Structural Steel for Ships

Abstract:

Standard ASTM A 131M covers structural steel-shapes, plates, bars, and rivets
intended primarily for use in ship construction. Material under specification A 131M
is available in the following categories:

 Ordinary Strength — Grades A, B, D, DS, CS, and E with a specified

minimum yield point of 235Mpa, and
 Higher Strength — Grades AH, DH, and EH with specified minimum yield
points of either 315 MPa or 350 MPa.

Shapes and bars are normally available as Grades A, AH32, or AH36. Other grades
may be furnished by agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.

When the steel is to be welded, it is presupposed that a welding procedure suitable for
the grade of steel and intended use or service will be utilized.

Applicable Documents
 ASTM A6M Specification for General Requirements for Delivery of Rolled
Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for Structural Use
 ASTM A 370 Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products
 ASTM E 112 Method of Determining the Average Grain Size

Manufacture
The steel may be made by any of the following processes: open-hearth, basic-
oxygen, electric-furnace, vacuum arc remelt (VAR), or electroslag remelt (ESR).

Except for Grade A steel up to and including 12.5 mm in thickness, rimming-type

steels shall not be applied.

Grades AH32 and AH36 shapes through 426 lb/ft, and plates up to 12.5 mm in
thickness may be semi-killed, in which case the 0.10 % minimum silicon does not
apply.

Besides few exceptions Grades D, DS, CS, E, DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36 shall
be made using a fine grain practice. For ordinary strength grades, aluminum shall be
used to obtain grain refinement. For high strength grades, aluminum, vanadium, or
columbium (niobium) may be used for grain refinement.

Grade D material 35 mm and under in thickness, at the option of the manufacturer,

may be semi-killed and exempt from the fine austenitic grain size.

Heat Treatment
Plates in all thicknesses ordered to Grades CS and E shall be normalized. Plates
over 35 mm in thickness ordered to Grade D shall be normalized. When Grade D
steel is furnished semi-killed, it shall be normalized over 25 mm in thickness. Upon
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, control rolling of Grade D
steel may be substituted for normalizing, in which case impact tests are required for
each 25 tons [25 Mg] of material in the heat.

Plates in all thicknesses ordered to Grades EH32 and EH36 shall be normalized.
Grades AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 shall be normalized when so specified. Upon
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, control rolling of Grade DH
may be substituted for normalizing, in which case impact tests are required on each
plate.

In the case of shapes, the thicknesses referred to are those of the flange.

Metallurgical Structure
Fine grain practice for ordinary strength grades shall be met using aluminum. For
higher strength grades, aluminum, vanadium, or columbium may be used as grain
refining elements.

Grain size shall be determined on each heat by the Mc-Quaid-Ehn Method of Method
E 112. The grain size so determined shall be No. 5 or finer in 70 % of the area
examined.

As an alternative to the McQuaid-Ehn test, a fine grain practice requirement may be

met by a minimum acid-soluble aluminum content of 0.015 % or minimum total
aluminum content of 0.020 % for each heat.

For Grades DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36 the fine grain practice requirement may
also be met by the following:

 Minimum columbium (niobium) content of 0.020 % or minimum vanadium

content of 0.050 % for each heat, or
 When vanadium and aluminum are used in combination, minimum vanadium
content of 0.030 % and minimum acid-soluble aluminum content of 0.010 %
or minimum total aluminum content of 0.015%.

Mechanical Requirements
Tension Tests. Except as specified in the following paragraphs the material as
represented by the test specimens shall conform to the prescribed tensile
requirements.

Unless a specific orientation is called for on the purchase order, tension test
specimens may be taken parallel or transverse to the final direction of rolling at the
option of the steel manufacturer.

Shapes less than 645 mm2 in cross section, and bars, other than flats, less than
12.5mm in thickness or diameter need not be subjected to tension tests by the
manufacturer. For material under 8 mm in thickness or diameter, a deduction from the
percentage of elongation in 200 mm of 1.25 percentage points shall be made for each
decrease of 0.8 mm of the specified thickness or diameter below 8 mm.

