TRADITIONAL MACHINING

Sources:
Manufacturing Engineering & Technology 5th Edition, Serope Kalpakjian,
Steven Schmid, Prentice Hall, 2006
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes and System,
Mikell P. Groover, John Wiley & Sons (Asia), 2007
CONTENTS

1. Introduction : Basic Principles of Machining

2. Chip Formation, Cutting Temperature and Cutting Fluids
3. Cutting Tools : Tool Materials and Properties, Tool Life and Wear
4. Types of Machining Processes and Part Geometry
- Basic: Turning, Milling, Drilling
- Others: Shaping, Planning, Broaching, Sawing
5. Machining Centers (CNC)
6. Machinability and Economics of Machining
 PLACE OF MACHINING OPERATION

Machining operations – capable of producing more precise dimensions and

smooth surface finishes than all other manufacturing processes. They are
performed after other processes, which create the general shape of the
parts. Machining then provides the final geometry, dimensions and finish.
 MACHINING IN THE
MANUFACTURING SEQUENCE

 Generally performed after other

basic manufacturing processes,
such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
 Other processes create the
general shape of the starting
work part
 Machining provides the final
shape, dimensions, finish, and
special geometric details that
other processes cannot
create
A forged crankshaft before and after machining the bearing surfaces.
 Classification of
Material Removal
Process
WHY MACHINING IS IMPORTANT (ADV)

 Variety of work materials can be machined

 Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometric features
possible:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
DISADVANTAGES OF MACHINING

 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted material
 At least in the unit operation

 Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes longer to shape a
given part than alternative shaping processes
1. INTRODUCTION: BASIC MACHINING

▪ A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut away
material so that the desired part geometry remains.
▪ Most common application: to shape metal parts
▪ Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip. As chip is
removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view

of the machining process,
(b) tool with negative rake
angle; compare with
positive rake angle in (a).

▪ Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high precision and accuracy
▪ Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the precision and accuracy of machining
 Major independent variables in the basic cutting process are: (a) tool material and
coatings (b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness (c) workpiece material and its
processing history (d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut (e) cutting fluids (f)
characteristics of the machine tool and (g) the type of work-holding device and fixturing.

 Dependent variables in cutting are those influenced by changes made by the

independent variables listed above. These include: (a) type of chip produced (b) force and
energy dissipated during cutting (c) temperature rise in the workpiece, tool and chip (d)
tool wear and failure (e) surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINING
OPERATIONS
 TYPES OF CUTTING

Orthogonal cutting : the cutting edge is straight and is set in a position

that is perpendicular to the direction of primary motion. This allows us
to deal with stresses and strains that act in a plane.

Oblique Cutting : the cutting edge is set at an angle (the tool cutting edge
inclination λs). This is the case of three-dimensional stress and strain
conditions.
 CUTTING CONDITIONS

Feed or feed rate, f :

The relative movement Depth of cut, d : The
of the tool in order to axial projection of the
process the entire length of the active
surface of the cutting tool edge,
workpiece, measured in measured in mm.
(mm/rev).

Cutting Speed or
Velocity, V : The
traveling velocity of the
tool relative to the
workpiece, measured in
m/s or m/min.
 2. CHIP FORMATION
serrated

•Large feed and depth •Ductile work •Ductile materials •Semicontinuous -

of cut materials •Low-to-medium saw-tooth appearance
•High tool-chip •High cutting speeds cutting speeds •Cyclical chip forms
friction •Tool-chip friction with alternating high
•Brittle work •Small feeds and causes portions of shear strain then low
materials depths chip to adhere to rake shear strain
•Low cutting speeds •Sharp cutting edge face •Associated with
•Low tool-chip •BUE forms, then difficult-to-machine
friction breaks off, cyclically metals at high cutting
speeds
Discontinuous chips are generally desired because they
• are less dangerous for the operator
• do not cause damage to workpiece surface and machine tool
• can be easily removed from the work zone
• can be easily handled and disposed after machining.

