BIL 322: WRITTEN ENGLISH COURSE 2: WRITING AND STYLE

LESSON SIX: ACADEMIC WRITING

Introduction
Most international students need to write essays and reports for exams and coursework. Yet writing
good academic English is one of the most demanding tasks students face. This new edition of
Academic Writing has been fully revised to help students reach this goal. Clearly organised, the
course explains the writing process from start to finish. Each stage is demonstrated and practised,
from selecting suitable sources, reading, note making and planning through to re-writing and
proof-reading.

Academic writing reveals what the writer believes and is supported by the evidence that has
contributed to that thinking. It is not a story, description, or summary. Most university writing
assignments involve taking a stand on an issue. The purpose would be not only to inform and
explain, but also to persuade the reader to respect your position.

i. Tone
The tone used in Academic Writing may be different from your earlier experiences with writing.
Academic Writing is never written in the first person unless specified. Unless we are responding
to a question about our summer vacation, we do not use the first person, "I.”

We also do not use the second person, approaching the reader as if we are writing a letter or having
a conversation. That means do not use the following words: you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves,
and don’t (or any other command).

Remember that writing is more formal than conversation: Avoid slang, jargon, and conventional
terms (basically, things, etc.).

ii. Characteristics of an Academic Essay

 It is an argument. It makes a point and supports it.
 The point (“claim” or “thesis”) is debatable and open to interpretation. It is not obvious.
The thesis is declarative and works best at the end of the introductory paragraph.
 There is a clear introduction, body, and conclusion.
  The body of the paper is divided by clear supporting points. Each body paragraph begins
with a topic sentence that states the main point of the paragraph. Assertions may be made
without support.
 The primary source for support is from the text or other sources. Quotations are required
when quoting from the text or other sources.
 When sources are used, an Academic Essay must be formatted in APA Style.
 A final draft should be edited carefully for grammatical correctness.

iii. The Purpose of Academic Writing

Students should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons for writing include:
 Report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
 Answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
 Discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view
 Synthesise research done by others on a topic

iv. Common Types of Academic Writing

Type of Writing Description

Notes A piece of research, either individual or group
work, with the topic chosen by the student(s).
Report The longest piece of writing normally done by
a student (20,000+ words) often for a higher
degree, on a topic chosen by the student.
Project A written record of the main points of a text or
lecture, for a student’s personal use.
Essay A general term for any academic essay, report,
presentation or article.
Dissertation/Thesis A description of something a student has done
e.g. conducting a survey.
Paper The most common type of written work, with
the title given by the teacher, normally 1000 -
5000 words.
v. The Format of Long and Short Writing Tasks
a. Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern:
 Introduction
 Main body
 Conclusion

b. Longer essays may include:

 Introduction
 Main body
 Literature review
 Case study
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 References/bibliography
 Appendices

c. Dissertations and Journal Articles May Have:

 Dedication
 Acknowledgements
 Abstract
 List of contents
 List of tables
 Introduction
 Main body
 Literature review
 Case study
 Findings
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 References
 Appendices/bibliography
NB: There is considerable variation in the format of academic writing required by different
universities, faculties and departments. Your teachers may give you guidelines, or you should ask
them what they want. But the general formats above apply to most institutions.

vi. Some other common text features

 Reference to sources using citation: Example- According to Tamura et al. (2009)
 The use of abbreviations to save space: Systemic Functional Grammar (SFL)
 Italics: Used to show words from other languages: Stibbe (2015) considers this oppression
of the natural environmental
 Brackets: Used to give subsidiary information or to clarify a point. e.g. … but others (short-
chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya beans.
 Use the Passive Voice: e.g. Data was collected….
 Write in paragraphs
 Formal vocabulary
 Impersonal style
 Long and complex sentences

vii. Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

a. Academic Texts: You need to read a variety of text types for your course, so it is important
to identify suitable types and recognise their features. This will help you to assess their
value.
Types of Text
 Textbook
 Website
 Journal article
 Official report
 (e.g. from government)
 Newspaper or
 Magazine article
 E-book
viii. Reading: Developing Critical Approaches
Students are expected to adopt a critical approach to sources, which requires a full understanding
of written texts.
 Reading Methods:

It is easy for students to underestimate the importance of reading skills. Especially for international
students, reading academic texts in the quantity required for most courses is a demanding task. But
students will not benefit from attending lectures and seminars unless the reading is done promptly,
while clearly most writing tasks require extensive reading.

