: J. Smith Date: 31/03/12 Time: 14.30
sites
For each pipe/channel feeding into drain entry point note:
3 Dealing with
more complex
Source (if known) Number Construction material Colour of pipe Pipe diameter Horizontal or Is flow present? Characteristics of flow
Figure 21: Example drain entry point survey sheet
vertical Describe (e.g. hot/cold, clear/coloured, solids

present, odour).
Not known 1 Stainless steel Silvery grey 50mm Vertical Slight trickle Cold, milky colour
4 Action plan
5 Further
information
36
Appendices
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Site: Amberly Road Feeding to drain entry point number: 14
Location: Building 3 Exact location: Manhole in path by north face
2 A six-step
procedure
Department: Processing Marked on map number: 2 of 3
Investigator: J. Smith Date: 31/03/12 Time: 14.30
sites
For each pipe/channel feeding into drain entry point note:
3 Dealing with
more complex
Source process Number Water use to Intermittent or Pipe or channel* Description Possible Rate of flow, frequency
produce effluent continuous of effluent contaminants and duration (with units)
Figure 22: Example effluent source information sheet
Oven cleaning 1 Cleaning Intermittent Pipe, Foaming, Detergents, 0.1m3/event including

stainless brown, hot baked rinsing.
4 Action plan
steel, vertical and burnt Once every two weeks, plus
product annual shutdown clean of
0.2m3
5 Further
information
* Description as given on drain entry point survey sheet.

37
Appendices
Measuring flow rates Flow measurement systems

Consider the following questions before Flow measurement systems are summarised
selecting a flow measurement system or in Table 12. Note that the accuracy of flow
contacting a supplier of flow measurement measurement equipment is affected by the
equipment: proximity of:
¡ What level of accuracy is required? ¡ valves;

¡ Will the flow rate obtained by ‘bucket ¡ bends; and
and stopwatch’ methods be sufficiently ¡¡ other items that affect the flow of water/
accurate? effluent.
¡ How big are the pipes and can they
be opened to insert an invasive flow One benefit of using flow measurement
measurement system? systems is that the electrical signals
produced by such systems can be collected in
¡ What are the temperature, pressure and
data loggers for trend analysis.
range of speed of the water/effluent?
¡ Is the water clean or dirty? If dirty, what is Dip tube method
the nature of the contamination?
Another method of measuring the water
¡ Is pipework old and corroded? Corrosion level is a variation of the pressure technique.
can cause problems for strap-on flow This uses a small dip tube to gently blow
meters. air bubbles into the water from below the
¡ Is pipework insulated or trace heated? surface. The amount of excess air pressure
required to expel air is related to the depth
¡ Will a pressure drop across an invasive
of water above the end of the dip tube; the
metering element be acceptable?
deeper the water, the higher the pressure
¡¡ Is a signal for output to online monitoring required to expel air.
or recording systems required?
3 Dealing with
more complex
sites
important?
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Sensor element Type Principle Applicability Common problems
Turbine (A) I Rotation of turbine blades by flow CW P Solids or solvents
Rotameter I Variable area CW P Must be vertical
2 A six-step
procedure
Orifice (B) I Pressure differential CW P Solids may block pressure tappings
Magnetic I Distortion of magnetic field CW/DW P Must remain full*
Thermal dilution I Rate of cooling CW/DW P/C
sites
Ultrasonic (C) – time-of-flight I/N Vector addition of velocities CW/SDW P Might not work in dirty water
3 Dealing with
Ultrasonic (C) – Doppler I/N Reflections from particles in water DW P Will not work in clean water
more complex
Ultrasonic plus pressure I Doppler for flow pressure for depth DW P/C Small weir may be required
Weir (D) I/N Level upstream of weir CW/DW C Settling solids will require removal
Table 12: Commonly used flow measurement techniques
Flume (D) I/N Level upstream of flume CW/DW C Settling solids will require removal
4 Action plan
Bucket and stopwatch – Time taken to collect a known volume CW/DW ‘Spot’ flow measurement
Drop tank test (E) – Rate of change of depth of tank ‘Spot’ flow measurement
* Some new systems will measure flow in part-full pipes.

(A), (B), etc: see overleaf for notes on these different systems.
5 Further
Key:
information
I= invasive
N = non-invasive
CW = clean water
DW = dirty water
SDW = slightly dirty water
P= pipe
C = channel
39
Appendices
(A) Turbine meters 3.3 Using the water balance to save money
Turbine meters usually provide a direct visual 3.3.1 Using the results of the water balance
display of cumulative flow. Instantaneous flow For Step 5 (see Section 2.5), the water balance
signals can usually be acquired from optional should also be used to identify:
sensors which bolt onto the turbine casing
and provide pulsed electrical outputs. ¡ opportunities to reduce water use and
wastewater/effluent generation. It is possible
Installing a few inexpensive turbine-type to reduce cleaning costs by up to 60%; and
water meters at key points in the water
¡ materials present in the effluent that
distribution system can enhance the results
contribute to pollution load (for which
obtained from a water use survey. A flow
you pay higher trade effluent charges).
meter for a 12.5mm (1/2”) pipe costs about
Look for ways of eliminating or reducing
£45 and for a 50mm (2”) pipe about £200.
the presence of these materials. Such
materials include:
(B) Orifice meters
-- raw materials;
Numerous versions of inexpensive orifice
meters, which give direct readings of -- products;
instantaneous flow, are available. -- by-products; and
-- wastes.
(C) Ultrasonic meters
Strap-on ultrasonic flow meters can give You could save a substantial amount of
good results, but older pipework may cause money by recovering raw materials and
problems. product from your effluents. Section 3.3.3
describes how to calculate the pollution load
(D) Weirs and flumes and the associated reduction in trade effluent
Levels at weirs or flumes, and hence the flow, charges.
can be measured non-invasively by ultrasonic
distance measuring systems or invasively by Chemical company recovers product worth
pressure gauges. £200,000/year from process effluent
(E) Drop tank test An investment of £20,000 in new pipework
and tanks enabled a chemical company to
These can be used to calibrate flow recycle a liquid waste stream. This saved the
measurement systems. company £20,000/year in effluent charges
and £200,000/year in recovered product and
It is important to consider the composition of
reduced disposal costs.
the effluent.
¡ Foam on the surface of effluents can cause 3.3.2 Consider options for water re-use
problems with ultrasonic systems. In some cases, it may be possible to re-use
¡¡ Effluent with a high solids content can wastewater/effluents directly for another
block standard pressure transmitters. duty (e.g. low-grade cleaning) or to treat the
Large diameter diaphragm-based pressure effluent for water re-use and/or recovery of
systems may be more suitable in such materials.
cases.
When considering water re-use, assess
3.2.3 Cooling towers and steam relief valves quality requirements and potential problems
If your site has cooling towers and/or steam by talking to operators, equipment suppliers
relief valves, use the simplified approach and your maintenance, quality control and
described in Appendix F to calculate water health and safety departments.
use and losses. However, a more cost-
effective approach to determining water use
by a cooling tower is to fit a water meter on
the make-up water pipeline.
3 Dealing with
more complex
sites
important?
Factors you should consider include: Appendix G provides formulae to help you
calculate the pollutant load and concentration
¡ water quality (as a minimum): of a pollutant in an effluent.
-- pH;
The benefits of investigating and
-- temperature;
implementing measures to reduce the
-- chemical oxygen demand (COD); pollution load include:
-- dissolved and suspended solids;
-- specific substances used in the process; ¡ reduced material losses to drain, leading
to increased profits;
-- microbiological concentrations; and
¡ reduced trade effluent charges (see
-- toxicity issues;
Appendix A);
¡ water availability;
¡ recovered raw materials (usually the
¡ frequency of use; largest cost saving); and
¡ variability; and ¡¡ reduced load on effluent treatment plant
¡¡ flow patterns. and other equipment.
In some cases, it may also be possible to

Major savings with improved cask washing
increase concentrations to the point where
process
material recovery becomes cost-effective.
A brewery knew that its cask washing
plant used water inefficiently. A quality To determine the concentration of material
improvement team formed to evaluate the in an effluent flow:
washing process identified a number of
opportunities to achieve major savings. ¡ obtain a laboratory analysis of a
Final rinse water from cask washing is now representative sample; or
recovered and re-used in other stages of the ¡¡ calculate the average concentration based
process (i.e. external rinses, pre-rinses, oil on the volume of effluent and the quantity
cooling/bung finding equipment and conveyor of substance used. You will need to allow
washing). Water consumption at the brewery for the amount of substance released as
fell significantly to give annual savings worth product or to another waste stream, and
£23,000. thus not released in the effluent. This
calculation will only provide a guideline
3.3.3 Reduce the pollution load figure.
Pollution load in an effluent is commonly
expressed as: It is important to remember that material
concentrations in an effluent could vary
¡ COD - this is a measure of the potential considerably owing to the nature of the
oxygen requirement of an effluent during process and the timescales involved.
natural breakdown of the polluting
substances (i.e. its pollution potential); and Advice on how to calculate concentrations
and pollution loads for mixed flows is given in
¡¡ total suspended solids (TSS) - this is a Appendix G.
measure of solids present in the effluent.
3 Dealing with
more complex
sites
important?
Figure 23: Example annual effluent pollution load block diagram
Location: Confectionery
Unit operation: Sweets production
Flow 1: Toffee cooker Flow 2: Milk make-up vessel
COD TSS Volume COD TSS Volume