Toughness Tests (material 50 mm and less in thickness). Except as permitted bellow,

Charpy V-notch tests shall be made on Grade B material over 25 mm in thickness and
on material of Grades D, E, AH32, AH36, DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36.
Toughness tests are not required: (a) on Grade D normalized material made fully
killed and having a fine austenitic grain size, (b) on Grades AH32 and AH36 when
normalized, or when 12.5 mm or less in thickness when treated with vanadium or
columbium (niobium) or 35 mm or less in thickness when treated with aluminum, and
(c) on Grades DH32 and DH36 material when normalized or when 12.5 mm or less in
thickness when treated with vanadium or columbium (niobium) or less in thickness
when treated with aluminum, and on Grades DH32 and DH36 material when
normalized.

For plate material, when required, one set of three impact specimens shall be made
from the thickest material in each 50 tons [45 Mg] of each heat of Grades B, D,
AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 steels and from each rolled product of normalized
Grades E, EH32, and EH36 steels. When heat testing is called for, a set of three
specimens shall be tested for each 50 tons [45 Mg] of the same type of product
produced on the same mill from each heat of steel. The set of impact specimens shall
be taken from different as-rolled or heat-treated pieces of the heaviest gage produced.
An as-rolled piece refers to the product rolled from a slab, billet, bloom, or directly
from an ingot.

For flats, rounds, and shapes, one set of three impact tests shall be taken from each 25
tons [25 Mg] of each heat for Grade E, EH32, or EH36 and, when required, from each
50 tons [45 Mg] of each heat of Grade B, D, AH32, AH36, DH32, or DH36 material.
Where the maximum thickness or diameter of various sections differs by 10 mm or
more, one set of impacts shall be made from both the thickest and the thinnest
material rolled regardless of the weight represented.

The specimens for plates shall be taken from a corner of the material and the
specimens from shapes shall be taken from the end of a shape at a point one-third the
distance from the outer edge of the flange or leg to the web or heel of the shape.

Specimens for bars shall be in accordance with Specification A 6M. The center
longitudinal axis of the specimens shall be located as near as practical midway
between the surface and the center of the material and the length of the notch shall be
perpendicular to the rolled surface. Unless a specific orientation is called for on the
purchase order, the longitudinal axis of the specimens may be parallel or transverse to
the final direction of rolling of the material at the option of the steel manufacturer.

Each impact test shall constitute the average value of three specimens taken from a
single test location.

After heat treatment or reheat treatment a set of three specimens shall be tested and
evaluated in the same manner as for the original material.

Toughness Tests (material over 50 mm thick). Charpy V-notch tests are required for
all grades of steel over 50 mm thick, except for Grade A that is produced killed, using
a fine grain practice and normalized. For plate material one set of three impact
specimens shall be made from the thickest material in each 50 tons [45 Mg] of each
heat of Grades A, B, D, DS, AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36, and from each rolled
product of Grades CS, E, EH32, and EH36. For flats, rounds, and shapes, one set of
three impact tests shall be taken from each 25 tons [25 Mg] of each heat for Grades
CS, E, EH32, and EH36, and from each 50 tons of each heat of Grades A, B, D, DS,
AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 material.

Rivet Steel and Rivets. For rivet steel a sulfur print requirement shall be met when
other than killed or semi-killed steel is applied, in order to confirm that its core is free
of concentrations of sulfur segregates and other nonmetallic substances. Test
specimens for rivet bars that have been cold drawn shall be normalized before testing.
Finished rivets are to be selected as sample specimens from each diameter and tested
hot and cold by bending and crushing in the following manner: the shank must stand
being doubled together cold, and the head being flattened hot to a diameter 2.5 times
the diameter of the shank, both without fracture.

Date Published: Jun-2002

AH36 steel is one of the standard high strength steels used for shipbuilding. AH36
has a 51ksi min yield, so a Grade 50 ASTM steel like A-572 for plates or A-992 for
w-beams would be equivalent

ASTM A131 / ABS AH36 / ABS DH36 /

ABS EH36
A structural grade of steel plate utilized almost exclusively in the shipbuilding and
offshore industries. This grade is defined as Higher Strength with specified minimum
yield of 51 KSI. These products are offered in various conditions; AH36 in the
control-rolled condition, DH36 in both the control-rolled and normalized condition,
EH36 in the normalized condition. These grades are also certified by the American
Bureau of Shipping (ABS).