There are three principle methods to produce the favorable

discontinuous chip:
• use of chip breakers
• proper selection of cutting conditions
• change in the work material properties
 CHIP BREAKER

Chip break and chip curl may be promoted by use of a so-called chip
breaker. There are two types of chip breakers
1. external type, an inclined obstruction clamped to the tool face
2. integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or bulges
formed onto the tool face
 (a) Machining of aluminum using an insert without a chip breaker; note the
long chips that can interfere with the tool and present a safety hazard. (b)
Machining of aluminum with a chip breaker.

Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks off; (c)
continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off.
 SELECTION OF CUTTING CONDITION

Cutting velocity changes chip type as discussed. Since the cutting speed influences
to the great extend the productivity of machining and surface finish, working at
low speeds may not be desirable.
If the cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed and depth of cut is a
reasonable solution for chip control. At constant cutting speed, the so-called chip
map defines the area of desirable chip type as a function of feed and depth of cut.
CUTTING FORCES

In three-dimensional oblique
cutting, one more force
component appears along the
third axis. The thrust force FD
is further resolved into two
more components:

Ff – one in the direction of feed motion called feed force

Fp – the other perpendicular to it and to the cutting force FC called back
force which is in the direction of the cutting tool axis.
FORCE DETERMINATION
CUTTING FORCE CONTROL
The cutting speed, V does not change significantly the cutting force FC.
CONT.
Increasing the cutting speed slightly reduces the cutting force. The
dependence is more complex in the low speed range for materials, which tend to
form a built-up edge. When the built-up edge disappears at high cutting speeds,
the dependence is essentially the same as this for materials, which do not form a
built-up edge at all.

Feed, f changes significantly the cutting force. The dependence is non-linear

because of the so-called size effect at low feeds.

Depth of cut, d also changes significantly the cutting force but the dependence
now is linear.

From the above, it can be concluded that the most effective method of force
control is to change the depth of cut and feed. If for some reasons change
of the cutting conditions is not justified, machining with positive tool orthogonal
rake angles will decrease significantly the cutting force but at the same time will
increase the possibility of tool breakage.
 Cutting Temperature

 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat

 This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip interface
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip.

Typical temperature distribution in the cutting

Proportion of the heat generated in cutting
zone; note the severe temperature gradients
transferred to the tool, workpiece, and chip
within the tool and the chip, and that the
as a function of the cutting speed; note that
workpiece remains relatively cool.
the chip removes most of the heat.
 Cutting Fluids

Cutting fluid(coolant) is any liquid or gas that is applied to the chip

and/or cutting tool to improve cutting performance.

Cutting fluids serve three principle functions:

1. To remove heat in cutting: the effective cooling action of the cutting
fluid depends on the method of application, type of the cutting fluid, the
fluid flow rate and pressure. The most effective cooling is provided by mist
application combined with flooding. Application of fluids to the tool flank,
especially under pressure, ensures better cooling that typical application to
the chip but it less convenient.
2. To lubricate the chip-tool interface: cutting fluids penetrate the tool-
chip interface improving lubrication between the chip and the tool and
reducing the friction forces and temperatures.
3. To wash away chips: this action is applicable to small, discontinuous
chips only. Special devices are subsequently needed to separate chips from
cutting fluids.
 METHOD OF APPLICATION

1. Manual Application
Application of a fluid from a can manually by the
operator. It is not acceptable even in job-shop
situations except for tapping and some other
operations where cutting speeds are very low
and friction is a problem. In this case, cutting fluids
are used as lubricants.

2. Flooding
In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is directed at
the chip or tool-workpiece interface. Most
machine tools are equipped with a recirculating
system that incorporates filters for cleaning of
cutting fluids. Cutting fluids are applied to the chip
although better cooling is obtained by applying
it to the flank face under pressure.
 CONT.

3. Coolant-fed tooling
Some tools, especially drills for deep drilling are provided with axial holes through the
body of the tool so that the cutting fluid can be pumped directly to the tool cutting
edge.

4. Mist applications
Fluid droplets suspended in air provide effective cooling by evaporation of the fluid.
Mist application in general is not as effective as flooding, but can deliver cutting fluid to
inaccessible areas that cannot be reached by conventional flooding.
 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

Cutting Oils
Cutting oils are cutting fluids based on mineral or fatty oil mixtures. Chemical
additives like sulphur improve oil lubricant capabilities. Areas of application depend on
the properties of the particular oil but commonly cutting oils are used for heavy
cutting operations on tough steels.