770kg/day 50kg/day 1 ,630m3/day 185kg/day 23kg/day 15m3/day
Flow 3: Polishing pan cleaning
COD TSS Volume

65kg/day 7kg/day 55m3/day
Total effluent
COD TSS Volume

1,020kg/day 80kg/day 1,700m3/day
Annual pollution load Investigate those flows with a high pollution

Use your information to calculate the load. Find out:
pollution load (e.g. on an annual basis) for
the different flows. Figure 23 shows this ¡ why the pollution load (i.e. COD or TSS) is
information for an example factory (with three so high;
flows) displayed as a block diagram. ¡ if the pollution load can be reduced; and
¡¡ if the flow can be reduced.
Use the information in your diagram to
identify unnecessary or excessive pollution Water companies use the Mogden Formula
loads. Then consider ways of reducing the (see Appendix A) to calculate trade effluent
pollution load. Use Appendices A and G charges. Reducing both the volume and the
to estimate how much you would save by load of an effluent will reduce your costs.
reducing the COD of your trade effluent. However, it is important to note that water
Don’t forget to count the cost of recovered or saving measures that reduce individual
avoided materials in the savings. effluents with a low pollution load will
increase the average concentration of the
overall effluent. It is therefore essential to
check before taking action that the site’s
trade effluent consent conditions will not be
breached.
3 Dealing with
more complex
sites
important?
4 Action plan
Your organisation You should now be in a position to begin to Development of a water balance should be
will have its own develop an action plan to identify activities carried out as part of a campaign to reduce
goals determined to improve water use in your organisation. water use and wastewater generation at your
by its own policies site. A systematic approach to reducing your
and practices. You should be able to identify some of these water use is described in the WRAP guide
priority areas by looking at the data you have ‘Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency:
gathered. Your organisation will have its own Reducing Water Use’ (www.wrap.org.uk)
goals determined by its own policies and and the four phases of a typical water saving
practices. However, the easiest and lowest- campaign are shown in Figure 6 (see
cost actions will probably be carried through Section 1.5).
first as they do not require capital investment
or time commitments and produce results
that can be seen very quickly.
If you want to reduce your water and effluent costs
Find out how much your organisation is paying in water and effluent charges.
Construct a water balance for your site by following the six-step procedure
described in this guide.
Use your water balance to identify opportunities to reduce water use and
effluent generation.
Estimate potential savings from reducing water use and effluent generation.
Agree targets.
Identify and evaluate measures to reduce water use and effluent generation.
Implement cost-effective measures and monitor progress.
Review your water balance regularly.
4 Action plan
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 5 Further Appendices
important? sites
5 Further information
Useful sources of information

WRAP guides and tools
¡ Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency: Reducing Water Use.
¡ Reducing Your Water Consumption.
¡ Resource Efficiency for Managers.
¡ Environmental Strategic Review Guide.
¡ Waste Mapping: Your Route to More Profit.
¡ Workforce Partnerships for Resource Efficiency.
¡ Green Office: A Guide to Running a More Cost-effective and Environmentally Sustainable
Office.
¡ The Rippleffect: this provides a wealth of free advice and support to help your business to
save money by using water more efficiently.
¡ Mogden Formula tool.
¡ Water monitoring tool.
Useful links
¡ The Federation House Commitment: an agreement by companies in the food and drink
industry to reduce their water use www.fhc2020.co.uk/fhc/cms/
¡ Water Technology List: Visit www.hmrc.gov.uk/capital-allowances/fya/water.htm or call
0844 875 5885.
The following agencies offer advice on regulations affecting water use and wastewater
discharge:
¡ Environment Agency: Tel: 03708 506 506 www.environment-agency.gov.uk

¡ Environment Agency Wales: Tel: 0370 850 6506
www.environment-agency.gov.uk/aboutus/organisation/35675.aspx
¡ Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA): Tel: 01786 457700 (Corporate Office)
www.sepa.org.uk
¡ Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA): Tel: 028 9262 3100 (Water Management
Unit) www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/
The following organisations are regulators of the water and sewerage industry in the UK:
¡ Ofwat: The Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) is the economic regulator of the
water and sewerage industry in England and Wales. Tel: 0121 644 7500
(www.ofwat.gov.uk)
¡ Water Industry Commission for Scotland: Tel: 01786 430200 (www.watercommission.co.uk)
¡ Utility Regulator (Northern Ireland): Tel: 028 9031 1575
(www.uregni.gov.uk/)
5 Further
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan Appendices
information
important? sites
WRAP
WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Programme) works in England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland to help businesses and individuals reap the benefits of reducing waste,
develop sustainable products and use resources in an efficient way.
Since its creation WRAP has funded projects that will, over their lifetimes, deliver over
120 million tonnes of waste diverted from landfill and over 20 million tonnes of CO2
equivalent greenhouse gases saved. Visit www.wrap.org.uk for more information on
all of WRAP’s services.
What support can you get from WRAP?

UK businesses could save £23 billion per year and help create and protect jobs by improving
the way they use resources.
WRAP provides a range of free resource efficiency support for organisations including:
¡ WRAP Resource Efficiency Helpline on 0808 100 2040;

¡ online tools and guidance;
¡ online training initiatives;
¡ tailored business support for recycling companies;
¡ case studies; and
¡¡ guides.
Visit www.wrap.org.uk to find out more.
5 Further
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan Appendices
information
important? sites
Appendix A: UK charging schemes
This appendix provides information on UK This appendix provides information about how
charging schemes for April 2011-March 2012. water and effluent bills are calculated to help
However, such schemes are subject to change you understand:
and updating. For the latest information on
charging schemes affecting your site, please ¡ how your site is being charged for water
contact your local water company, sewerage use and wastewater discharge; and
undertaker or the regulator. ¡¡ the effect on your site’s charges of different
measures to reduce water use and effluent
There is considerable variation throughout generation.
the UK with respect to charging for water
and effluent services. There are a number of Details of UK charging schemes are
factors that affect charging, including: summarised in Table A11 at the end of this
appendix. The type of information provided on
¡ the service provider; a water bill and a trade effluent bill, together
¡ the size of the meter; with explanatory notes, is shown in Figure A1
¡ the tariff structure agreed with your service and Figure A2 respectively.
provider – water volume is banded and
the band into which a company falls will Get into the habit of comparing meter
determine the charging tariff; and readings on your bills with your own records.
¡¡ the year – unit costs are reviewed on an This is particularly important when your bills
annual basis. are based on estimated readings.
Figure A1: Information given on a water bill
1 Refers to
Water Company Meter serial no: pipe size (mm)
Meter location:
Customer address:
Meter size (actual): (agreed):
No. dials:
2 Refers to
the number
Customer reference: Tariff: shown as
white digits
Period: to 3 Dictates
unit costs
Water charge
5 Relates to agreed
Present reading: X Previous reading: Y
pipe size
m3 Pence/m 3 £
4 Unit cost related
Volume: to tariff –
see note 3
6 Only applies to a
few water companies Unit costs are specific to
8 the water provider and
7 May appear on will change each year
Sewerage charge t rade effluent bill
Pence/m 3
i.e.Factor £
m 3
X –Y
Standing charge:
Non-return to sewer
TOTAL CHARGE allowance – specific to 9
each water company
Appendices
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further
important? sites
Figure A2: Information given on a trade effluent bill
1 Refers to
pipe size (mm) Water and
Sewerage Company Customer reference:
eed): Customer address: Consent no:
Sample point:
2 Refers to
the number The water company will 1
shown as take 4-6 samples a year 2 Refers to trade
white digits Period: Date A to Date B to analyse for COD and effluent consent
3 Dictates suspended solids agreement
unit costs m3 total m3
5 Relates to agreed Trade effluent volume X X
pipe size
£
LESS volume allowances m3
You will be asked to
Steam losses 3 provide data/calculations
for these allowances
Water in product
Other allowances/losses
Y
LESS domestic volume adjustment
£
No. of employees or full-time equivalents
4 You will be asked to
No. of days worked in period provide this information
Canteen present?
Daily per capita consumption (litres/head)
Average strengths and solids Z
Average suspended solids mg/litre (St)