Mechanical Properties:

Tensile:
70 to 90 ksi
Yield:
51 ksi min
Elongation:
17 min in 8” 20 min in 2”

Charpy Requirements (LCVN):

AH36:
25 ft/lbs @ 32°F
DH36:
25 ft/lbs @ -4°F
EH36:
25 ft/lbs @ -40°F
The same techincals as A131 GR. DH36 and EH36,ABS Grade DH36 and ABS
Grade EH36 are both ok for replacing of S355J2+N. Second we can suggest you
choose alloy structural steel ASTM A572Gr50 (minimum yield strength 345 MPa,
Tensile above 450 MPa).

What steel is used in shipbuilding?

For the construction of the hull of a ship, mild steel containing 0.15% to 0.23 %
carbon, and reasonably high manganese content is used. Sulphur and phosphorus
contents in the mild steel are kept to a minimum (less than 0.05%) as higher contents
of each hamper the welding properties of the steel.

Understanding Sacrificial Anodes on

Ships
Corrosion is one of the greatest enemies of the ship and its machinery. It is also the
toughest enemy to fight against, for the people working on the ship.

Iron is one substance which is used in abundance on the ship. From the main body of
the ship to the smallest equipment used in operations, iron makes its presence felt in
almost every type of equipment used onboard.

Iron is also the most corrosion-prone material when it comes in contact with air and
water. A ship is continuously in contact with water and moisture-laden winds which
makes it highly susceptible to corrosion. The outer body of the ship (mainly hull) is
continuously in contact with water, making it extremely vulnerable to corrosion.

It is for this reason sacrificial anodes are used to protect the parent material.

In this article, we will have a look at the working of sacrificial anodes on a ship.
It is to note that the sacrificial anodes which are protecting the parent material should
lie higher in the electromotive series of galvanic series of metals.

Sacrificial Anodes:

Metal strips of top-order metals in the reactivity series serve as anodes and are
installed for cathode protection. These are called as sacrificial anodes.

For example, zinc can preferably be employed to serve the purpose of a sacrificial
anode for aluminium as well as iron in the process of electrolysis.

The anode is divided into two parts namely Anode Insert and the Anode body.

Out of these two, the one which serves as an anode in the process of electrolysis is
termed an anode body, whereas the other is called as anode insert, which is used to
securely fix the anode to the parent surface by using brackets, bolts or weld.

Parent surface is the surface which is to be protected against corrosion. In general, we

can say that the part of the ship to be protected against corrosion is called parent
surface or cathode, whereas the more reactive material covering on the ship’s part
which acts as an anode is termed as a sacrificial anode.

Classification Of Anodes

Anodes are categorized on a variety of parameters.  As per the classification of anodes

on the basis of their shape there are six types:
  Flat or block-shaped
 Tear-drop anodes
 Cylindrical or semi-cylindrical
 Disc-shaped
 Bracelet anodes and Tubular anodes

According to the size of anodes, they can be of two types – small-sized anodes and
large-sized anodes.

On the basis of a material – anodes are Zinc anodes and aluminium, anodes are
preferred in the marine industry.

On the basis of anode mounting method – there are flush-mounted anodes or slender
anodes or sometimes just stand-off anodes. The different shaped anodes are applicable
to different situations.

The shape of the anode can be decided on the basis of factors such as the shape of the
equipment or part to be protected; space availability and installation ease;
accessibility of different shapes in different conditions; etc.

For example, cylindrical pipelines are protected using cylindrical or bell-shaped

anodes.

Anode Securing

The anode can be secured or fitted to the surface to be protected by three common
methods which are: by the bolt; welds or with the use of brackets or ties.

Among these three methods welding is the most efficient method which can maintain
maximum electrical continuity and remain in closest contact with the parent surface.

But bolting and bracket connection is used at places which cannot be accessed by
welding. There is also another benefit of using bolts and brackets for connection is
that they are replaceable when failing to work properly or due to any other
requirement.

How Sacrificial Anodes Work?