Moreover, the texts often contain new vocabulary and phrases, and may be written in a rather
formal style. This means that distinct methods have to be adopted to cope with the volume of
reading required, which is especially important when you are reading in another language. Clearly,
you do not have time to read every word published on the topic you are studying. The chart below
illustrates an approach to finding and dealing with texts.

 Reading Abstracts
They are normally found in peer-reviewed journal articles, where they act as a kind of summary
to enable researchers to decide if it is worth reading the full article. As a student you will not
normally have to write abstracts, but it is important to be able to read them effectively.
 Assessing Internet Sources Critically
You cannot afford to waste time on texts that are unreliable or out-of date. If you are using material
that is not on the reading list you must assess it critically to ensure that the material is trustworthy.
Internet sources are plentiful and conveniently available, but you need to ask several questions
about each site:
- Is this a reputable website, for example with ac. (= academic) in the URL?
- Is the name of the author given, and is he/she well-known in the field?
- Is the language of the text in a suitable academic style?
- Are there any obvious errors in the text, e.g. spelling mistakes, which suggest a careless
approach?
ix. Critical Thinking
Even when you feel that a text is reliable and that you can safely use it as a source, it is still
important to adopt a critical attitude towards it. This approach is perhaps easiest to learn when
reading, but is important for all other academic work (i.e. listening, discussing and writing).
Critical thinking means not just passively accepting what you hear or read, but instead actively
questioning and assessing it. As you read you should ask yourself the following questions:
 What are the key ideas in this?
 Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step?
 Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better?
 Does the author have any bias?
 Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense?
 Is this argument similar to anything else I have read?
 Do I agree with the writer’s views?

x. Avoiding Plagiarism
Basically plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without giving credit
(acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an academic
crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as private property belonging to the person
who first thought or wrote them. Therefore, it is important for all students, including international
ones, to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their work. The main
difficulty that students face is that they are expected to:
 Show that they have read the principal experts on a subject- by giving citations
 Explain these ideas in their own words and come to their own original conclusions

There are several reasons why students must avoid plagiarism:

 Copying the work of others will not help you develop your own understanding
 To show that you understand the rules of the academic community
 Plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software
 It may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college.

xi. Acknowledging Sources

If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done this
by providing the correct acknowledgement. There are two ways to do this:
- Summary and Citation: Smith (2009) claims that the modern state wields power in new
ways.
 - Quotation and Citation: According to Wagner and Payne (2017: 43) terms the warming
climate “anthropogenic climate change”. These in-text citations are linked to a list of
references at the end of the main text, which includes the following details:
Author Date Title Place of Publication Publisher
Stibbe, Arrian. (2015) Ecolinguistic Stories We Live New York: Routledge
By.

xii. Finding Key Points and Note-making

When preparing to write an essay you have to search for information and ideas relevant to your
subject. Therefore, the key points that you select must relate to that topic. There are two techniqes
involved in note-making- paraphrasing and summarising.

a. Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly different from the
original source, without changing the meaning. Effective paraphrasing is a key academic skill
needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism: it demonstrates your understanding of a source. This unit
focuses on techniques for paraphrasing as part of the note-making and summarising process.

Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while summarising
aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant
information. For example, the following sentence:

 “There has been much debate about the reasons for the industrial revolution happening in
eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany.”

could be paraphrased as follows:

 Why the industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on
the ontinent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.

Effectively paraphrased sentences usually:

- Has a different structure to the original
- Has mainly different vocabulary
- Retains the same meaning
 - Keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use e.g. “industrial revolution”
or “eighteenth century”.

Techniques for paraphrasing

 Changing vocabulary by using synonyms: argues, claims, contends
NB: Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since some have no true synonym, e.g.
demand, economy, energy.
 Changing word class: explanation (n.) - explain (v.) / mechanical (adj.) - mechanise (v.) /
profitable (adj.) - profitability (n.)
 Changing word order:
… the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by
studying demand factors.
Reconstructed as:
A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution.

b. Summarising
Making oral summaries is a common activity, for example when describing a film or a book. In
academic writing it is a vital skill, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources into a concise
form. Like most skills it becomes easier with practice, and this unit explains the basic steps needed
to achieve an accurate summary.