5 See note 2
Average COD mg/litre (Ot)
CHARGING DETAILS
Trade effluent Charge = (R + V + Bv + M + [B(Ot/Os)] + [S(St/Ss)]) x volume of effluent (m 3)
Pence/m3
Flow = (X-Y-Z)m £
R C = Flow x R
V C = Flow x V
Bv C = Flow x Bv
M C = Flow x M
B C = Flow x (S x St/Ss)
S C = Flow x (B x Ot/Os)
mg/litre
Os Unit costs are specific to
6 the sewerage undertaker
Ss and will change each year
R Reception charge
V Primary treatment charge
Bv Additional volume charge (if there is biological treatment)
M Marine charge (effluent goes to sea)
B Biological treatment charge
S Sludge treatment charge
Os Chemical oxygen demand of settled sewage
Ss Suspended solids concentration in crude sewage
Domestic charge Volume (m 3) Pence/m3
TOTAL CHARGE
Appendices
important? sites
Water use
Annual charge
Mains supply = standard charge + compensation charge
Charges for mains supply consist of two = (V × A × B × C × SUC) + (V × B × C × D × EIUC)
components:
where: V = Volume specified on the
¡ standing charge – a fixed annual sum, licence (in thousand m3)
determined by the size of the meter; and
¡¡ volumetric charge – a unit cost (pence/m3) A = Source factor (supported,
charged on the actual amount of metered unsupported or tidal)
water used on-site. For a standard user B = Season factor (summer,
tariff, the average cost of mains supply winter or all year)
water for the UK is £1.20/m3 (2011/2012
prices), ranging from around 60p/m3 to C = Loss factor (high, medium,
£1.83/m3 depending on the service provider. low or very low)
The cost is subject to conditions (see SUC = Standard Unit Charge (£ per
below). thousand m3)
Unit costs are revised each year in April and D = Adjusted source factor
vary between service providers. For an EIUC = Environmental Improvement
up-to-date list for England and Wales, visit Unit Charge (£ per thousand m3)
www.ofwat.gov.uk
¡ Volume. The annual charge is calculated
An example water bill is shown in Figure A1.
from the volume (V) specified on the licence
For details of individual charging schemes,
(in thousand m3) rather than volume
contact your service provider.
abstracted.
Abstraction from borehole or surface water ¡ Source factor. The source factor (A)
A charge for the abstraction of water from consists of three categories:
groundwater (borehole) or surface water -- Unsupported (factor 1.0) – where
(river, stream etc) applies to companies based ‘supported’ and ‘tidal’ do not apply;
in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern -- Supported (factor 3.0) – if the source of
Ireland. the authorised abstraction is included in
Schedule 1 of the Environment Agency
Abstractors are advised to consult their local Scheme of Abstraction Charges; and
regulator for up-to-date advice. -- Tidal (factor 0.2) – refers to those parts
of inland waters downstream of the
Charges in England and Wales normal tidal limit as marked on the
The annual charge payable under the 1:25000 Ordnance Survey map.
abstraction licensing system administered ¡ Season factor. The season factor (B)
by the Environment Agency is the sum of consists of three categories:
the standard charge and the compensation
charge, calculated according to the following -- Summer (factor 1.6) – abstraction
formula. authorised between 1 April and
31 October inclusive;
-- Winter (factor 0.16) – abstraction
authorised between 1 November and
31 March inclusive; and
-- All year (factor 1.0) – abstraction
authorised all year or not covered by
either of the above categories.
Appendices
important? sites
¡ Loss factor. The loss factor (C) consists of An abstraction licence is not required under
four categories: the following conditions:
-- High loss (factor 1.0) – spray irrigation,
dust suppression and other purposes ¡ abstraction of less than 20m3 per day,
where, due to evaporation, water use is used for any purpose;
not returned either directly or indirectly ¡ water used for fire fighting; and
to any source of supply; ¡¡ with the regulator’s consent, abstraction
-- Medium loss (factor 0.6) – public of more than 20m3 per day to test
and private supply, commercial and underground strata for the presence,
industrial purposes not specified quantity or quality of water.
elsewhere, boiler feed, use as a means
of conveying material, bottling and uses There are several other cases where an
which incorporate water in the product, abstraction licence may not be required,
agricultural purposes (excluding spray but it is advised that you check with the
irrigation, fish farms and watercress Environment Agency if in any doubt.
growing) and anti-frost spraying;
-- Low loss (factor 0.03) – includes mineral Charges in Scotland
and vegetable washing, and non- Under the Water Environment (Controlled
evaporative cooling; and Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011
-- Very low loss (factor 0.003) – power (CAR), a CAR authorisation is required for
generation of greater than 5MW, amenity abstraction from surface waters and
pools through flow, hydraulic testing, groundwaters.
fish farms, watercress growing, and
Annual subsistence charges will apply to
effluent dilution.
licensed abstractions.
¡ Standard Unit Charge (SUC). This refers to
the fixed charge for the region in which the The abstraction subsistence charges are
abstraction is authorised (in £ per thousand calculated for a licence and not for each
m3) and is subject to annual review. The individual controlled activity. This is because
average SUC in 2011/2012 across nine abstraction licences can include large
regions in England and Wales was around numbers of activities managed within a
£17.7 per thousand m3. This equates to single scheme. Monitoring and regulation is
1.7 pence/m3 and is considerably cheaper undertaken at the scheme level. In calculating
than mains supply water. However, abstraction charges, operators will only be
abstracted water may require treatment charged once for the abstraction of water.
(e.g. softening) before use. Abstraction costs will be allocated between
¡ Adjusted source factor. The adjusted activities according to eight factors:
source factor (D) consists of two categories:
-- Non-tidal (factor 1.0) – for supported and Subsistence (annual) charge (£) =
unsupported sources; and Va × Lo × Le × So x Se × Pa × Na x Fa
-- Tidal (factor 0.2).
where: Va = Volume abstracted factor
¡ Environmental Improvement Unit Charge (applies to the maximum
(EIUC). This funds compensation for the daily volume authorised)
Restoring Sustainable Abstraction (RSA)
programme and is collected on a regional Lo = Loss factor
basis. Le = Length affected factor
So = Source of abstraction factor
Se = Seasonality factor
Pa = Proportion of flow factor
Na = Number of abstractions factor
Fa = Financial factor
Appendices
important? sites
Table A1: Charges in Scotland – components, bands and factors
Component Band Factor
Va More than 0m3 to 50m3 per day 0

More than 50m up to and including 100m /day
3 3
0.3
More than 100m3 up to and including 2,000m3/day 1
More than 2,000m up to and including 10,000m /day
3 3
5
More than 10,000m3 up to and including 50,000m3/day 9.3
More than 50,000m3 up to and including 150,000m3/day 13.7
More than 150,000m3/day 22.8
Lo Non-consumptive use 0.3
Partially consumptive use 1
Consumptive use 1.1
Le Returned less than 500m from abstraction 0.2
Returned 500m to less than 1km from abstraction 0.9
Returned 1km to 5km from abstraction 1.3
Returned more than 5km from abstraction 1.9
So Coastal and estuary 0.17
Inland waters 1
Se Winter only (1 October to 31 March) 0.1
Summer only (1 April to 31 October) 0.3
All year 1
Pa Less than 10% of 95th percentile flow abstracted 0.95
10% – 50% of 95th percentile flow abstracted 1
More than 50% of 95th percentile flow abstracted 1.05
Na 1–5 1
6 – 25 2
26 – 100 3.6
More than 100 9.4
Fa Around £1,000, updated annually (2011 – 2012 is £1,102)
Charges in Northern Ireland Fees and charges:

Abstraction is controlled under the Water
Abstraction and Impoundment (Licensing) Annual charge (£) = Vol x ST x S x Co x Fin
Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2009 (Fees
and Charges). Where: Vol = Volume (for abstractions
more than 100m3 per day)
ST = Source type
S = Seasonality
Co = Consumptiveness
Fin = Financial factor
(annual standing charge)
Appendices
important? sites
Table A2: Charges in Northern Ireland – components, bands and factors
Component Band Factor
Vol 20m3 to 99m3/day 0

100m to 499m /day
3 3
2
500m3 to 999m3/day 5
1,000m to 1,999m /day
3 3
10
2,000m3 to 9,999m3/day 15
More than 10,000m /day 3
25
ST Coastal and estuary 0.1
Inland water (river, lough, wetland, groundwaters) 1
S Seasonal 0.3
All year 1
Co Non-consumptive 0.05
Consumptive 1
Fin Annual charge financial factor £319
(subject to annual review)
Disposal of wastewater the volume of domestic wastewater can