Soluble Oils
The most common, cheap, and effective form of cutting fluids consisting of oil droplets
suspended in water in a typical ratio water to oil 30:1. Emulsifying agents are also
added to promote stability of emulsion. For heavy-duty work, extreme pressure additives
are used. Oil emulsions are typically used for aluminum and copper alloys.

Chemical fluids
These cutting fluids consists of chemical diluted in water. They possess good flushing
and cooling abilities. Tend to form more stable emulsions but may have harmful effects to
the skin.
 3. Cutting Tool

 Tool failure modes identify the important properties that a cutting-tool

material should possess:
 Toughness and impact strength (mechanical shock resistance) - to
avoid tool chip or fracture failure
 Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high temperatures and
ensures tool does not undergo any plastic deformation, retain its shape and
sharpness.
 Wear resistance - hardness is the most important property to resist
abrasive wear
 Thermal shock resistance – to withstand the rapid temperature cycling
 Chemical stability and inertness with respect to workpiece material, to
avoid or minimize adverse reactions, adhesion, and tool-chip diffusion that
would contribute to wear.
 Hot Hardness

Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials. Plain

carbon steel shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature
increases. High speed steel is substantially better, while
cemented carbides and ceramics are significantly harder at
elevated temperatures.
CUTTING-TOOL MATERIALS (THESE MATERIALS
HAVE A WIDE RANGE OF COMPOSITIONS AND
PROPERTIES; OVERLAPPING CHARACTERISTICS
EXIST IN MANY CATEGORIES OF TOOL
MATERIALS)
TABLE 22.3 GENERAL OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING-TOOL
MATERIALS
 FIGURE 22.9 RANGES OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR VARIOUS GROUPS OF TOOL MATERIALS. HIP =
HOT ISOSTATICALLY PRESSED. (SEE ALSO TABLES 22.1–22.5.)

Ranges of mechanical properties for various groups of tool materials

 Methods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping and
(b) wing lockpins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted with
threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws.
Source: Courtesy of Valenite
Typical cutting-tool inserts with various shapes and chip-
breaker features; round inserts also are available, the holes
in the inserts are standardized for interchangeability in
toolholders. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal Inc.

Cubic boron nitride inserts. Inserts with polycrystalline cubic

Cubic boron nitride inserts. An insert of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top row), and solid-polycrystalline cBN inserts
boron nitride or a diamond layer on tungsten carbide. (bottom row).
 Tool life and wear

The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means,

although they fall broadly into two main categories:
1. gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the
cutting tool, and
2. abrupt tool failure.

When the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount, there are two
options,
1. to resharpen the tool on a tool grinder, or
2. to replace the tool with a new one. This second possibility
applies in two cases, (i) when the resource for tool
resharpening is exhausted. or (ii) the tool does not allow
for resharpening, e.g. in case of the indexable carbide
inserts.
 WEAR ZONES

Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a cutting tool.

Accordingly, three main types of tool wear can be distinguished,
1. crater wear
2. flank wear
3. corner wear
 CONT.

Crater wear : consists of a concave section on the tool face

formed by the action of the chip sliding on the surface. Crater wear
affects the mechanics of the process increasing the actual rake
angle of the cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At
the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and
increases the possibility for tool breakage. In general, crater wear
is of a relatively small concern.

Flank wear : occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between

the machined surface of the workpiece and the tool flank. Flank wear
appears in the form of so-called wear land and is measured by the
width of this wear land, VB, Flank wear affects to the great
extend the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces increase
significantly with flank wear. If the amount of flank wear exceeds
some critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive cutting force
may cause tool failure.
CONT.

Corner wear : occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the
wear land and respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished boundary
between the corner wear and flank wear land. We consider corner wear as a
separate wear type because of its importance for the precision of
machining. Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool thus increasing
gradually the dimension of machined surface and introducing a significant
dimensional error in machining, which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05 mm.
TOOL LIFE

Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool
wear increases gradually. But tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a
certain limit in order to avoid tool failure. The most important wear
type from the process point of view is the flank wear, therefore the
parameter which has to be controlled is the width of flank wear land, VB.
This parameter must not exceed an initially set safe limit, which is about 0.4
mm for carbide cutting tools. The safe limit is referred to as allowable wear
land (wear criterion), VBk. The cutting time required for the cutting tool to
develop a flank wear land of width VBk is called tool life, T, a fundamental
parameter in machining.
CONT.
Parameters which affect the rate of tool wear are
• cutting conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth of cut d)
• cutting tool geometry (tool orthogonal rake angle)
• properties of work material
 CONT.

