Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Topic 3
Metal Forming
&
Shaping Processes
Process Design 1
Consideration Rolling
7 2
Sheet-metal 6 3 Forging
Drawing & Pressing
5 4
3 2
Extrusion Forging
2. Sheet metalworking
M
ng pr iscel
wi oc lan
es
d ra se eou
p s s
e
De
1
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
1. Recovery
• During recovery, which occurs at high
temperature range below
recrystallization temperature of the
metal, the stresses in the highly
deformed regions are relieved.
1
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain
Growth (2)
2. Recrystallization
It is the process in which new equiaxed and
3. Grain Growth
When increase temperature of metal continuously,
Advantages
Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold
forming
Disadvantages
Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the
workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
Shorter tool life
1
Warm
Working
Advantages
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
Disadvantages
Workpiece must be heated
1
Cold
Working
Advantages
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in
product
No heating of work required
Disadvantages
Higher forces and power required in the deformation operation
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked
1
Lubrication in Metal Forming
• Benefits:
a) Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
b) Better surface finish
c) Removes heat from the tooling
1 Selecting Manufacturing Process
7
a) volume of production
b) quality & properties of product expected e.g. surface finish, accuracy,
etc.
c) technical viability (practicality of the process)
d) economy (cost & time)
2
Rolling Process
2
Overview
• Definition & Terminology
• Various Rolling Processes
• Flat Rolling Process
• Shape Rolling
• Rolling Mills
• Thread Rolling
• Ring
• Defects in rolled plates and sheets
• Consideration in Design Specifications
2
Definition
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the
cross-section of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied
through a set of rolls.
Types of Rolling
• Based on workpiece geometry :
• Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross
section
• Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape
such as an I‑beam
(a) Leveling rolls to flatten rolled sheets (b) Roller levelling to straighten drawn bars
2
Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured
cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
• Products include:
• Construction shapes such as
I‑beams, L‑beams, and U‑channels
• Rails for railroad tracks
• Round and square bars and rods
2
Rolling Mills
• Equipment is massive and expensive
• Rolling mill configurations:
a) Two-high rolling mills: b) Three-high rolling mills: work c) Four-high rolling mills:
two opposing rolls passes through rolls in both backing rolls support
directions smaller work rolls
Thread Rolling
Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.
Important for mass producing bolts and screws & performed by cold working in
thread rolling machines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p3DDcRllAbI
2
Ring Rolling
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and
(2) completion of process.
Deformation process in which a thick‑walled ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a thin‑walled
ring of larger diameter
Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes,
pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening through cold working
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDyWyDP3cvs
2
Defects in rolled plates and sheets
(d) alligatoring.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7 Residual stresses
Because of non-uniform deformation of the material in the roll gap,
residual stresses can develop in rolled plates and sheets, especially
during cold rolling.
(a) shows residual stresses developed in rolling with small-diameter rolls or at small
reductions in thickness per pass.
(b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with large-diameter rolls or at high reductions-
per-pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns.
2
Considerations on Design Specifications
7
Dimensional Tolerances
Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets usually range from 0.1 to
0.35 mm, depending on the thickness.
Flatness tolerances are usually within 15 mm/m for cold rolling and 55
mm/m for hot rolling.
Surface Roughness
Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish, hence products made of
cold-rolled sheets may not require additional finishing operations,
depending on the application.
Note also that hot rolling and sand casting produce the same range of
surface roughness.
3 Forging
3
Overview
• Introduction
• Classification of Forging Operations
• Types of Forging Dies
a) Open-die forging
b) Impression-die forging
c) Closed-die forging
• Forging Defects
• Process Design Considerations
3 Introduction
Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies
Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic form of large
parts that are subsequently machined to final shape and size
Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive
forces applied through various dies and tooling.
1 Open‑die forging
Impression‑die
Work is compressed
between two flat dies,
2 forging
allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum
constraint
Die contains cavity or 3 Flashless forging
impression that is
imparted to workpart
1. With No Friction
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous
deformation occurs
2. With Friction
Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work,
resulting in barreling effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTU0Z-FkhtU
3 Impression-Die Forging
• Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap
between die plates
• Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each
step
• Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
• Final steps bring the part to final geometry
• Advantages :
• Higher production rates
• Less waste of metal
• Greater strength
• Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
• Not capable of close tolerances
• Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed
3 Closed-die/flashless Forging
Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does not
allow for flash
Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within very
close tolerance
The use of open-die forgings should be considered if only small quantities (around
25) are to the produced.
• Introduction
• Direct Extrusion
• Indirect Extrusion
• Advantages
• Design considerations
4 Introduction
Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross‑sectional shape
This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extrudate
by cutting it just beyond the die exit
As in all other hot-working operations, hot extrusion has special requirements because of
the high operating temperatures.
Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film unless it is heated in an inert
atmosphere furnace.
In order to avoid the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded product, the dummy
block placed ahead of the ram is made a little smaller in diameter than the container.