Sewerage be calculated by subtracting the volume
of trade effluent from the total volume of
In the same way as mains water, domestic
water supplied to the site. However, this
sewerage charges consist of a standing
may not be accurate if there are non-return
charge and a volumetric charge (pence/m3).
losses such as water in product and loss
However, there are two different ways of
from evaporation. In such cases, the site
calculating the volume attributed to this
will be required to provide the following
waste stream. Unit costs are revised each
information:
year in April and vary between sewerage
providers. For further information, contact -- number of employees or full-time
your service provider. equivalents (A);
-- number of days worked during the
¡ Domestic wastewater only. If the only period covered by the bill (B); and
wastewater generated at the site is -- whether the site has a canteen providing
domestic, the sewerage volume will hot meals (C).
be based on the consumption of water
supplied to the site. The sewerage charge The domestic allowance can then be
will appear on the water bill. calculated using the formula below:
If your water is supplied by a company that
only supplies water, the bill will contain a
A×B×C
charge on behalf of a sewerage undertaker.
where: C = typically 25 litres/person/day
¡ Domestic wastewater and trade effluent.
(no canteen)
If your site discharges both trade effluent
and domestic wastewater, the sewerage
= typically 40 litres/person/day
charge will appear on the trade effluent
(canteen)
bill. If the trade effluent is metered and
the domestic wastewater is unmetered,
Appendices
important? sites
Trade effluent S = Charge for treatment and

Water company charges for trade effluent disposal of primary sludge
discharged to sewer are based on the Mogden (pence/m3)
Formula. This formula links charges for a
particular customer to the cost of treating the Ss = Settleable solids (mg/litre),
effluent (i.e. customers pay according to the suspended solids after one
volume and strength of their effluent). hour quiescent settlement
Unit costs are revised each year in April and Scotland

vary between service providers. For further In Scotland, there are two charges:
information, contact your sewerage provider.
An example trade effluent bill is shown in ¡¡ Operating charge (based on the Mogden
Figure A2. Formula):
The Mogden Formula is expressed as follows

Operating charge
in the UK.
= AVD x [Ro +Vo +Bo x (Ot/Os) + So x (St/Ss)]
England, Wales and Northern Ireland where: Ro ≡ R
C = R + M + V + Bv + B × Ot + S × St Vo ≡ V
Os Ss
where: C = Total charge (pence/m3) So ≡ S
R = Charge for reception and Bo = Secondary treatment charging

conveyance (pence/m3) component (pence/m³)
M = Charge for treatment and AVD = Actual volume discharged (m3)

disposal where effluent goes
to a sea outfall (M for marine) ¡¡ Annual availability charge (Ca):
(pence/m3)
V = Charge for primary treatment Ca = 365 × [CDV × (Ra + Va) + (Ba × sBODl) +
(V for volumetric) (pence/m3) (Sa × TSSl)]
where: CDV = Chargeable daily volume (m3)
Bv = Additional volume charge if
biological treatment is required Ra = Reception charge
(pence/m3). Also referred to as B1. (pence/m3/day)
Ot = Chemical oxygen demand Va = Primary treatment charge

(COD) of effluent after one hour (pence/m3/day)
quiescent settlement at pH 7
(mg/litre) Ba = Biological capacity charge
(pence/kg/day)
B = Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) of settled sewage Sa = Sludge capacity charge
(pence/m3). Also referred to as B2 (pence/kg/day)
Os = COD of crude sewage after sBODl = Settled biochemical oxygen

one hour quiescent settlement demand (BOD) load (kg/day)
(mg/litre)
TSSl = Total suspended solids
St = Total suspended solids (TSS) (TSS) load (kg/day)
(mg/litre) of trade effluent at pH 7
Appendices
important? sites
Estimating trade effluent charges ¡ The volume factor (A) uses a banded
Use the Mogden Formula tool on the WRAP approach and relates to the maximum daily
website to: volume (see Table A3).
¡ The contents factor (B) relates to the
¡ calculate your existing effluent charges; provisions in the consent issued by the
and Environment Agency controlling the
¡¡ determine how much money you could save contents of the discharge (see Table A4).
by reducing the volume and strength (COD For example, Band A includes wastewater
and TSS) of your effluent. containing organics such as pesticides,
and aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
The tool contains all the necessary unit costs (chlorinated and non-chlorinated).
for each component of the Mogden Formula ¡ The receiving waters factor (C) consists
for all UK sewerage undertakers. of four categories (see Table A5).
¡¡ The financial factor (D) is a fixed annual
Discharge to surface and point source effluent fee and is subject to an annual review.
to groundwaters For 2011/2012, the charge is £684.
England and Wales
Since April 2010, discharges to surface Table A3: Volume factor: England and Wales
waters and of point source sewage effluent to
ground/groundwater have been subject to the Volume (m3) Band Factor
Environmental Permitting Regulations.
0 – 5 A 0.3
A company in England and Wales must obtain
the consent of the Environment Agency to 5 – 20 B 0.5
discharge to controlled waters. There are 20 – 100 C 1
two types of charges for water discharges: 100 – 1,000 D 2
application charges and subsistence charges. 1,000 – 10,000 E 3
10,000 – 50,000 F 5
The subsistence charge depends on four
50,000 – 150,000 G 9
factors:
More than 150,000 H 14
¡ volume – maximum daily volume;
¡ content of discharge; Table A4: Contents factor: England and Wales
¡ receiving water – groundwaters, coastal,
surface, estuarine; and Band Factor
¡¡ financial factor – fixed multiplier (£).
A 14
These are multiplied together to calculate the
subsistence charge. B 5
C 3
Subsistence charge = A × B × C × D D 2
where: A = Volume factor E 1
(maximum daily volume)
F 0.5
B = Contents factor G 0.3
C = Receiving waters factor
D = Financial factor
Appendices
important? sites
Table A5: Receiving waters factor: England and Wales such as pesticides, and aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons (chlorinated and
Type Band Factor non-chlorinated).
¡¡ The receiving waters factor (R) consists of

Groundwater or land G 0.5 four categories (see Table A8).
Coastal water C 0.8
Surface water S 1 ¡¡ The number of point source activities (N)
Estuarine water E 1.5 on a single site licence or associated on a
single site or on a sewer network licence.
Scotland ¡¡ The financial factor (F) is a fixed annual

Under the Water Environment (Controlled fee and is subject to an annual review.
Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (CAR), For 2011 – 2012, the charge was £696.
a company must obtain SEPA’s consent to
discharge to controlled waters. Companies Table A6: Volume factor: Scotland
are also subject to an annual fee for the
provision of the licence. The charging scheme Volume (m3) Band Factor
is similar to that operating in England and
Wales.
0 – 5 V1 0.3
Activities are charged according to the level 5 – 20 V2 0.5
of environmental risk. In turn, environmental 20 – 100 V3 1
risk directly influences the level of 100 – 1,000 V4 2
assessment, inspection and monitoring that 1,000 – 10,000 V5 3
SEPA carries out in relation to a regulated 10,000 – 50,000 V6 6
activity. Charges apply and, where on-going
50,000 – 150,000 V7 12
inspection and monitoring are required,
subsistence (annual) fees may apply. These More than 150,000 V8 24
charges replaced the Control of Pollution
Act and Groundwater charging schemes on Table A7: Contents factor: Scotland
1 April 2006.
Band Factor
The annual charge is calculated according to
the formula: V × C × R × N × F A 14
where: V = Volume factor
B 5
C 3
C = Contents factor D 2
R = Receiving waters factor E 1

F 0.5
N = Number of activities factor
G 0.3
F = Financial factor
Table A8: Receiving waters factor: Scotland
¡¡ The volume factor (V) uses a banded
approach and relates to the maximum daily Type Factor
volume (see Table A6).
¡¡ The contents factor (C) relates to the Groundwater or land 0.5

provisions in the consent issued by SEPA Coastal water 1.5
controlling the contents of the discharge Inland water 1
(see Table A7). For example, Band A Relevant territorial water 1.5
includes wastewater containing organics
Appendices
important? sites
Northern Ireland Table A10: Contents factor: Northern Ireland

