Metal Forming

Metal-forming processes
Fundamentals of metal-forming
Metal-forming: The group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal work pieces is called metal-
forming. The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that exceed yield strength
of metal. The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of the die.
The deformation of metals, which is achieved by the displacement of the atoms is
achieved by one or more of the processes called slip and twinning.
The flow of metal can be seen under microscope after polishing and suitable
etching of the metal surface; these visible lines are called ‘fibre flow lines’. The
grains elongate in the direction of flow and hence it is possible to control these
flow lines in any specific direction by carefully manipulating the applied forces;
that way the mechanical properties of the metal can be manipulated.
Stresses in Metal Forming:
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive.
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
-stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
-others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
-shearing ( shear stresses)
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Material Properties in Metal Forming:
Desirable material properties:
- Low yield strength and high ductility.
These properties are affected by temperature:
- Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised.
Other factors:
- Strain rate and friction.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming :
Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature.
There are TWO main temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working Hot working
Cold working:
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations.
- Minimum or no machining usually required.
- These operations are near net shape or net shape processes.
Example- Rolling, forging, extrusion, blanking etc..
Hot working:
Deformation at temperatures above re-crystallization temperature.
Re-crystallization temperature is defined by the American Society of Metals as:
„the approximate minimum temperature at which complete re-
crystallization of a cold-worked metal occurs within a specified time’.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming cont. :
In practice, Re-crystallization temperature usually varies in between one-third
(0.3Tm) to one-half (0.5Tm) of melting point of the metal on absolute scale.
Minimum Re-crystallization temperature (ReT) for various materials
Material ReT, 0C Material ReT, 0C
Lead Below Room T (RT) Iron 450
Tin Below RT Nickel 600
Cadmium RT Titanium 650
Zinc RT Beryllium 700
Manganese 150 Molybdenum 900
Aluminium 150 Tantalum 1000
Copper 200 Tungsten 1200
In hot working, the process may be carried above the ReT with or without
heating; for lead and tin, ReT is below RT, so working at RT is hot working,
whereas, for steel, ReT is ~ 10000C, so working just below it is cold working.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Temperature in Metal Forming cont. :
ReT depends on the amount of cold-work a material has already received; the
higher the cold-work, the lower would be the ReT. Besides, other variables also
affect ReT.
Variables affecting Re-crystallization temperature (ReT)

Variables Effect on ReT

Solute concentration on solid solution
Presence of second phase
Original grain size before cold working
Rate of plastic deformation
Temperature of cold working
Generally increases ReT; depends upon effect
on melting temperature
Second-phase particles decrease ReT
Decreasing grain size decreases ReT
Increasing rate decreases ReT
Decreasing T of cold-working decreases ReT

In hot working, the Temperature at which the working is completed is

important since any extra heat left after working will aid in the grain growth,
thus giving poor mechanical properties. If the hot working is completed just
above the re-crystallization temperature then the grain size will be fine.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Advantages of hot working:
(1) Work part shape can be significantly altered since at higher temperature
the material is ductile. Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
(2) Lower forces and power required since shear stress gets reduced at
higher temperature.
(3) Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed.
(4) A very favorable grain size control is possible resulting in better mechani-
-cal properties. Strength properties of product are generally isotropic.
(5) No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening - Advantageous in
cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold forming.
Disadvantages of hot working:
(1) Lower dimensional accuracy due to thermal expansion at high T.
(2) Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the work
piece). Also handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult.
(3) Work surface oxidation (scale formation), poorer surface finish. Also
possibility of decarburization of skin in steels due to high T.
(4) Shorter tool life because of high temperature operation.
(5) Some metals can not be hot worked because of their brittleness at high T.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Advantages of cold working:
(1) Better accuracy, closer tolerances can be achieved.
(2) Better surface finish is achieved.
(3) Strain hardening increases strength and hardness which is beneficial in
specific cases.
(4) Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional
properties in product.
(5) No heating of work required; thus (i) no scale formation, (ii) no
decarburization, (iii) economical for smaller sizes.
Disadvantages of cold working:
(1) Higher forces and power required, thus, amount of working is limited.
(2) Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and dirt.
(3) Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming:
- In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation,
- In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold worked.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Properties obtained by hot rolling and cold rolling in C10 steel

Properties Hot rolled Cold rolled

Ultimate tensile strength, MPa 427 558
Yield strength, MPa 220.5 345
Brinell Hardness Number 94 174

The wastege of material in metal-working processes is either negligible

or very small, and the production rate is in general very high.
These two factors give rise to favorable economy in production.
 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Bulk Deformation Processes: (a) rolling
(b) forging

(c) extrusion (d) drawing

 Metal-forming processes cont.
Fundamentals of metal-forming cont.
Sheet Metalworking: Forming and related operations performed on metal
sheets, strips, and coils:
- High surface area : volume ratio of starting metal, which distinguishes
these from bulk deformation.
Often called press working because presses perform these operations:
- Parts are called stampings. - Usual tooling: punch and die.