As a result, a thin shell (skull) consisting mainly of the outer oxidized layer of the billet is
left in the container.
2. Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for subsequent machining
or finishing operations.
3. Improved surface finish, due partly to lack of an oxide film and provided that
lubrication is effective.
4. Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other methods of
producing the same part, such as machining. Some machines are capable of producing
more than 2000 parts per hour.
4
Advantages of Extrusion
Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.
Pipe
The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw surface oxides
and impurities toward the center of the billet—much like a funnel. This
defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing.
Internal Cracking
The center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called center
cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking.
4
Extrusion Defects
(a) shows the Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products
are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later cause failure of the part in
service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes.
(b) shows schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward
chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can
be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing the reduction in cross section
(or both).
4
Design Considerations: Extrusion Die Features
7
• Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at die‑billet
interface
• Higher friction results in larger ram force
• Introduction
• Drawing process
• Drawing equipment
• Drawing practice
• Bar drawing
• Wire drawing
• Lubrication
• Die material
• Die design
• Defects
5 Introduction
• In drawing, the cross-section of a long rod or wire typically is reduced or
changed by pulling (hence the term drawing) it through a die called a
draw die.
• Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is
pushed through in extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a
significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening
• The major processing variables in drawing are similar to those in
extrusion— that is, reduction in cross-sectional area, die angle, friction
along the die-workpiece interfaces, and drawing speed.
The die angle, the reduction in cross-sectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the
temperature, and the lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
5 Drawing Process
Figure shows the examples of tube-drawing operations, with and
without an internal mandrel.
5 Drawing Process
Usually, the smaller the initial cross-section, the smaller the reduction
per pass.
Wedge-shaped dies are used for the drawing of flat strips and are
used only in specific applications.
• The tension in this setup provides the force required for drawing the
wire, usually through multiple dies (tandem drawing).
• Products:
• Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping
carts
• Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
• Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes
• Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through upstream
die
• Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
• Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work hardening
Diamond dies used in drawing thin wire are encased in a similar manner.
5
Die Design
7 A set of dies is required for profile drawing, which involves various
stages of deformation to produce the final profile.
Rods and tubes that are not sufficiently straight (or are supplied as coil) can
be straightened by passing them through an arrangement of rolls placed at
different axes—a process similar to roller leveling.
6
• Low-carbon steel is the most commonly used sheet metal because of its
low cost and generally good strength and formability characteristics.
metal-forming processes
involved in manufacturing
a two-piece aluminum
beverage can.
6
Drawing Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
1. Cutting
• Shearing to separate large sheets
• Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
• Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
• Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
• Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
6
Principle of Sheet Metal Cutting
Shearing of sheet metal between two
cutting edges:
(1) just before the punch contacts work;
(2) punch begins to push into work,
causing plastic deformation;
(a) shows effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation
zone in shearing.
(b) shows micro-hardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020
hot-rolled steel in the sheared region.
As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die
rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range
between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet.
6
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
7 • Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting edge
Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges
Shearing operation: (a) side view of the shearing operation; (b) front view
of power shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
6
Blanking & Punching
(a) Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a
blank) from surrounding stock
• After each step in a station, the part is transferred to the next station for
further operations.
• Nearly the same as progressive dies, the part has to be free from the
strip to allow operations to be performed in a free state
6 Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting
Sheet Metal
Laser-beam cutting is an important process typically used with computer-
controlled equipment to cut a variety of shapes consistently, in
various thicknesses, and without the use of any dies.
Friction sawing involves a disk or blade which rubs against the sheet or
plate at high surface speeds.
The bend allowance, is the length of the neutral axis in the bend and
is used to determine the length of the blank for a part to be bent.
6
Minimum Bend Radius
7 • The radius at which a crack first appears at the outer fibers of a sheet
being bent is referred to as the minimum bend radius.
Guerin Stretch
Ironing Embossing Process forming
Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after. Symbols v and F indicate motion and
applied force respectively.
6
Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve shape change
Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is pressed into the work with force
Fdie, causing it to be stretched and bent over the form. F = stretching force.
6
Roll Bending
Large metal sheets and plates are formed into curved
sections using rolls
6
Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls produce long
sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock
Tube spinning is used to produce Shear spinning: (1) setup at start of process; (2)
cylinder shapes and shear spinning is during spinning; and (3) completion of
used to produce cone or contoured process.
shapes.
6 High‑Energy‑Rate Forming (HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts of energy over a very short
time
Explosive forming: (1) setup, (2) explosive is detonated, Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in
and (3) shock wave forms part and plume escapes which coil is inserted into tubular workpart
water surface. surrounded by die; (2) formed part.
Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) Sheet metal is deformed by
metal into a die cavity mechanical force of an
electromagnetic field induced in
Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose the workpart by an energized coil
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
Presently the most widely used
Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
HERF process
industry
Applications: tubular parts
6
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
• Economical mass production for large quantities
THANK YOU