Summarising is a flexible tool. You can use it to give a one-sentence synopsis of an article, or to
provide much more detail, depending on your writing needs. But in every case the same basic
steps/stages need to be followed in order to meet the criteria are presented below.
 Write the summary from your notes, re-organising the structure if needed.
 Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.
 Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary.
 Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.
 Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or lost.

xiii. References and Quotations

Academic writing depends on the research and ideas of others, so it is vital to show which sources
you have used in your work, in an acceptable manner. This unit explains:
 - The format of in-text citation
- The main reference systems
- The use of quotations
- The layout of lists of references.

a) Importance of References
 To show that you have read some of the authorities on the subject, which will give added
weight to your writing.
 To allow the reader to find the source, if he/ she wishes to examine the topic in more detail.
 To avoid plagiarism.

b) Citations and References

It is important to refer correctly to the work of other writers that you have used. You may present
these sources as either a summary/ paraphrase or as a quotation. In each case a citation is included
to provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper:

 Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle is irrational, as despite
their high cost most are never driven off-road. Smith (ibid: 37) explains that “they are bad
for road safety, the environment and road congestion”.
 References
Smith, M. (2009). Power and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

c) Reference Verbs
Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb:
- Smith (2009) argues that ….
- Janovic (1972) claimed/postulated that ….

These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense. Normally the use of the present tense
suggests that the source is recent and still valid, while the past indicates that the source is older
and may be out-of-date, but there are no hard-and-fast distinctions. In some disciplines an old
source may still have validity.
d) Reference Systems
There are two main systems of referencing (also known as stylesheets) in use in the academic
world: The American Psychology Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA).
You should ask your teachers if you are not sure of which to use. With any system, the most
important point is to be consistent. These stylesheets are unique to studies in the humanities, social
sciences and pure sciences. Nonetheless, university faculties and departments have faculty
stylesheets that, possibly, are modifications of one of the systems above.

xiv) Abbreviations in Academic Writing

Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary English, widely used for
convenience and space-saving. Students need to be familiar with general and academic
abbreviations.

a. Types of abbreviation
Abbreviations take the form of shortened words, acronyms or other
abbreviations, as shown below.
 Shortened Words: These are often used without the writer being aware of the original form.
‘Bus’ comes from ‘omnibus’, which is hardly used in modern English. However,
‘refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal ‘fridge’. ‘Public house’ is
now very formal (‘pub’ is acceptable), but ‘television’ or ‘TV’ should be used instead of
the idiomatic ‘telly’.
 Acronyms: They are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase. They are pronounced
as words. Some common acronyms in English include:
AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
UNESCO = United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
ECOWAS = Economic Community of Central African States
WHO = World Health Organisation etc.
 Other Abbreviations/Initials: They are read as sets of individual letters. They include
names of countries, organisations, companies, tools or computer prigrammes. Note that in
many cases abbreviations are widely used without most users knowing what the individual
letters stand for. e.g.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
UNO = United Nations Organisation
 UK = United Kingdom
NATO = North Atlantic Treaty organisation
SLA = Second Language Acquisition
EFL = English as Foreign Language
USA = United States of America
BBC = British Broadcasting Corporation
PTO = Please Turn over etc.
 Duplicate Abbreviations: Abbreviations can be confusing. PC, for example, may stand for
‘personal computer’ but also ‘politically correct’ or ‘Police Constable’. It is useful to be
aware of these potential confusions. A good dictionary should be used to understand more
unusual abbreviations.

a) Abbreviations in [Academic] Writing: Certain abbreviations are found in all types of academic
writing. They include:
anon. anonymous (no author)
asap as soon as possible
cf. = compare
ed. = editor/ edition
e.g. = for example
et al. = and others (used for giving names of multiple authors)
Fig. = figure (for labelling charts and graphs)
ibid. = in the same place (to refer to source mentioned immediately before)
i.e. = that is
K = thousand
NB. = take careful note
nd. = no date (i.e. an undated source)
op. cit. = in the source mentioned previously
p.a. = yearly (per annum)
p(p). = page(s)
PS = postscript
re. = with reference to
b) Abbreviations in Citations: In-text citations use the following abbreviations, derived from Latin
and printed in italics:
 … et al.: Normally used when there are three or more authors. The full list of names is
given in the reference list. e.g. According to Hobolt et al. (2006: 137), many Americans
fail to vote because ….
 … ibid.: Taken from the same source (i.e. the same page) as the previous citation. e.g.
Lakoff (ibid) believes that CMT is gaining more grounds in cognitive linguistics ….
 … op. cit.: Taken from the same source as previously, but a different page. e.g. Charteris-
Black (op.cit.) refers to metonymy as an instance of semantic transfer ….