Under the Water (Northern Ireland) Order
1999, a company must obtain the consent Band Factor
of the NIEA to discharge trade or sewage
effluent to a waterway or into groundwater. A 14
The charging scheme is similar to that
operating in the rest of the UK. B 5
C 3
The annual charge is calculated according D 2
to the formula:
E 1
V×C×F
F 0.5
where: V = Volume factor G 0.3
C = Contents factor Surface drainage
F = Financial factor Surface drainage refers to rainwater from

roof run-off and from car park run-off that
discharges to the public surface drainage
¡¡ The volume factor (V) uses a banded
sewer. It should not be confused with
approach and relates to the maximum daily
discharge direct to surface water (covered
volume (see Table A9).
above). A company can be charged for surface
drainage:
¡ The contents factor (C) relates to the
provisions in the consent issued by the
¡ on the basis of the rateable value of the
NIEA controlling the contents of the
property;
discharge (see Table A10). For example,
Band A includes wastewater containing ¡ as part of the sewerage standing charge;
organics such as pesticides, and aliphatic ¡ as part of the sewerage volumetric charge;
and aromatic hydrocarbons (chlorinated and
and non-chlorinated). ¡¡ on the basis of the surface area of the site.
¡¡ The financial factor (F) is a fixed annual
fee and is subject to an annual review. For If your company diverts surface water drains
2012, this charge is £445. to foul sewer or to an effluent treatment plant
prior to discharge, then you may be being
Table A9: Volume factor: Northern Ireland charged twice (i.e. once as surface water and
then again as trade effluent). Consult your
Volume (m3) Factor service provider as you may be entitled to a
rebate.
0 – 5 0.3 Non-return allowance
5 – 20 0.5
In cases where water and wastewater do not
20 – 100 1 return to sewer, you may be entitled to a non-
100 – 1,000 2 return allowance. These include the following.
1,000 – 10,000 3
10,000 – 50,000 5 ¡ Domestic sewerage allowance. Most, but
50,000 – 150,000 9
not all, water companies assume that on
average up to 10% of the metered water
More than 150,000 14
supplied to the consumer is not returned to
sewer. This allowance should be included
in the calculation of charges and appear on
the bill as a factor (e.g. a 10% allowance
would appear as a factor of 0.90).
Appendices
important? sites
¡ Process allowance. Where water is used the public sewer (other than as metered
in processing and not discharged to sewer trade effluent) or is discharged directly as
(e.g. as water in product and losses from surface water with the appropriate consent
evaporation), the company must provide from your regulator.
records or calculations to enable the ¡ Fire-fighting water. Where mains water
water company to calculate these losses supply (metered) serves fire-fighting
and adjust the sewerage or trade effluent equipment as well as water for normal use,
charge accordingly. a reduction in the standing charge may be
¡ Leaks. No allowance for leakage is given obtained. For example, if a site is fitted with
against water supply charges. However, a 100mm meter to allow for provision of
an allowance may be granted against fire-fighting water, but only requires a
sewerage volumetric charges if the leaked 50mm meter for normal operating
water did not return to the public sewer. conditions, the standing charge will be
¡ Surface drainage. A reduction in the levied at the rate for the 50mm meter
surface water drainage part of the under normal operating conditions.
sewerage charge can be claimed if none
of the surface water from the site enters
Appendices
important? sites
Home
WRAP
1 Why is
important?
saving water
Region Water
Mains Abstracted
England ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = (V × A × B × C × SUC) + (V × B × C × D × EIUC)
2 A six-step
procedure
Wales ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = (V × A × B × C × SUC) + (V × B × C × D × EIUC)
Scotland ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = Va × Lo × Le × So × Se × Pa × Na x Fa
Northern Ireland Volumetric charge + Standing charge Annual charge = Vol × ST × S × Co × Fin
sites
ü ü
3 Dealing with
more complex
Region Wastewater
Sewerage Surface drainage Trade effluent Discharge to controlled water*
England ü V+S ü Various** ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = A × B × C × D

Table A11: Summary of UK charging schemes as of March 2012
4 Action plan
Wales ü V+S ü Various** ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = A × B × C × D
Operating charge†
Scotland ü V+S ü Rateable value of property*** ü and Availability ü Annual charge = V × C × R × F
charge
Northern Ireland ü V+S ü Volume charge ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = V × C × F
5 Further
information
V+S Volumetric charge + Standing charge.
† Based on Mogden Formula.
* Referred to as discharge consent in Northern Ireland.
** Includes volume charge, standing charge and surface area of site.
*** A component of the sewerage charge.
Unit costs are reviewed each year and vary between service providers. For further details including unit costs, contact your service provider.
57
Appendices
Appendix B: Where do businesses

use water?
All businesses are different. However, an

awareness of how other companies use water
may help you to identify where your company
uses water. Figures B1 – B12 show the typical
major uses in a number of different types of
activity.
Offices
Figure B1: Water use in offices
Cleaning Canteen use

1% 9%
Cleaning Canteen use
Washing
1% 9% flushing
WC
27%
Washing 43%
WC flushing
27% flushing
Urinal
43%
20%
Urinal flushing
20%
Food and drink industry
Figure B2: Water use in food manufacture

O ffices and kitchens Effluent
1% treatment
O ffices and kitchens Effluent
0.4%
Leaks
1% and treatment
overflows 0.4%
Processing/
Leaks and
3.6% cleaning
overflows Processing/
55%
3.6%
Cooling cleaning
towers 55%
Cooling
24% Boiler house
towers
16%
24% Boiler house
16%
Brewhouse
Conditioning 3%
12% Brewhouse
Conditioning 3%
Product
12%
15%
Product
15% Packaging/
cleaning Appendices
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further70%

Packaging/
cleaning
important? sites 70%
towers
towers
24%
24% Boiler house
Boiler house
WRAP Tracking Water
16%Use to Cut Costs 59
16%
Figure B3: Water use in brewing

Brewhouse
Brewhouse
Conditioning 3%
Conditioning 3%
12%
12%
Product
Product
15%
15%
Packaging/
Packaging/
cleaning
cleaning
70%
70%
Figure B4: Water use in soft drinks manufacture – carbonates or dilutables category
Equipment
Equipment
preparation 3%
preparation 3%
Rinsing of Other 1%
Rinsing of Other 1%
containers 4%
containers 4% Floor washing 1%
Floor washing 1%
Domestic use 3%
Boiler house 4% Domestic use 3%
Boiler house 4%
Pasteurisers 6%
Pasteurisers 6%
Product 78%
Product 78%
Figure B5: Water use in red meat processing
Lairage washing 3% Floor/equipment

Canteen use Vehicle washing 5% cleaning 33%
9% Knife sterilising 5% Scald tank 7%
WC flushing Cooling water 6%
Personal hygiene
43% 10%
Sprays and rinses
31%
Vehicle washing 1% Feather fluming 1%

Effluent (cold water) (cold water)
treatment
0.4% Personal hygiene 2%
Crate and module
Processing/ Scald tank 9% washing 6%
cleaning (hot water) (cold water)
Appendices
Home 55% 1 Why is 2 A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further
saving water procedure
Evisceration 24% more complex information
Carcass chilling 27%
important? (67% hot water) sites
(cold water)
43% Scald tank 7%
10%
WC flushing Cooling water 6% Sprays and rinses
Personal
Sprays
31% and hygiene
rinses
WRAP
43% Tracking Water
31% Use to Cut Costs
10% 60
Sprays and rinses

31%
Figure B6: Water use in poultry meat processing
Vehicle washing 1% Feather fluming 1%

Effluent Vehicle washing 1%
(cold water) Feather fluming 1%
(cold water)
Effluent
treatment (cold water) (cold water)
treatment
0.4% Personal hygiene 2%
0.4%
Effluent
Vehicle
Personal hygiene1%
washing 2% Feather fluming
Crate and module1%
(cold water) Crate
(cold and6%
water)
washing module
Processing/
treatment Scald tank 9%
Processing/
cleaning Scald
(hot tank 9%
water) washing 6%
(cold water)
0.4% Personal hygiene 2% (cold water)
cleaning
55% (hot water) Crate and module
55% Evisceration 24%
Processing/ Scald tank 9% Carcass 6%
washing chilling 27%
Evisceration 24%
(67% hot water) (cold water)
cleaning (hot Carcass chilling 27%
Boiler house (67%water)
hot water) (cold water)
55% (cold water)
Boiler
16% house Evisceration 24%
16% Carcass 27%
chilling30%
Floor washing
(67% hot water)
(cold
Floorwater)
(50% water)30%
washing
hot
Boiler house
(50% hot water)
16%
Floor washing 30%
(50% hot water)
Figure B7: Water use in skimmed milk processing
Brewhouse Boiler CIP hot

Brewhouse Boiler
10% CIP
13%hot
3%
3% 10% 13%
Fridge
Brewhouse Boiler
Fridge
evaporative hotcold 13%
CIPCIP
CIP cold 13%
3% 10%
evaporative
condenser 13%
condenser
38% Process
Fridge
38% Process
applications
CIP cold 13%
Packaging/ evaporative applications
Packaging/
cleaning Hygiene 23%
cleaning condenser
Hygiene
3% 23%
70% 38% Process
70% 3% applications
Packaging/
cleaning Hygiene 23%
70% 3%
Leather and textile industries
Equipment Figure B8: Water use in leather manufacture