If the tool life values for the three wear curves are plotted on the
natural log-log graph of cutting speed versus tool life as shown
in the figure on the previous slide, the resulting relationship is straight
line expressed in equation form called the Taylor tool life equation:

VT = C n

Where n and C are constants, whose values depend on cutting

conditions, work and tool material properties, and tool geometry.
These constants are well tabulated and easily available.

An expanded version of Taylor equation can be formulated to

include the effect of feed, depth of cut, and even work material
properties.
 4. TYPES OF MACHINING OPERATIONS

1. Turning and Related Operations

2. Drilling and Related Operations
3. Milling and Related Operations
4. Other Machining Operations- Shaping and Planing , Broaching, Sawing
5. High Speed Machining
 TURNING
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a cylinder
 Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
 Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
 Facing
 Contour turning
 Chamfering
 Cutoff
 Threading
TURNING AND RELATED OPERATIONS
Close-up view of a turning
operation on steel using a
titanium nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo courtesy
of Kennametal Inc.)

Part is rotated while it is being machined

Miscellaneous operations
that can be performed
on a lathe; note that all
parts are circular.
FIGURE 23.2 GENERAL VIEW OF A TYPICAL LATHE, SHOWING VARIOUS COMPONENTS.
SOURCE: COURTESY OF SOUTH BEND LATHE CO.

General view of a typical lathe, showing various components.

Source: Courtesy of South Bend Lathe Co.
GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR
TURNING OPERATIONS
TABLE 23.3 SUMMARY OF TURNING
PARAMETERS AND FORMULAS
 METHODS OF HOLDING THE WORK IN A
LATHE

a) Holding the work between centers

b) Chuck
c) Collet
d) Face plate
 Multiple Spindle Bar Machine

(a) Part produced on a six-spindle automatic bar machine; and

(b) sequence of operations to produce the part: (1) feed stock
to stop, (2) turn main diameter, (3) form second diameter and
spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and (6) cutoff.
 BORING

 Difference between boring and turning:

 Boring is performed on the inside
diameter of an existing hole
 Turning is performed on the outside
diameter of an existing cylinder
 In effect, boring is internal turning operation
 Boring machines
 Horizontal or vertical - refers to the
orientation of the axis of rotation of
machine spindle A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.
DRILLING
 Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side

Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

MACHINING OPERATIONS RELATED TO
DRILLING
a) Reaming - Used to slightly enlarge a hole,
provide better tolerance on diameter, and
improve surface finish
b) Tapping - Used to provide internal screw
threads on an existing hole. Tool called a tap
c) Counterboring - Provides a stepped hole, in
which a larger diameter follows smaller
diameter partially into the hole
d) Countersinking - operation is similar to
counterboring, except that the step in the hole
is cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
e) Centering - operation also called center
drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to
establish its location for subsequent drilling
accurately. The tool is known as a center drill.
f) Spot facing operation is similar to milling. This
operation is used to provide a flat machined
surface on the workpart in a localized area.
GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR
DRILLING OPERATIONS
FIGURE 23.25 (a) Schematic illustration of a vertical drill press. (b) A radial drilling machine.
Source: (b) Courtesy of Willis Machinery and Tools.

Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Seventh Edition Copyright ©2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Serope Kalpakjian | Steven R. Schmid All rights reserved.
FIGURE 23.26 A three-axis computer numerical-control drilling machine; the turret holds as many as eight
different tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.

Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Seventh Edition Copyright ©2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Serope Kalpakjian | Steven R. Schmid All rights reserved.
WORK HOLDING FOR DRILL PRESSES

 Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of the following:

 Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws
 Fixture - workholding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular workpart
 Drill jig – similar to fixture but also provides a means of
guiding the tool during drilling
 MILLING AND RELATED OPERATIONS

 Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with

multiple cutting edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
 Creates a planar surface
 Other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape
 Other factors and terms:
 Interrupted cutting operation
 Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth"
 Machine tool called a milling machine
 Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral/plain milling, and (b) face

MILLING
milling.

a) Peripheral milling or plain milling

Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter

b) Face milling
Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter
VARIATIONS OF PERIPHERAL MILLING

Several types of peripheral milling are;

(a) slab milling, the basic form of peripheral
milling in which the cutter width extends
beyond the work piece on both sides; (b)
slotting, also called slot milling, in which
the width of the cutter is less than the work
piece width, creating a slot in the work when
the cutter is very thin, this operation can be
used to mill narrow slots or cut a work part in
two, called saw milling; (c) side milling, in
which the cutter machines the side of the work
piece; (d) straddle milling, the same as side
milling, only cutting takes place on both sides
of the work; and (e) form milling, in which
the milling teeth have a special profile that
determines the shape of the slot that is cut in
the work. Form milling is therefore classified as
a forming operation.
VARIATIONS OF FACE MILLING

Several types of face milling are;

(a) conventional face milling, in
which the diameter of the cutter is
greater than the work part width, so the
cutter overhangs the work on both sides;
(b) partial face milling, where the
cutter overhangs the work on only one
side; (c) end milling, in which the cutter
diameter is less than the work width, so a
slot is cut into the part; (d) profile
milling, a form of end milling in which
the outside periphery of a flat part is cut;
(e) pocket milling, another form of end
milling used to mill shallow pockets into
flat parts; and (f) surface contouring,
in which a ball-nose cutter (rather than
square-end cutter) is fed back and forth
across the work along a curvilinear path
at close intervals to create a three
dimensional surface form.
FIGURE
THE CUTTING
24.3 THE
ACTION
CUTTING
OF A MILLING
ACTION OF
CUTTER
A MILLING
USINGCUTTER
A NUMBER
USING
OFAINSERTS
NUMBERTO
OFREMOVE
INSERTSMETAL.
TO REMOVE METAL.
SOURCE:
SOURCE:COURTESY
COURTESYOFOF
SANDVIK
SANDVIKCOROMANT.
COROMANT.
 (a) horizontal knee-
and-column milling
machine.

(b) vertical knee-and-column

milling machine
GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR
MILLING OPERATIONS
SHAPING AND PLANING
 Similar operations
 A straight, flat surface is created in both operations.
 Interrupted cutting
 Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
 Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
 Both use a single point cutting tool moved linearly relative to the workpart
 Shaper

Shaping
• Machining by shaping is basically
the same as by planing, except
that

(a) it is the tool and not the

workpiece that travels, and
(b) workpieces are smaller,
typically less than 1m×2m of
surface area. In a horizontal
shaper, the cutting tool travels
back and forth along a straight
path. Components of a shaper.
 Planer

Planing
• A relatively simple machining
operation by which flat surfaces,
as well as cross-sections with
grooves and notches, are
produced along the length of the
workpiece.

• The efficiency of the operation

can be improved by equipping
planers with tool holders and
tools that cut in both directions
of table travel.
Open side planer.
 BROACHING

 Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly relative to work in

direction of tool axis

Advantages:
 Good surface finish
 Close tolerances
 Variety of work shapes possible
Cutting tool called a broach
 Owing to complicated and often
custom-shaped geometry, tooling
is expensive
(A) TYPICAL PARTS MADE BY INTERNAL BROACHING. (B) PARTS MADE BY SURFACE BROACHING. (C) A SPLINE BROACH
AND INTERNAL SPLINE USED FOR A SHAFT COUPLING. (D) VERTICAL BROACHING MACHINE.
SOURCE: (A) AND (B) COURTESY OF GENERAL BROACH COMPANY, (C) COURTESY OF THE BROACHMASTERS, INC., AND
(D) COURTESY OF TY MILES, INC.
SAWING

 Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a series of

narrowly spaced teeth
 Tool called a saw blade
 Typical functions:
 Separate a workpart into two pieces
 Cut off unwanted portions of part
 (a) power hacksaw –linear
reciprocating motion of hacksaw
blade against work.