Sacrificial anodes work on the principle similar to electrolysis, according to which, if

an anode and a metallic strip are dipped in an electrolytic solution, anode electron will
dissolve and deposit over the metallic strip and make it a cathode.
Source: Ohiostandard/ wikimedia

In the case of a ship, seawater acts as an electrolyte and transfers the electrons from
the anode by oxidizing it over the steel plate and making a protecting layer.

If the metal is more active it will be easily oxidized and will protect the metallic
compound by making it act as cathode. The anode will corrode first sacrificing itself
for the other compound and it is thus called sacrificial anode.

Functions of Sacrificial anode:

Important functions of the sacrificial anode are as follows:

1) They are used to protect the main hull; ballast tanks and heat exchangers of a ship
from corrosion.

2) Close the bottom of the vessel, storage chests are provided to cater to storage
requirements by the sailor. In these sea chests too, sacrificial anode protection is
provided to save them from corrosion.

Electromotive series or galvanic series metals

Anode materials

Magnesium(Mg)
Aluminium(Al)
Zinc (Zn)
Chromium(Cr)
Iron(Fe)
Nickel(Ni)
It can be seen from the table that for protecting iron any material above in the series
are useful. These metals are preferred because they are easy and cheap to replace the
anodes rather than complete a large sheet of metal.

These anodes are used in various applications such as :

1) Protecting the ship’s hull.

2) Protecting the ballast tanks corrosion.

3) Protecting the heat exchangers.

4) Sea Chests

Most Commonly Used Anode Materials:

Materials arranged as per their decreasing reactivity are: Magnesium (Mg);

Aluminium (Al); Zinc (Zn); Chromium (Cr); Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni).

The materials which are at the top of this reactivity series can be used as anodes for
the materials which is at a comparatively lower level.

In most cases in the maritime industry, zinc and aluminum are used as a sacrificial
anode to protect iron or steel hull of the ship.

Frequency Of Changing Anodes

Anodes have to be changed only after they are completely decayed.  The frequency
for changing of anodes depends on the application where the anodes have been used.

In case the anodes are attached to the ship’s hull, then they are to be checked during
dry dock which takes place after 2 to 3 years. If the anodes are found completely
corroded then anodes of bigger size should be fitted, for fully corroded means that the
material used was of poor quality or a large amount of material is required to protect
the hull.

Generally, sacrificial anodes are changed at every dry dock.

If sacrificial anodes are used for heat exchangers and it is found during an inspection
that the anode left is only 10% then also it has to be changed.

How to Assess if the Anodes are Working Properly or Not?

Inspections are planned for checking the proper working of a sacrificial anode. The
important things to be noted to specify that anode is working properly or not are as
follow:

 If anode does not dissolve from the time of installation to some later time at
inspection and the parent material keeps on corroding, then this anode is
 ineffective and should be replaced with some other more reactive or efficient
anode material.
 If there is no proper electrical continuity then also anode does not work
properly. Because of this, the parent metal starts getting corroded instead of
the anodes. Then check for proper connection between electrolytic solution
and metal strips during the installation of setup.

Advantages of Sacrificial Anodes:

The main advantages of fitting sacrificial anodes to protect the ship and ship
assembly are briefed as follows:

 These sacrificial anodes work without any external power source

 Installation is not at all any problem for sacrificial anodes. They are easy to
install with the help of bolts, brackets or welds
 Inspection of these anode materials is quite easier
 They upturn the durability or service life of the ship by reducing corrosion
attacks on it.

Disadvantages of Sacrificial anodes:

There are also certain disadvantages of sacrificial anodes along with the above
advantages. The major disadvantages of Sacrificial anodes are briefed as under:

 Sometimes the material to be used as an anode is unable to work effectively

due to lack of continuous electrical conductivity. This ineffective working of
anode results in continuous corrosion of parent material.
 The current capacity increases with an increase in weight of anode, heavier
the anode higher be the current capacity and high current capacity increases
the effectiveness of electrolysis. The anode can work properly if it has an
adequate current capacity. For ensuring this we need to fix heavier sheets of
metal over the surface to be protected, which increases the overall weight of
the ship and results in many problems.