Equipment
preparation 3% Processing
preparation 3% Processing
20%
Other 1% 20%
1%
Other washing
Equipment
Floor 1%
Floor washing
preparation 3%1%
Domestic use 3% Processing
Other 1% use 3%
Domestic 20%
General Rinsing
General
washing Rinsing
55%
Floor washing 1% washing 55%
25%
Domestic use 3% 25%
General Rinsing
Product 78% washing 55%
Product 78%
25%
Product 78%
Appendices
important? sites
Figure B9: Water use in textile dyeing and finishing – fibre and yarn sector
Boilers
10%
Floor/equipment Boilers
cleaning 33% 10%
Finishing
Floor/equipment 15%
Scald tank
cleaning 7%
33% Finishing
15%
Boilers Batch dyeing
Personal 7%
Scald tankhygiene 75%
10% 10%
Floor/equipment Batch dyeing
Personal hygiene 75%
cleaning
Sprays 33%
and rinses Finishing
10%
31%
Scald tank 7% 15%
Sprays and rinses
31% Batch dyeing
Personal hygiene 75%
10%
Sprays and rinses
31%
Figure B10: Water use in textile dyeing and finishing – woven cloth sector
Boilers
10%
Boilers
10%
Finishing
Feather fluming 1%
13%
(cold water) Finishing Batch dyeing
Feather fluming 1% 50%
13%
Boilers
Preparation
(cold water) Batch dyeing
Crate and module 10%
27% 50%
washing 6% Preparation
Crate and module
(cold water) Finishing
27%
Feather fluming 1%
washing 6% 13%
(cold water) Batch dyeing
(cold water)
Carcass chilling 27% 50%
Preparation
(cold
Cratewater)
and module 27%
Carcass
washingchilling
6% 27%
(cold
(coldwater)
water)
Floor washing 30%
(50% hot water)
Vacuum systems 1%
Carcass chilling30%
Floor washing 27% Chemical industry
(50% water)
(cold hot water) Housekeeping 3%1% Cooling 27%
Vacuum systems
Product washing 3%
FigureHousekeeping
B11: Water use
3%in speciality chemicals manufacturing Cooling 27%
Floor washing 30% Effluent
uses 3%3%
Domesticwashing
Product
(50% hot water) dilution 6%
Vacuum
Plant vessel3%1%
andsystems Effluent
Domestic uses
CIP hot washing 4% dilution 6%
Housekeeping 3% CoolingAir27%pollution
13% Plant and vessel
CIP hot washing 3%
Product 4%
washing control 7%
Air pollution
13%
CIP cold 13% Raw material Effluent
control 7%
Domestic uses 3%
21% Steam6%
dilution
CIP cold 13% Raw material
Plant and vessel production
Process 21%
washing 4% Steam
CIP hot 25%
Air pollution
applications production
13%
Process control 7%
23% 25%
applications
23%CIP cold 13% Raw material
21% Steam
production
Process
25%
applications
23%
Other 3% Felt cleaning 2%
Hoses 4% Sc reen rejects dilution 2%
Chemical carrying Refiner sealing water 2%
Hoses 4%
water 4% Sc reen rejects dilution 2%
Pulper4%
water Vacuum pump
Other 3%5%
showers Felt cleaning 2%
29%
Pulper
Hoses 4% Sc reen rejects dilution
Vacuum 2%
pump
Sheet
showers 5% 29% water 2%
Chemical 5%
knock-off carrying Refiner sealing
Disc thickener
Sheet
water 4% Appendices
Home 1 Why is Box
2 lubrication
A six-step 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Furthershowers
10%
knock-off 5% Disc thickener
Rinsing saving water showers
Pulper 8%
Box lubrication Vacuum
showerspump10%
55% important? showers 5% sites 29%
showers 8%
Plant and vessel
CIP hot washing 4%
Air pollution
13% WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut7%
control Costs 62
CIP cold 13% Raw material

21% Steam
production
Process
25%
applications
23%
Paper and board industry
Figure B12: Water use in paper and board processing

Hoses 4% Sc reen rejects dilution 2%
water 4%
Pulper Vacuum pump
showers 5% 29%
Sheet
knock-off 5% Disc thickener
Box lubrication showers 10%
Rinsing showers 8%
55%
Pump gland
sealing water Wire showers 16%
10%
Even for companies in the same line of When considering your water balance, you
business, water use varies from company to may find it useful to consider your water use
company. The factors that affect the amount in three categories:
of water used by a company include:
¡ general use – this may include on-site
¡ raw materials used; washroom facilities and a canteen.
¡ number of different products made; Substantial savings can be obtained by
detecting and fixing leaks, faulty control
¡ technologies employed;
valves, leaking cisterns, etc. You may wish
¡ throughput; to include some process-related issues
¡ number of staff; and (e.g. leaks and overflows from pipes/
¡¡ staff facilities on site. storage tanks) in this category;
¡ process use – this includes cooling towers,
Typical water uses are listed in Table B1. liquid ring vacuum pumps, heat exchanger
circuits, etc. Substantial savings can be
achieved, but these are generally site
specific; and
¡ cleaning and washdown – this covers
mainly process-related activities, but
may also include cleaning offices and
washrooms. Cleaning often provides major
opportunities for cost savings. In particular,
watch out for extravagant use of hoses – you
could save thousands of pounds per year.
Appendices
important? sites
Table B1: Typical water uses at industrial and commercial sites
Type Description Examples
General Sanitary Toilet flushing

Sinks
Showers
Domestic Heating/air-conditioning
Laundry
Drinking
Cooking
Washing up
Recreation Swimming
Jacuzzi
Ice rink
Gardens Watering plants/lawns
Fountains
Garage Vehicle washing
Vehicle maintenance
Industrial Heating/cooling/sealing Rotating machinery and process materials
Heat exchange
Condensing vapours
Processing Dilution/mixing
Heating/cooling
Separation
Product use
Cleaning and washing Tanks
Vessels
Floors
Pipework
Pumps
Steam raising Process use
Heating
Trace lagging
Treating spills/leaks/drips Abnormal events where water is used to
dilute and disperse
Commercial Cleaning and washing Canteens
Laundries
Laboratories Condensers
Vacuum pumps
Special Hospital therapy pools
Appendices
important? sites
Appendix C: Unit operations

for a boiler and cooling tower
Figure C1 and Figure C2 show the water flows

for two common operations.
Figure C1: Boiler house operations
Inputs
Mains water
Outputs
Recirculation
1 6 4 02 Water meter
Ion Steam and

Regeneration hot water
chemicals exchange
column
Condensate
recovery
Sub-meter
Regeneration Make-up
water Boiler
wastewater
to sewer Pump
Hot well
Blowdown
to sewer
Figure C2: Cooling tower operations

Inputs Evaporation, Inputs
Mains water spray and mist
Outputs Outputs
to atmosphe re
Recirculation Recirculation
1 6 4 02 Water meter
Cooling tower
Pump
Cold well
Process
Blowdown Leaks and cooling
to sewer overflows
Blowdown
to sewer
Appendices
important? sites
Appendix D: Example water balances
Example industrial site

Figure D1 shows the water inputs and outputs
for an example industrial site, which has the
water balance shown in Figure D2. Note the
need to consider recirculated water.
Figure D1: Water inputs and outputs for an example industrial site
Water supply
Cooling tower
1 6 4 02 Water
Steam and meter
evaporation
– drying processes
1 6 4 02
Cleaning
chemicals,
raw materials
Cold Hot
water water
Industrial/manufacturing processes and utilities

(including laboratory operations, toilets/wash
block/canteen) Water in
products
1 6 4 02
Treatment
chemicals
Water leaks
into ground
1 6 4 02
including
fire-fighting Water in liquid wastes,
water* including sludge
Effluent
Surface water treatment Sludge
discharges including plant storage
via oil interceptors
Treated
effluent
Discharges to sewer
including fire-fighting water*
Surface water
and domestic sewage
Inputs Outputs
*Potentially contaminated fire-fighting water should be collected separately.
Appendices
important? sites
Figure D2: Water balance for an example industrial site
Water supply
1 6 4 02 Water
meter Water supply 3m3/day
Water Water steam and
555m3/day
1 6 4 02
1 6 4 02
meter meter evaporation

3m3/day
Water steam and
1 6 4 02 555m3/day
1 6 4 02 meter evaporation
2m /day 3 535m3/day
liquid Industrial/manufacturing process 537m3/day
1 6 4 02
raw 2m3/day
2m 3
/day 535m3/day
materials in products
liquid Industrial/manufacturing process 537m3/day
raw 2m3/day
materials 5m3/day in products
1m3/day leaks
1 6 4 02 to atmosphere 5m3/day 1 6 4 0 2
1m3/day leaks
to atmosphere 489m3/day
1 6 4 02 495m3/day 1 6 4 02
20m3/day 1 6 4 02
Effluent489m /day
3
Cooling 495m3/day
Water in 20m3/day tower 1 6 4 02 treatment Sludges 5m3/day
products Cooling plant
Effluent sludge
tower 495m3/day treatment Sludges tankered
5m3/day
Water in
plant off site
sludge
products
19m3/day 495m3/day 38m3/day 484m3/day tankered
blowdown to foul to sewer off site
to sewer
19m 3
/day sewer
38m 3
/day or river
484m 3
/day
blowdown to foul to sewer
Inputs
to sewer Outputs
sewer Recirculation
or river
n liquid wastes, Inputs Outputs Recirculation

cluding sludge
n liquid wastes, Example hotel
cluding sludge
Figure D3 shows the water inputs and outputs
for an example hotel, which has the water
balance shown in Figure D4.
Figure D3: Water inputs and outputs for an example hotel