(b) bandsaw
(vertical) – linear
continuous motion of
bandsaw blade,
which is in the form
of an endless flexible
loop with teeth on
one edge.

(c) circular saw – rotating saw

blade provides continuous
motion of tool past workpart.
TABLE 23.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MACHINING PROCESSES AND TYPICAL
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
HIGH SPEED MACHINING (HSM)

Cutting at speeds significantly higher than those used in

conventional machining operations
 Persistent trend throughout history of machining is higher
and higher cutting speeds
 At present there is a renewed interest in HSM due to
potential for faster production rates, shorter lead times, and
reduced costs
OTHER HSM DEFINITIONS
 Emphasis on:
 Higher production rates
 Shorter lead times
 Rather than functions of spindle speed
 Important non-cutting factors:
 Rapid traverse speeds

 Automatic tool changes

REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH SPEED
MACHINING
 Special bearings designed for high rpm
 High feed rate capability (e.g., 50 m/min)
 CNC motion controls with “look-ahead” features to avoid
“undershooting” or “overshooting” tool path
 Balanced cutting tools, toolholders, and spindles to
minimize vibration
 Coolant delivery systems that provide higher pressures
than conventional machining
 Chip control and removal systems to cope with much
larger metal removal rates
HIGH SPEED MACHINING
APPLICATIONS
 Aircraft industry, machining of large airframe components
from large aluminum blocks
 Much metal removal, mostly by milling
 Multiple machining operations on aluminum to produce
automotive, computer, and medical components
 Quick tool changes and tool path control important
 Die and mold industry
 Fabricating complex geometries from hard materials
5. MACHINING CENTERS

 An advanced computer-controlled machine tool that is capable of

performing a variety of machining operations, on different surfaces and
orientations of a workpiece , without having to remove it form its
work holding device or fixture.
 In transfer lines or traditional shops and factories, the workpiece is
brought to the machine, but in machining centers it is the machining
operations that is brought to the workpiece.
 Typical operations are milling, turning and drilling
 Three, four, or five axes
 Other features:
 Automatic tool-changing
 Automatic workpart positioning
Examples of parts that can be machined on machining centers using various processes such as
turning, facing, milling, drilling, boring, reaming, and threading; such parts ordinarily would require the
use of a variety of machine tools to complete. (A) forged motorcycle wheel, finish machined to
tolerance and subsequently polished and coated. (B) detailed view of an engine block, showing
complex cavities, threaded holes, and planar surfaces.
Source: (A) Courtesy Of R.C. Components; (B) Courtesy Of Donovan Engineering, Programming By N. Woodruff,
And Photography By E. Dellis, Powersports Photography.
Schematic illustration of the principle of a five-axis machining center. Note that, in addition to possessing
three linear movements (three axes), the pallet or module, which supports the workpiece, can be swiveled
around two axes (hence a total of five axes), allowing the machining of complex shapes.
Source: Courtesy Of Toyoda Machinery.
 COMPONENTS OF A MACHINING CENTER
A horizontal-spindle machining center equipped with an automatic tool changer; tool magazines can store up to
200 cutting tools of various functions and sizes. Source: Courtesy Of Cincinnati Milacron.
(For more details please read Kaplkajian Chapter 25 Pages 705)
(a) Schematic illustration of the top view of a horizontal-spindle machining center showing the pallet pool,
setup station for a pallet, pallet carrier, and an active pallet in operation (shown directly below the spindle of
the machine). (b) schematic illustration of two machining centers with a common pallet pool. (c) A pallet pool
for a horizontal-spindle machining center; various other pallet arrangements are possible in such systems.
Source: (a) and (b) Courtesy Of Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.; (c) Courtesy Of Haas Automation, Inc.
TOOL-EXCHANGE ARM - Swing-around tool changer on a horizontal-spindle machining center. (A) the tool-
exchange arm is placing a toolholder with a cutting tool into the machine spindle; note the axial and rotational
movement of the arm. (B) the arm is returning to its home position; note its rotation along a vertical axis
after placing the tool and the two degrees of freedom in its home position.
Touch probes used in machining centers for determining workpiece and tool positions and surfaces relative
to the machine table or column and also can do online inspection of parts being machined.
Touch probe determining (a) the X−Y (horizontal) position of a workpiece; (b) the height of a horizontal
surface; (c) the planar position of the surface of a cutter (e.G., For cutter–diameter compensation); and (d)
the length of a tool FOR TOOL-LENGTH OFFSET.
A vertical-spindle machining center; the tool changer is on the left of the machine, and has a 40 tool
magazine. Source: courtesy of haas automation, inc.
A computer numerical-controlled turning center. The two spindle heads and two turret heads make the machine very
flexible in its machining capabilities; up to three turret heads are commercially available.
Source: Courtesy Of Mori Seiki co., Ltd.
This is another category of horizontal spindle machines, and basically are computer controlled lathes with several
features. The turrets can be powered to allow for drilling or milling operations within the CNC turning center, and without
the need to refixture the workpiece. This such machines are often referred to as CNC Mill-turn Centers.
 MILL-TURN CENTERS

Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning, milling, and drilling
operations
 General configuration of a turning center
 Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified angle so a rotating cutting tool
(e.g., milling cutter) can machine features into outside surface of part
 Conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined angular position
and does not include rotating tool spindles
 Operation of Mill-Turn Center

Figure 22.28 Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part

with turned, milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b) sequence of
operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter, (2)
mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole
with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff.
 6. Machinability and Economics of
Machining

6. MACHINABILITY AND ECONOMICS OF

MACHINING
MACHINABILITY CRITERIA IN
PRODUCTION
Machinability of a material is usually defined in term of four
factors:
 Tool life – longer tool life for the given work material means
better machinability
 Forces and power requirements – lower forces and power
mean better machinability
 Surface finish and surface integrity of the machined part –
better finish means better machinability
 The level of difficulty in chip control after it is generated –
easier chip disposal means better machinability
MACHINABILITY TESTING
Most tests involve comparison of work materials (compositions, properties and
microstructure)

 Performance of a test material is measured

relative to a base material
 Relative performance is expressed as a
machinability rating (MR)
 MR of base material = 1.00 (100%)
 MR of test material > 1.00 (100%) means better
machinability
ECONOMICS OF MACHINING
OPERATIONS

 The economics of machining operations depends on factors

such as nonproductive costs, machining costs, tool-change
costs, and tool costs.
 The relevant parameters in machining can be selected and
specified in such a manner that the machining cost per piece,
as well as machining time per piece is minimized.
Graphs showing (a) cost per piece and (b) time per piece in machining; note the optimum speeds for both cost and time.
The range between the two is known as the high-efficiency machining range.
Note that small changes in cutting speed can have a significant effect on the minimum cost or time per piece. It should
be noted also that the cost of machining a part also increases rapidly with finer surface finish.
PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDELINES
 Design parts that need no machining
 Use net shape processes such as precision casting, closed
die forging, or plastic molding
 If not possible, then minimize amount of machining required
 Use near net shape processes such as impression die
forging
 Reasons why machining may be required:
 Close tolerances
 Good surface finish
 Special geometric features such as threads, precision
holes, cylindrical sections with high degree of roundness
PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDELINES

 Tolerances should be specified to satisfy functional

requirements, but process capabilities should also be
considered
 Very close tolerances add cost but may not add value to
part
 As tolerances become tighter, costs generally increase
due to additional processing, fixturing, inspection,
sortation, rework, and scrap
PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDELINES
 Surface finish should be specified to meet functional and/or
aesthetic requirements
 However, better surface finish generally increases
processing cost by requiring additional operations such
as grinding

 Machined features such as sharp corners, edges, and points

should be avoided
 They are difficult to machine
 Sharp internal corners require pointed cutting tools that
tend to break during machining
 Sharp corners and edges tend to create burrs and are
dangerous to handle
PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDELINES

 Select materials with good machinability

 As a rough guide, allowable cutting speed and production
rate correlates with machinability rating of a material
 Thus, parts made of materials with low machinability take
longer and cost more to produce
PRODUCT DESIGN GUIDELINES

 Machined parts should be designed with features that can be

achieved with standard cutting tools
 Avoid unusual hole sizes, threads, and features requiring
special form tools
 Design parts so that number of individual cutting tools
needed is minimized