(a) bending (b) drawing (c) shearing

 Rolling
•The process of plastically deforming metal by
passing it between the rolls is known as rolling.
•The work is subjected to high compressive
stresses from squeezing action of rolls.
•The frictional force between metal and rolls is
responsible for drawing the metal into the rolls.
Classification of Rolling Process
i) Hot Rolling
ii) Cold Rolling
iii) Powder Rolling
 Rolling cont.
Hot Rolling:
- Hot working: above the re-crystallization temperature
- It is employed where large reduction in cross-sectional area is
required.
- Used for bars, rods, rails etc.
Cold Rolling:
- Cold working: below the re-crystallization temperature
- Employed for finishing the metal to given specification of sizes and
surface quality.
- Produces sheets, strips and foils with good surface finish and
increased mechanical strength.
Powder Rolling:
- Metal powder is introduced between the rolls and turned into a
“green strip” which is subsequently sintered to high density.
- This produces a tough sheet with very fine grain size or minimum
of preferred orientation.
 Rolling cont.
Rolling mills:
• A rolling mill consists basically of rolls, bearings, a housing for
containing these parts, and a drive for applying power to the
rolls and controlling there speeds.
• Rolling mills can be conventionally classified with respect to the
number and arrangement of the rolls.
Classification of rolling mills:
i) Two-high mills
ii) Two-high reversing mills
iii) Three-high mills
iv) Four-high mills
v) Cluster mills
vi) Continuous mills
vii) Planetary mills
Principle
• Angle of bite – reduction
• Roll velocity is const,
• Metal vel changes throughout
• At Neutral plane:
metal vel = roll vel
• For metal vel, Vf>Vi
• Volume of Metal is always
constant.
• Why does reduction take place?
 Roll Pressure Distribution
• Pressure on rolls increases from entry to neutral plane,
where it is the highest, and then decreases till it exits.
• Roll separating force = Av. roll pressure x contact length
• Av roll pressure is proportional to contact length
• Contact length is proportional to roll diameter
• So to decrease roll separating force the roll diameter can be
reduced, i.e. small diameter rolls used for large reductions
and cold working (where pressure is high)
• Back up rolls may be added to improve rigidity when small
roll diameters are used.
 Rolling cont.
Classification of rolling mills cont.:
 Rolling cont.
Continuous rolling:

• Use a series of rolling mill and each set is called a stand.

• The strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage in the mill.
• The speed of each set of rolls is synchronized so that the input speed of each
stand is equal to the output speed of preceding stand.
• The uncoiler and windup reel not only feed the stock into the rolls and coiling
up the final product but also provide back tension and front tension to the
strip.
Rolling cont.

Ring rolling:
 Rolling cont.

Hot rolled coil produced on strip mill

Plate rolling
 Rolling cont.
Rolled products:
The steel coming out of the blast furnace or a melting shop is in the
form of an ingot, a cross section of 600 x 600 mm. These ingots are
further processed in rolling mills to produce the intermediate shapes
such as blooms, slabs, and billets.
i) Bloom: Bloom are generally square cross sections of 150 x 150 mm
to 400 x 400 mm.
ii) Slab: Slabs are rectangular cross-section with 500 – 1800 mm width
and 50 – 300 mm thickness.
iii) Billet: Billets are square cross-section with sizes varying from 40
x 40 mm to 150 x 150 mm.
iv) Plate: It has thickness greater than 6 mm.
v) Sheet and Strip: Generally have thickness lesser than 6 mm.
vi) Foil: Thickness is very small just as 0.05 mm.