Water supply 1 6 4 02
Treatment
Water supply Water
1 6 4 02
chemicals
meter Treatment
Water Hotel chemicals
meter Steam
Evaporation Hotel Wash blocks
and steam Detergents and Steam
Evaporation bathrooms
Wash blocks
and steam Detergents and
bathrooms
Laundry Kitchen
Laundry Kitchen
Boiler/air-conditioning/
heating/cooling tower
heating/cooling tower
Blowdown and
Domestic wastewater condensate to
Inputs Outputs to foul sewer foul sewer
Blowdown and
Domestic wastewater condensate to
Inputs Outputs to foul sewer foul sewer
Appendices
important? sites
Figure D4: Water balance for an example hotel
Water supply
Water 1 6 4 02 9m3/day
meter
3m3/day
steam and 2m3/day 1m3/day 5m3/day 1m3/day
evaporation
0.005m3/day 0.005m3/day 0.05m3/day
evaporation liquid treatment 0.05m3/day
and steam raw materials chemicals steam
/day 2m3/day
in products
Laundry Kitchen Hotel bathrooms Boiler/
Washing Dishwasher Toilets air-conditioning
machine Sink Showers system
and baths
2m3/day 1m3/day 5m3/day 1m3/day

blowdown/
condensate
dges 5m3/day Inputs
sludge
tankered Outputs 9m3/day
off site
domestic wastewater
Constructing a water balance for In the year with the particularly high water
a medium-sized hotel and sewerage charges, the hotel had a 60%
Known
Mains water
The water and sewerage charges at one of the occupancy rate. The gardens were only
Estimated
hotels in a chain had jumped from £8,496/year watered on two afternoons in July using a
to £38,969/year in consecutive years.3 hose fed off the mains supplying the bar and
Calculated
Water 21,650m /year
meter
1 6 4 02
toilets. Because some laundry is charged to
The hotel has 30 bedrooms, with a restaurant clients, a record is kept of machine use. The
1,554m3/year larger (23kg wash) was used 231 times during
Restaurant/bar
and bar (open to non-residents). Ten of the
Dishwasher
the year and the other (5.5kg wash) was used
rooms are in a separate new wing. All of the Toilets
bedrooms are equipped with a bath, shower 450 times. Machine specifications show that
and WC. Other facilities include a swimming the larger machine uses 112 litres/fill and
Treatment each wash cycle takes five fills. The smaller
chemicals pool and leisure facilities. The hotel also has
4m3/year
Gardens
machine takes 60 litres/fill and seven fills.
its own kitchens equipped with two large Hoses
dishwashers and separate laundry facilities The sub-meters on the kitchens show that
Steam
with two washing machines. Outside there are 248m of water was used during the year.
3
h blocks
and extensive gardens.
298m3/year The
Old first stepcomplex
20-bedroom is to draw a block
hrooms
Showers/baths of the hotel and fill in available
representation
The hotel is supplied with water only from Toilets and sinks
the mains. In addition toSub-meter
the water company’s data for the year. The first values to be
meter, there are sub-meters on the old entered are those from the sub-meters:
bedroom complex (fed by an independent 149m3/year New 10-bedroom wing
pipeline off the incoming water main), on 298m3 for the old bedroom complex;
¡ Showers/baths
the kitchens and on the pipeline serving the ¡ Toilets
2,241mand3sinks
for the flow to the swimming pool,
swimming pool, leisure facilities and new leisure complex and new bedroom wing; and
Boiler/air-conditioning/ bedroom complex. ¡¡ 248m3 for the kitchens.
2,241m3/year
heating/cooling tower Swimming pool
Make-up water
Sub-meter
Blowdown and
condensate to
foul sewer
Leisure facilities
Showers/baths
Toilets and sinks
Appendices
248m3/year Kitchens
important? sites
Dishwashers
The next step is to do some calculations to ¡ In the garden, one hose was used for two
determine other flows. afternoons in July – say for four hours.
A garden hose uses 8.3 litres/minute as
¡ At a cost of around £1.80/m3 (water and a minimum. The water use is estimated
sewerage combined), the year’s bill of at 4.0m3/year (see equation D).
£38,969 gives a water input from the mains
supply of 21,649m3/year. Equation D = (2 hoses × 8.3 litres/minute ×
¡¡ In the laundry, the large machine used 60 minutes/hour × 4 hours)/1,000
129m3/year (see equation A) and the small
machine used 189m3/year (see equation B). ¡¡ No data exist for the restaurant and bar.
This gives a total of 318m3/year. It is estimated at two sinks with a
maximum of two taps each with one
Equation A = tap running for 6 hours/day for 5 days/
(231 uses × 112 litres/fill × 5 fills/use)/1,000 week. Assuming that the taps run at the
same rate as the hose, a reasonable
Equation B = ‘guessestimate’ is 1,554m3/year
(450 uses × 60 litres/fill × 7 fills/use)/1,000 (see equation E).
¡¡ The average water consumption of an Equation E = (2 taps × 8.3 litres/minute ×

occupied bedroom is approximately 60 minutes/hour × 6 hours/day ×
68 litres/day. A cross-check shows that the 5 days/week × 52 weeks/year)/1,000
metered water use for the old bedroom
complex agrees with the value calculated Figure D5 shows the water balance for the
from the occupancy rate and assumed hotel. The total water consumption by the
average water use (i.e. 298m3/year) (see various areas of the hotel therefore equals
equation C). Assuming the two sets of 4,663m3/year (1,554 + 298 + 2,241 + 248 + 318
bedrooms use water at the same rate, then + 4). This compares favourably with the value
water use for the ten-bedroom wing is for total water use of 4,720m3/year calculated
149m3/year. from the first year’s bill. Managers have thus
proved that water use had been excessive in
Equation C = (20 bedrooms × 68 litres/day × the second year.
365 days/year × 0.6 occupancy rate)/1,000
Appendices
important? sites
2m3/day 1m3/day 5m3/day 1m3/day
WRAP Tracking Water Use toblowdown/
Cut Costs 69
condensate
dges 5m3/day Inputs
sludge
tankered Outputs 9m3/day
off site
domestic wastewater
Figure D5: Water balance for the hotel
Known
Mains water
Estimated
Calculated
Water 1 6 4 02 21,650m3/year
meter
1,554m3/year Restaurant/bar
Dishwasher
Toilets
Treatment
chemicals
4m3/year
Gardens
Hoses
Steam
h blocks
and 298m3/year
hrooms Old 20-bedroom complex
Showers/baths
Toilets and sinks
Sub-meter
149m3/year New 10-bedroom wing

Showers/baths
Toilets and sinks
2,241m3/year
heating/cooling tower Swimming pool
Make-up water
Sub-meter
Blowdown and
condensate to
foul sewer
Leisure facilities
Showers/baths
Toilets and sinks
248m3/year Kitchens
Dishwashers
Food preparation
Sub-meter
318m3/year
Laundry
Washing machines
Steps that the hotel could take to investigate ¡ fitting more sub-meters to obtain more
its water use include: accurate data;
¡ looking for leaks;
¡ checking the accuracy of the incoming
¡ examining water use in the swimming pool
water meter;
and leisure facilities; and
¡ turning off all water-using devices and then
¡ checking comparative occupancy rates
observing the meters and checking the
between the new and old bedroom
drains for any flow (but not the drains that
complexes.
also receive rainwater);
Appendices
important? sites
Appendix E: Producing and using site

drainage plans
Producing site drainage plans Using drainage plans to identify effluent