xv. Organising Paragraphs

Well-structured paragraphs help the reader understand the topic more easily by dividing up the
argument into convenient sections. This unit looks at the:
 Components of paragraphs
 Way the components are linked together
 Linkage between paragraphs in the overall text.

xvi. Introductions and Conclusions

An effective introduction explains the purpose and scope of the paper to the reader. The
conclusion should provide a clear answer to any question asked in the title, as well as
summarizing the main points. In coursework both introductions and conclusions are normally
written after the main body.

a) Introduction Contents
Introductions are usually no more than about 10 per cent of the total length of the assignment.
Therefore, in a 2,000 word essay the introduction would be about 200 words. There is no standard
pattern for an introduction, since much depends on the type of research you are conducting and
the length of your work, but a common framework is:
 A definition of any unfamiliar terms in the title.
 Your opinions on the subject of the essay.
 Mention of some sources you have read on the topic.
 A provocative idea or question to interest the reader.
  Your aim or purpose in writing.
 The method you adopt to answer the question (or an outline).
 Some brief background to the topic.

b) Conclusions
Conclusions tend to be shorter and more diverse than introductions. Some articles may have a
‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’. But student papers should generally have a final section that
summarises the arguments and makes it clear to the reader that the original question has been
answered.

See notes on paragraph writing.

xvii. Re-Writing and Proof-reading

In exams, you may have no time for re-writing, but for coursework assignments it is important to take
time to revise your work to improve its clarity and logical development. In both situations proof-reading
is essential to avoid the small errors that may make parts of your work inaccurate or even
incomprehensible.
a) Re-writing
Although it is tempting to think that the first draft of an essay is adequate, it is almost certain that
it can be improved. After completing your first draft you should leave it for a day and then re-read
it, asking the following questions:
 Does this fully answer the question(s) in the title?
 Do the different sections of the paper have the right weight, i.e. is it well balanced?
 Does the argument or discussion develop clearly and logically?
 Have I forgotten any important points that would support the development?

b) Proof-reading
Proof-reading means checking your work for major and minor errors that may make it more
difficult for the reader to understand exactly what you want to say. It is not difficult to understand,
but if there are multiple errors, even though they are all quite minor, the cumulative effect is very
confusing. Clearly, you should aim to make your meaning as clear as possible.

Note that computer spell-checks do not always help you, since they may ignore a word that is spelt
correctly but that is not the word you meant to use. e.g. affect-effect, stationery-stationary, species-
specie, advice-advise etc.
LESSON SEVEN: WRITING A SUMMARY

Whether you have to write a summary or précis for an exam or whether you need to summarise a
report for convenience, it is essential that you first thoroughly understand the meaning of the
passage. Jot down the main points – using your own words. It is then a good idea to put away the
original material and write the piece in your own words.

Sometimes you might be asked to summarise a piece using a certain number of words. Often the
length required is a third of the original passage. Make sure you are within a word or two of the
number required. Summarising is an excellent way of training yourself to write concisely. There
is no room for any unnecessary words. Adjectives and adverbs should be deleted. So should any
examples or illustrations. Save those for use in a longer report. The final summary should be a
competent piece of prose in your own words. It should read well.

Checking Your Summary

 Make sure you understand the passage you are to summarise.
 Select the relevant points.
 Always write the summary in your own words.
 Write in clear, concise prose.
 Avoid unnecessary detail and examples.
 Keep to the correct number of words if told to do so.

Application Exercise
Following the rules/techniques outlined above, summarise the text below in 100 words.