Billets and other unfinished rolling products are further rolled

to I-sections, T- sections, Angles, Channels, Girders etc.
 Rolling cont.
Rolling process:

• In the process of rolling the billet is fed from one side

into the rolls and reduces in thickness according to the
section and gap between the rolls.
• The reduction ratios have maximum allowable values
for different metals beyond which reduction is not
practicable in a single process.
• Rolling sets in series may be employed.
** There are fundamentally two types of rolls:
i) Supporting rolls
ii) Driving rolls
** the rolls must be rigid or the rolled material will have a
loop like shape.
 Rolling cont.
Roll bite condition cont.:

For Cold Rolling

 Rolling cont.
Effect of rolling on microstructure:

Before After
 Rolling cont.
Problems and defects in rolled products:
Defects from cast ingot before rolling
Defects other than cracks can result from defects introduced during
the ingot stage of production.
Porosity, cavity, blow hole occurred in the cast ingot will be closed
up during the rolling process.
Longitudinal stringers of non-metallic inclusions or pearlite are
related to melting and solidification practices. In severe cases, these
defects can lead to laminations which drastically reduce the strength
in the thickness direction.
There are two aspects to the problem of the shape of a
sheet.
1) Uniform thickness over the width and thickness – can be
precisely controlled with modern gage control system.
2) Flatness – difficult to measure accurately.
 Forging
Forging operations
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to
manipulate the metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained.
This is the oldest metal-working process being practiced since the copper age.
Forging is generally hot-working operation though cold-forging may be
practiced.
Two types of forging operations are used in forging in order to arrive at the
final object configuration. They are:
Drawing out: In this operation the metal gets elongated with a reduction in the
cross-sectional area. For this purpose, the force is to be applied in direction,
perpendicular to the length axis.
Upsetting: In this operation the cross-sectional area is increased at the expense
of the length. To achieve this, the force is applied in a direction parallel to the
length axis.
 Forging cont.
Why forging is necessary?
Because of the manipulative ability in forging process, it is possible to closely
control the grain flow in the specific direction, such that the best mechanical
properties can be obtained base on specific application.

Grain Structure Comparison

Fig : A part made by three different procedures, showing grain flow (a)
casting (b) machining (c) forging
 Forging cont.
Grain Structure Comparison
 Forging cont.
Typical forging operations a,b - To shape the ends of the bars to
gather metals.

c- Fullering is used to reduce the

cross –sectional area of a portion of
the stock.

d- the reduction in cross section of the

work with concurrent increase in
length is called drawing.

e. If the drawing-down operation is

carried out with a concave dies so as
to produce a bar of smaller diameter
is called swaging

Forging operations: (a, b) edging,

(c) fullering, (d) drawing, (e) swaging,
(f) piercing, (g) punching
 Forging cont.
Forging defects
Though the forging process generally gives superior quality products compared to
other manufacturing processes, still some defects may come up if proper care is not
taken. Some such defects are:
(a) Unfilled sections: some portions not filled due to either improper design
or faulty forging
(b) Cold shut: small cracks at the corner of the forging; due to improper
design – the corner and fillet radii are small. Thus metal does not flow
and ends up as cold shut.
(c) Scale pits: Irregular depressions on the surface of the forging; due to
improper cleaning of the stock and the forging. Usually scales on the
stock remain and after pickling of the forging depressions remain.
(d) Die shift: Improper shape due to misalignment of the two dies.
(e) Flakes: Internal ruptures due to improper cooling of heavy forgings;
exterior cooed first causing internal cracks
(f) Improper grain flow: This is caused due to improper design of the die.

Internal Cracks
Forging cont.
Extrusion
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle
Extrusion: Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and
then allowing it to flow from only one opening so that the metal takes the shape of
the opening.
The equipment consists of:
(1) A container that hold the billet
(2) A die and a die-holder
(3) A plunger or ram which will compress
(4) A dummy block – a steel disc of about
40 mm (0.50 to 0.75 of diameter) thickness,
with a diameter slightly less than the
container, is kept between the hot billet and
the ram to protect it from heat and pressure.
Advantages:
(1) Components having a constant cross-section of any length can be made.
(2) Complexities of parts obtained in extrusion is more than that of rolling.
(3) It is because the die in extrusion is simple and easy to make.
(4) Extrusion is a single pass unlike rolling.
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
Advantages cont.:
(5) The amount of reduction possible in extrusion is large.
(6) Brittle materials can also be easily extruded.
(7) It is possible to produce sharp corners and re-entrant angles.
(8) It is also possible to get shapes with internal cavities by using spider dies.
(9) Large diameter and thin-walled tubular products with excellent
concentricity and tolerance characteristics can also be produced.
(10) Grain structure and strength enhancement is possible.
(11) Very low material wastage.