Working and installation of Sacrificial anodes should be properly ensured so as to

enhance the service life of the vessels to a certain extent. After properly inculcating
the bans and boons of these anodes, these should be installed where required as per
the pre-planned geometry and design of anodes.

If you liked this article, you may also like to read What is Marine growth preventive
system (MGPS) ?.

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any responsibility for the same. The views constitute only the opinions and do not
constitute any guidelines or recommendation on any course of action to be followed
by the reader.
The article or images cannot be reproduced, copied, shared or used in any form
without the permission of the author and Marine Insight. 

Structural Steel for Ships

Abstract:

Standard ASTM A 131M covers structural steel-shapes, plates, bars, and rivets
intended primarily for use in ship construction. Material under specification A 131M
is available in the following categories:

 Ordinary Strength — Grades A, B, D, DS, CS, and E with a specified

minimum yield point of 235Mpa, and
 Higher Strength — Grades AH, DH, and EH with specified minimum yield
points of either 315 MPa or 350 MPa.

Shapes and bars are normally available as Grades A, AH32, or AH36. Other grades
may be furnished by agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.

When the steel is to be welded, it is presupposed that a welding procedure suitable for
the grade of steel and intended use or service will be utilized.

Applicable Documents
 ASTM A6M Specification for General Requirements for Delivery of Rolled
Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet Piling, and Bars for Structural Use
 ASTM A 370 Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products
 ASTM E 112 Method of Determining the Average Grain Size

Manufacture
The steel may be made by any of the following processes: open-hearth, basic-
oxygen, electric-furnace, vacuum arc remelt (VAR), or electroslag remelt (ESR).

Except for Grade A steel up to and including 12.5 mm in thickness, rimming-type

steels shall not be applied.

Grades AH32 and AH36 shapes through 426 lb/ft, and plates up to 12.5 mm in
thickness may be semi-killed, in which case the 0.10 % minimum silicon does not
apply.

Besides few exceptions Grades D, DS, CS, E, DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36 shall
be made using a fine grain practice. For ordinary strength grades, aluminum shall be
used to obtain grain refinement. For high strength grades, aluminum, vanadium, or
columbium (niobium) may be used for grain refinement.

Grade D material 35 mm and under in thickness, at the option of the manufacturer,

may be semi-killed and exempt from the fine austenitic grain size.
Heat Treatment
Plates in all thicknesses ordered to Grades CS and E shall be normalized. Plates
over 35 mm in thickness ordered to Grade D shall be normalized. When Grade D
steel is furnished semi-killed, it shall be normalized over 25 mm in thickness. Upon
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, control rolling of Grade D
steel may be substituted for normalizing, in which case impact tests are required for
each 25 tons [25 Mg] of material in the heat.

Plates in all thicknesses ordered to Grades EH32 and EH36 shall be normalized.
Grades AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 shall be normalized when so specified. Upon
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, control rolling of Grade DH
may be substituted for normalizing, in which case impact tests are required on each
plate.

In the case of shapes, the thicknesses referred to are those of the flange.

Metallurgical Structure
Fine grain practice for ordinary strength grades shall be met using aluminum. For
higher strength grades, aluminum, vanadium, or columbium may be used as grain
refining elements.

Grain size shall be determined on each heat by the Mc-Quaid-Ehn Method of Method
E 112. The grain size so determined shall be No. 5 or finer in 70 % of the area
examined.

As an alternative to the McQuaid-Ehn test, a fine grain practice requirement may be

met by a minimum acid-soluble aluminum content of 0.015 % or minimum total
aluminum content of 0.020 % for each heat.

For Grades DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36 the fine grain practice requirement may
also be met by the following:

 Minimum columbium (niobium) content of 0.020 % or minimum vanadium

content of 0.050 % for each heat, or
 When vanadium and aluminum are used in combination, minimum vanadium
content of 0.030 % and minimum acid-soluble aluminum content of 0.010 %
or minimum total aluminum content of 0.015%.

Mechanical Requirements
Tension Tests. Except as specified in the following paragraphs the material as
represented by the test specimens shall conform to the prescribed tensile
requirements.

Unless a specific orientation is called for on the purchase order, tension test
specimens may be taken parallel or transverse to the final direction of rolling at the
option of the steel manufacturer.