Napoleon and Josephine were married at a civil ceremony on 9 March 1796 after the bridegroom
had kept his bride waiting for two hours. Josephine, who was thirty-two, was older than Napoleon
and as her birth certificate was in Martinique, she conveniently took four years off her age. The
bridegroom gallantly added a year to his so on the marriage certificate they both appeared as
twenty-eight. No relations on either side were present and the Bonapartes, bitterly opposed to the
marriage, pursued a vendetta against Josephine that lasted almost to the end of her life. Napoleon
soon found that he could not dominate his new wife as he could his soldiers. On their wedding
night, she refused to let him remove her little dog, Fortune, from her bed where he always slept.
Later her husband ruefully wrote, ‘I was told that I had the choice of sleeping in another bed or
sharing that one with Fortune.’ The dog made his mark in history by biting the General in the leg!
The honeymoon was brief as two days after the wedding Napoleon left his new wife in Paris while
he took up his post as Commander-in-Chief of the Army of Italy. From there he sent passionate
love letters to her and she wrote back to him though not as frequently.
(Approximately 219 words)
LESSON EIGHT: WRITING A REPORT

A report, like a summary, should be concise, but examples and illustrations may be necessary in
order to clarify points in the main body of the report. Unlike an essay, a report needs headings for
each section and sometimes it is useful to include a brief summary of the whole report after the
title page. It is important to plan the report before you start to write it. Note down all the points
you hope to include and then reorganise them into a logical order.

i. Preparing the Title Page

The letterhead of the institution should be at the top. The title page should contain the title of the
report in the centre of the page with the name of the person who has compiled it underneath. Below
this is the date. This page should also show for whom the report was written.

ii. Providing the Contents Table

A contents table follows the title page. This may not be necessary if the report is short. However,
if it is a long report, it is useful to list the paragraph headings and the pages on which they appear.

iii. Writing the Introduction

In your introduction it is important to give the background to the report. You should explain who
had asked for it, why it was written and what it is about. Follow the Introduction with a brief
summary of the Conclusions.

iv. Making the Report

Make sure your report progresses logically from one point to the next. You have already planned
it by noting all your points in the appropriate order so now write each paragraph in clear, concise
prose. Use headings for each section and, unless the sections are very short, it is a good idea to
start each section on a new page. This may be thought a waste of paper but it looks better and
impresses the reader.

v. Coming to a Conclusion
The report should be followed by your conclusion and a list of the relevant recommendations you
would like the readers to consider. Make them definite not vague.
vi. Checking Your Report
 Plan your report so the points follow logically
 Produce a title page
 Use a contents table with page numbers
 Write an introduction
 Write a summary of the report
 Use headings for each section
 Write a conclusion including, if relevant, your recommendations.
LESSON NINE: WRITING A SHORT ESSAY

A short essay (compositions) is written on an average of between 300 and 700 words. If you are
planning your own title, make sure you deal with only one aspect of a subject. Don’t make the
subject too broad. If you are given a title, make sure you fully understand it before starting work.
Remember that the titles of some essays can cover several lines and more than one sentence.

i. Planning the Work

After your note-taking, it is essential to plan your essay. Your notes do not constitute the plan.
They have to be organised.

ii. Structuring Your Essay

Your work should be set out in paragraphs and each paragraph will deal with one topic. From your
notes you must decide how you can group your points so that the essay will flow naturally from
one paragraph to the next. How you arrange your plan is up to you but remember to keep to the
point. Use evidence to support what you say and explain why your quotations or references are
relevant. Remember that you must have:
 An Introductory Paragraph showing what you are intending to do in your essay. The main
body of the essay follows. From your notes pick out the main points that you will use and
organise them under paragraph headings. Remember that a paragraph deals with one main
idea but you may be able to group several similar points together.
 The Concluding Paragraph sums up the essay and shows that you have completed what
you set out to do.

Decide the best way to approach your essay. This will depend upon what type of essay you are
writing.
 Is it going to be a piece of narrative told chronologically?
 Will it be a descriptive piece?
 Will you be expounding a theory and supporting it with your research?
 Will it be discursive? In this case both sides of an argument are used and you must write a
balanced essay with evidence supporting both points of view.
iv. Writing the Essay
Having done your plan, you are now ready to start writing. Make sure you keep to the point by
referring frequently to the title. Always keep it in front of you as you write. Make sure that your
essay flows naturally from one paragraph to the next.