¡ Locate all drainage manholes and draw a sources
sketch plan of their approximate location. Obtain drainage plans for the different
¡ Identify the type of each drain, for example: drainage systems. For each drainage system:
-- foul (domestic) sewer (F);
¡ lift the manholes and draw all pipes or
-- effluent (E); channels connecting to the manhole on the
-- surface water (S); and plan. Note the number, size and direction
-- combined. of pipes (even if no flow is observed) and
number them;
¡ Record this information on your plan. Mark
(F, E, S) or colour-code the manholes for ¡ trace the pipes or channels back to
future reference. above-ground connections. These are
called drain entry points. Look for trench
¡ Identify the direction of flow. If there is no
scars on the floor or, if necessary, use
flow, pour in some water and see which
water/tracer dyes;
way it drains. If there is a flow, add a tracer
dye or an object that will float and observe ¡ at each entry point, note the pipes or
its flow. Be careful not to contaminate channels feeding into it from process
the effluent, risk pollution, break consent equipment and number them on the plan;
conditions or block the drains. and
¡¡ Identify connections to other manholes ¡ identify the process plant/equipment
(using added water or tracer dye) and draw feeding each pipe/channel (i.e. the sources
on the plan. of effluent).
Appendices
important? sites
Appendix F: Calculating water flows for

cooling towers and steam relief valves
Calculating cooling tower water consumption ¡ Tout (i.e. the temperature of process water
The following simplified approach gives leaving the cooling tower in °C);
an estimate of the water used by a cooling ¡ Tin (i.e. the temperature of process water
tower (see Figure F1). The variations and entering the cooling tower in °C);
inaccuracies in water use can be large, ¡ airflow (i.e. the flow rate of air into the
particularly between summer/winter and cooling tower). If this is not known, assume
day/night. it is equal to the flow of cool water to the
process; and
To calculate water use by a cooling tower (i.e.
¡¡ Tair (i.e. the temperature of air entering the
volume of make-up water required), you need
cooling tower in °C).
to know:
Then follow the steps in Table F1 to calculate
¡ flow (i.e. the flow rate of cool water to
water use by the cooling tower. The units for
the process). This is obtained from a flow
the flow and the airflow should be
meter or pump hours-run meter;
litres/second and kg/second respectively.
Figure F1: Cooling tower schematic
Evaporation
T in
T air
Airflow
Cooling
Process
tower
Make-up water
T out
Flow
Blowdown
Appendices
Home 1 Why is 2 A six-step D 3 Dealing with 4 Action plan 5 Further
important? sites
Steam vent stack
Table F1: Calculation of water consumption by a cooling tower
Step Calculation Symbol Units Formula
Evaporation
1 Thermal load A kW A = Flow × 4.2kJ/kg°C × (Tin - Tout)
where 4.2kJ/kg°C is the specific

heat of water.
2 Cooling load due to airflow B kW B = Airflow × 1kJ/kg°C × [(Tair - (Tin - 3))]

air
where 1kJ/kg°C is the specific
T
Airflow
heat of air.
NB B could be negative.
Cooling
3 Evaporative load C kW C=A+B tower
4 Evaporation D kg/second D= C water
Make-up
2,430kJ/kg
where 2,430kJ/kg is the latent heat of evaporation of

water at 30°C.
5 Make-up volume Vs litres/

second
Vs = D × ( 1 + ( N 1– 1 ))
where N = number of concentrations* in the tower.
Blowdown
Typical N values are:
1.5 very hard water
2 hard water
3 soft water
6 deionised water
* Relates to the extent to which solids are concentrated in the cooling tower cold well.
Calculating water release from Figure F2: Steam vent stack schematic
a steam vent
V
The following simplified approach gives an
estimate of the water lost from a steam vent
(see Figure F2).
To calculate the volume of water lost from the

steam vent you need to know:
¡ the diameter of the stack (D) in metres; and D
¡¡ the velocity of steam exiting the vent (V)

Steam vent stack
in metres/second. If this is not known,
assume a value of 3 metres/second.
Then follow the steps in Table F2 to calculate

the water loss from the vent.
Table F2: Calculation of water loss from a steam vent
Step Calculation Symbol Units Formula
1 Surface area of the stack A m2 A = 3.14 x D

2
2 Volumetric release rate R m3/second R=A×V
3 Water loss V m3/second V = R × 0.6

where 0.6kg/m3 is the density of water vapour at 100°C
and 1 atmosphere pressure.
Appendices
important? sites
Appendix G: Determining pollutant loads
The pollutant load and concentration of a

pollutant in an effluent can be calculated
using the following formulae (remember 1m3
= 1,000 litres and 1kg = 1,000,000mg):
Load (mg/day) = Concentration (mg/litre) × Flow volume (m3/day) × 1,000

Load (kg/day) = Concentration (mg/litre) × Flow volume (m3/day) × 1,000
1,000,000
= Concentration (mg/litre) × Flow volume (m3/day)
1,000
Concentration = Load (kg/day) × 1,000,000
(mg/litre) Flow (m3/day) × 1,000
= Load (kg/day) × 1,000
Flow (m3/day)
Example calculations
Rows 1 and 2 of Table G1 show an example
calculation of the load in kg/day of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in a cleaning effluent
and a boiler blowdown. The flow volume and
concentration of the dissolved solids have
been either measured or estimated.
Row 3 of Table G1 shows the calculation of the

concentration of a combined flow made up of
the two individual flows – the cleaning effluent
and boiler blowdown in rows 1 and 2. The total
volume was determined by adding together
the volumes for the individual flows, and the
total load by adding together the loads for the
individual flows. The concentration was then
calculated using the formula given above.
Table G1: Example calculation of pollutant concentration and load
Row Effluent Contaminant Flow volume Concentration Load

(m3/day) (mg/litre) (kg/day)
1 Cleaning effluent TDS 5 500 2.5
2 Boiler blowdown TDS 20 2,500 50
3 Combined flow TDS 25 2,100 52.5
Appendices
important? sites
We hope that you have found this guide helpful on your route to greater resource efficiency. Don’t forget that WRAP
is here to help you to improve resource efficiency. Visit the website at www.wrap.org.uk or contact the WRAP
Resource Efficiency Helpline on 0808 100 2040.
While we have tried to make sure this guide is accurate, we cannot accept responsibility or be held legally responsible for any loss or damage arising
out of or in connection with this information being inaccurate, incomplete or misleading. This material is copyrighted. You can copy it free of charge
as long as the material is accurate and not used in a misleading context. You must identify the source of the material and acknowledge our copyright.
You must not use material to endorse or suggest we have endorsed a commercial product or service. For more details please see our terms and
conditions on our website at www.wrap.org.uk
Waste & Resources The Old Academy Tel: 01295 819 900 Resource Efficiency Helpline:
Action Programme 21 Horse Fair Fax: 01295 819 911 0808 100 2040
Banbury, Oxon Email: info@wrap.org.uk
OX16 0AH
www.wrap.org.uk/brehub
March 2013

important? sites

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Business Resource Efficiency Guide

Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs

Our vision is a world without

1 Why is saving water important? 2 Appendix A: UK charging schemes 46

Adopting a systematic approach to water

This guide describes a six-step procedure for

The step-by-step approach to reducing water

1. Obtaining commitment and resources.

3. Drawing up a water balance.

4. Adding detail to the water balance.

5. Using the water balance to save money.

Checklists and worksheets are provided

1 Why is saving water important?

Figure 1: The true cost of water

¡ Cost of energy to heat water

¡ Cost of chemicals for water treatment

¡ Cost of wasted energy (e.g. pumping)

Hidden costs ¡ Cost of chemicals for effluent treatment

¡ Cost of raw materials/product in effluent

Hidden costs can include:

1.2.1 Added value water 1.3 What is a water balance?

UK mains supply £0.60 – £1.83/m3* A water balance is based on the simple

Softened water £1 – £2.16/m3 It is best to start by looking at your company

Figure 2: Water mass balance

Leaks to ground Effluent

Figure 3: Water inputs and outputs for an example site

Factory Factory shop

Water in the product

Evaporation Liquid Evaporation

¡¡ detect leaks. environmental issues and the importance

¡ reductions in: 1.5 How to use this guide

Figure 5: Waste hierarchy applied to water

1. Can you eliminate water use at source?

2. Can you reduce the amount of water used?

3. Can you re-use water/wastewater?

4. Can you recycle/recover water/wastewater?

In this guide, the term domestic wastewater

6. Continuous improvement. PHASE 2 – Water use survey and

Wholesale food distributor saves money

Nearly 1% of turnover saved by recycling

2 A six-step procedure for

¡ gathering existing data (e.g. annual water

For each process or area, use the checklist

Walk around your site or building. Use a

Figure 7: Example water review checklist

¡¡ How can I reduce water use?

¡¡ Could I use lower quality water?

¡¡ Can I recover and re-use water anywhere?

¡¡ Is the use authorised and legal?

¡¡ Is clean water going down the drain and,

¡¡ Is the discharge authorised and legal?

¡¡ Can the wastewater/effluent be re-used

¡¡ Would it be cost-effective to treat the

2.2.1 Gather existing data

Table 3: Useful existing data

Type of data Description

Water supply and treatment costs ¡¡ Water supply bills

Locate your water meter

As a minimum, your mains supply meter(s)

How to read your water meter

Figure 8 shows a typical water meter. The

Other ways of measuring flow are described

Figure 9 and Figure 10 present water

6. Continuous improvement. PHASE 2 – Water use survey and

2 A six-step procedure for