Typical extrusion shapes

 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
The flow of metal in the extrusion process is towards the die opening and
subsequently along with the extruded material.
The extrusion ratio is defined as the ratio of (cross-sectional area of the billet) /
(cross-sectional area of the extruded section). The typical values of extrusion ratio
are 20 to 50. Low extrusion ratios are used for intermediate operations when the
billets are extruded to a give diameter before the final extrusion.

Typical flow of metal in

extrusion process
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion principle cont.
The extrusion pressure for a given material depends on the extrusion temperature,
the reduction in area and the extrusion speed.
Typical extrusion T: 500 to 12000C Typical Pressure: 35 to 1000 MPa
Extrusion speed depends on the work material:
Some of the light alloys: 0.05 m/s Copper alloys: up to 4.50 m/s
Too high extrusion speed may cause excessive heat generation in the extruded
material generating lateral cracks.
Typical extrusion pressures

Materials Pressure, MPs Materials Pressure, MPs

Soft lead 275 – 420 Hard copper alloys Up to 850
Copper-bearing leads 300 – 500 Silicon bronze 950
Tin-bearing alloys 420 – 620 Al-base alloys 70 – 700
Tin-base alloys 275 – 700 Mg-base alloys 35 – 350
Soft copper alloys About 200 Zinc-base alloys 700 - 850
 Extrusion cont.
Hot extrusion processes
Forward (Direct) hot Extrusion: Flow of material in forward direction (same as
the ram motion). Friction between billet and cylindrical wall is the problem
specifically with steel where the T is high. To reduce this, lubricants are used. At
low T, a mixture of oil and graphite can be used; they too get into problem at high
T. Hence, at high T, molten glass is used which remain molten and besides
providing lubrication, also provides necessary heat insulation to the hot billet.

To reduce damage to the wall, extrusion is completed quickly and the

cylinder is cooled before further extrusion.
 Extrusion cont.
Hot extrusion processes cont.
Backward (Indirect) hot Extrusion: Flow of material in backward direction
(through the die in the plunger or ram). Billet is static, hence no friction between
billet and wall, extrusion pressure is not affected by the length of billet, surface
quality is also good since no heat cracking due to friction. The disadvantages are:
the surface defects of the billet end up in the final product.

The process is not extensively used since handling of the extruded

material coming through the moving ram is difficult.
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes
Forward (Direct) Cold Extrusion: The forward cold extrusion is similar to that
of the forward hot extrusion except for the fact that the extrusion ratios possible
are lower and extrusion pressures are higher than that for the hot extrusion. It is
normally used for simple shapes requiring better surface finish and to improve
mechanical properties.

Material Extrusion Pressure, MPa

Pure Al 600 to 1100

Soft brass 450 to 800

Soft copper 400 to 1100

C10 steel 800 to 2500

C20 steel 900 to 3100

Examples: cans, various aluminum brackets, shock-absorber cylinders,

rocket motors and heads etc.
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes cont.
Impact Extrusion: The backward cold extrusion, also called Impact extrusion, is
much more common for softer materials such as aluminum and its alloys. The
work (slug) is placed in the die and the punch gives an impact such that the metal
is extruded through the gap between the die and the punch. The height of the side
walls is controlled by the amount of metal in the work (slug).

This process is more commonly used for making collapsible tubes for
housing pastes, liquids and similar articles.
 Extrusion cont.
Cold extrusion processes cont.
Cold Extrusion Forging: Cold extrusion forging is similar to impact extrusion
with difference that the side walls are much thicker and their height is smaller.
The punch slowly descends over the slug kept on the die, thus forging some metal
between the punch and the die and the rest being extruded through the clearance
between the punch and the die side walls. Afterwards, the component is ejected by
means of the ejector pin provided in the die.

The backward cold extrusion

processes are different from
other extrusion processes in
that each stroke of the punch
prepares a directly usable
single component which may
not necessarily have a
uniform cross-section over its
length. Further, it is used for
smaller size work of non-
ferrous metals.
 Extrusion cont.
Extruding tubes
Hollow objects such as tubes and other shapes can also be obtained by forward
hot extrusion. First, the solid ram moves through the heated metal billet creating
a hole in the centre; later, the hollow ram moves the metal billet through the die.
 Extrusion cont.
Extruding tubes cont.
Another way of obtaining hollow shapes is by using a spider extruding die. The
spider die is essentially an extrusion die with a stub mandrel, for the hollow
portion to be generated. It is held to the die by means of thin ribs simulating the
spider legs.
 Extrusion cont.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
In this process, the metal billet is compressed from all sides by a liquid rather
than a ram. Thus, (a) lubrication is eliminated, (b) uniform pressing from all sides
(highly brittle metals can be extruded), pressure range: 1110 to 3150 MPs.