Shapes less than 645 mm2 in cross section, and bars, other than flats, less than
12.5mm in thickness or diameter need not be subjected to tension tests by the
manufacturer. For material under 8 mm in thickness or diameter, a deduction from the
percentage of elongation in 200 mm of 1.25 percentage points shall be made for each
decrease of 0.8 mm of the specified thickness or diameter below 8 mm.
Toughness Tests (material 50 mm and less in thickness). Except as permitted bellow,
Charpy V-notch tests shall be made on Grade B material over 25 mm in thickness and
on material of Grades D, E, AH32, AH36, DH32, DH36, EH32, and EH36.

Toughness tests are not required: (a) on Grade D normalized material made fully
killed and having a fine austenitic grain size, (b) on Grades AH32 and AH36 when
normalized, or when 12.5 mm or less in thickness when treated with vanadium or
columbium (niobium) or 35 mm or less in thickness when treated with aluminum, and
(c) on Grades DH32 and DH36 material when normalized or when 12.5 mm or less in
thickness when treated with vanadium or columbium (niobium) or less in thickness
when treated with aluminum, and on Grades DH32 and DH36 material when
normalized.

For plate material, when required, one set of three impact specimens shall be made
from the thickest material in each 50 tons [45 Mg] of each heat of Grades B, D,
AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 steels and from each rolled product of normalized
Grades E, EH32, and EH36 steels. When heat testing is called for, a set of three
specimens shall be tested for each 50 tons [45 Mg] of the same type of product
produced on the same mill from each heat of steel. The set of impact specimens shall
be taken from different as-rolled or heat-treated pieces of the heaviest gage produced.
An as-rolled piece refers to the product rolled from a slab, billet, bloom, or directly
from an ingot.

For flats, rounds, and shapes, one set of three impact tests shall be taken from each 25
tons [25 Mg] of each heat for Grade E, EH32, or EH36 and, when required, from each
50 tons [45 Mg] of each heat of Grade B, D, AH32, AH36, DH32, or DH36 material.
Where the maximum thickness or diameter of various sections differs by 10 mm or
more, one set of impacts shall be made from both the thickest and the thinnest
material rolled regardless of the weight represented.

The specimens for plates shall be taken from a corner of the material and the
specimens from shapes shall be taken from the end of a shape at a point one-third the
distance from the outer edge of the flange or leg to the web or heel of the shape.

Specimens for bars shall be in accordance with Specification A 6M. The center
longitudinal axis of the specimens shall be located as near as practical midway
between the surface and the center of the material and the length of the notch shall be
perpendicular to the rolled surface. Unless a specific orientation is called for on the
purchase order, the longitudinal axis of the specimens may be parallel or transverse to
the final direction of rolling of the material at the option of the steel manufacturer.

Each impact test shall constitute the average value of three specimens taken from a
single test location.

After heat treatment or reheat treatment a set of three specimens shall be tested and
evaluated in the same manner as for the original material.

Toughness Tests (material over 50 mm thick). Charpy V-notch tests are required for
all grades of steel over 50 mm thick, except for Grade A that is produced killed, using
a fine grain practice and normalized. For plate material one set of three impact
specimens shall be made from the thickest material in each 50 tons [45 Mg] of each
heat of Grades A, B, D, DS, AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36, and from each rolled
product of Grades CS, E, EH32, and EH36. For flats, rounds, and shapes, one set of
three impact tests shall be taken from each 25 tons [25 Mg] of each heat for Grades
CS, E, EH32, and EH36, and from each 50 tons of each heat of Grades A, B, D, DS,
AH32, AH36, DH32, and DH36 material.

Rivet Steel and Rivets. For rivet steel a sulfur print requirement shall be met when
other than killed or semi-killed steel is applied, in order to confirm that its core is free
of concentrations of sulfur segregates and other nonmetallic substances. Test
specimens for rivet bars that have been cold drawn shall be normalized before testing.
Finished rivets are to be selected as sample specimens from each diameter and tested
hot and cold by bending and crushing in the following manner: the shank must stand
being doubled together cold, and the head being flattened hot to a diameter 2.5 times
the diameter of the shank, both without fracture.

Date Published: Jun-2002