Fluids used: Castor oil with 10% alcohol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, glycerin,
ethyl glycol, iso-pentane. Applications: reactor fuel rods, cladding of metals,
making wires of less ductile metals.
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion defects

a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile stress at the centre

possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low extrusion speed and
high strain rates.
 Extrusion cont.
Extrusion defects cont.
b) Schematic illustration of rigid and
Chevron cracking (central burst) in
extruded round steel bars. Unless
the products are inspected, such
internal defects may remain
undetected, and later cause failure of
the part in service. This defect can
also develop in the drawing of rod,
of wire, and of tubes.
plastic zones in extrusion. The
tendency toward chevron cracking
increases if the two plastic zones do
not meet. Note that the plastic zone
can be made larger either by
decreasing the die angel or by
increasing the reduction in cross-
section (or both).
 Drawing
Wire drawing
A wire by definition, is circular with small diameters so that it is flexible. A
process of wire drawing is to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through a
die. Wire drawing is always a cold-working process.
The equipment for wire-drawing consists of a die of conical shape. The end of the
rod/wire to be drawn is made into a point shape and is inserted through the die
opening which is then gripped by the gripper at the other end and is pulled
through the die. The wire is then coiled.
The stock material needs preparation like annealing since it has to be ductile for
being pulled by tensile force. Since no pushing force is applied, the front end of
the feed rod is made pointed by means of rotary swaging or by simple
hammering.

Approach angle about 6 to 20

Back relief angle about 30
 Drawing cont.
Wire drawing cont.
The other aspect of preparation needed is the cleaning of the wire and lubricating
it as it flows through the die. Cleaning means to remove the scale/rust formed on
the surface, otherwise, it will severely affect the die. It is done by acid pickling.
Lubrication is a serious problem because the pressure acting at the interface of the
die and the metal is very high. Therefore, special methods of lubrication is done:
(a) Sulling: a thin coat of ferrous hydroxide is
provided, which when combined with lime
acts as afiller for the lubricant.
(b) Phosphating: a thin film of Mn-, iron-, Zn-
phosphate is applied on the wire; thus, the
lubricant sticks to the wire reducing friction
and drawing load.
(c) Coppering: for very thin wires, electrolytic
coating of copper is used to reduce friction.
(d) Liming: a lime coat is given which neutralizes
remnant acid after pickling and also helps
the lubricant to be adsorbed.
The lubricant normally used is soap solution.
 Drawing cont.
Wire drawing cont.
The dies used for wire drawing are severely affected because of high stresses and
abrasion. The various dies used are:
(a) Chilled cast iron: used for small runs. (b) Diamond: used for very fine wires.
(c) Tool Steels: alloy steels are used for making dies for very large scales.
(d) Tungsten carbide: most commonly used for medium-size wires and large
production.
Tungsten dies are preferred because of their long life; 2 to 3 times that of alloy
steel dies.
 Drawing cont.
Wire drawing cont.
Some of the commercially available tungsten carbide dies
Pellet dia, Pellet height, Bearing dia, Entrance bell Entrance Drawing
D, mm H, mm d, mm dia, d1, mm Radius, R, mm angle, 0
8 - 30 6 - 24 0.2 – 9.0 5 - 26 4 - 14 8 - 18
 Drawing cont.
Wire drawing cont.
Wire drawing improves mechanical properties due of cold working. The material
loses ductility, thus, for repeated drawing, intermediate annealing is needed.
The drawing machines can be arranged in tandem so that the wire coming from
one die is coiled up to a sufficient length before it re-enters into the next die. Thus,
the speed of wire drawing in a die can be adjusted easily. Since there is no change
in volume, successive drawing have to be done at higher speed.
 Drawing cont.
s pd
s pd
σ
σ
Stresses and drawing pressure
ε
ε
variation in deformation zone.
Drawing
die angle α
Drawing die
(deformation2zone)
3

1
Ao Af
Af

ε= Effective strain variation

Stress and strain ln(Ao/Af)
in deformation zone.
development in wire
and rod drawing process