 The Introduction: Your opening sentence is very important because it will either stimulate
the reader to read on or put him off. It should be concise so the reader can understand what
you are saying. You should aim to interest your reader from the beginning. Sometimes it
is a good idea to start with a question- perhaps a controversial one.
 The Conclusion: In your final paragraph draw all the loose ends together and bring your
essay to a logical conclusion. Make sure that you have already mentioned the points to
which you are referring. Don’t introduce new material in the last paragraph.

vii. Checking the essay

 Keep to the point and keep the title in front of you at all times.
 Write notes in your own words. Don’t copy from a book.
 Keep notes brief.
 Plan your work carefully.
 Structure your essay.
 Economise on words.
LESSON TEN: WRITING A SHORT STORY

Even though you will probably not need to do any research if you are writing a short story, it is
still important to plan your work carefully.

i. Planning the Short Story

Write down an outline of the main events of your story in chronological order. Then decide where
the story is to begin and how it is to develop. Will the events lead to an inevitable conclusion or
will you use the ‘twist-in-the-tale’ device? The unexpected ending can be very effective if well
done. There will not be room for any detailed description as everything that is written must move
the story on. Your reader will want to know what happens next. In a short story there is no room
for any unnecessary words so escriptions of people and places have to be by implication. There is
no room for long ‘flowery’ passages of description (‘purple prose’).

ii. Writing dialogue

Dialogue is important in the short story as it can be used to give information to the reader. (See
Chapter 4 to learn how to set out dialogue.) It can also set the scene and help to create believable
characters. Effective short stories often start with dialogue and this carries the reader straight into
the story.

iii. Creating believable characters

Try not to have more than four characters in your short story. Too many become confusing. Aim
to give each one a distinctive way of speaking so that each can be easily recognisable. There will
be no room for detailed descriptions of each so their characters should be established by what hey
say, how they behave and how the other characters react to them.

iv. Finding a Plot

A story is written to entertain and in your story there should be conflict of some kind. It could be
between a parent and child, or between two neighbours. It could be a spiritual conflict within a
single character. Should the heroine have an abortion or not? The plot should be simple and there
should only be one. There is no room in a short story for a sub-plot. Plots are all around you. Your
own experience or someone else’s could be woven into a short story or you could modernise the
plot of a fairy story or a legend.
v. Introducing the story
The start of a story is always important. The first sentence should grip the reader and carry him or
her forward. Make him or her want to read on.

vi. Editing Your Work

When you have completed the first draft of your essay or short story, check it carefully for errors
and see if it can be ‘tightened’ by deleting words or changing your sentence construction.
Remember to write in ‘proper English’. Avoid totally any temptation to use colloquial or ‘texting’
language popular on mobile phones.
 Check your spelling.
 Check your punctuation.
 Is each paragraph indented the same amount of space?
 Have you begun your dialogue with a new paragraph?
 Have you kept to the same tense throughout? (Most essays and stories are written in the
past tense.)
 In your short story have you kept to the same ‘person’ throughout? Is it written in the first
or the third person?
 Have you used colloquial language?
 Before writing or typing your fair copy, look to see if you can replace any words with better
ones. Make sure you haven’t repeated words unnecessarily.

Vii. Checking the Short Story

 Avoid unnecessary description.
 Don’t have too many characters.
 Keep the plot simple.
LESSON ELEVEN: PUNCTUATION

Accurate punctuation and use of capitals help the reader to understand exactly what the writer
meant. While some aspects of punctuation, such as the use of commas and semi-colons, can be a
matter of individual style, correct punctuation in areas such as quotation is important.

1. Full-stop / Period (.)

Full stops are used to separate sentences, each of which should make complete sense on its own.
Each one must be constructed properly and end with a full stop. Without full stops, writing would
make little sense.

2. The Comma (,)

There is some flexibility in the use of commas, and overuse can slow down the reader. Commas
have a particular role to play but they can never take the place of full stops. Some examples of
necessary comma usage are:
 However, more cases should be considered before reaching a conclusion.
 Certain crops, for instance wheat, are susceptible to diseases.
 Three hundred people were interviewed, but only half the responses could be used.

- Commas are used to separate items in a list. In this case the last item must be preceded by ‘and’:
Johnny played hockey, soccer, rugby, lacrosse and tennis.

- Commas can be used to separate a list of main clauses. The last one must also be preceded by
‘and’. See the examole below.
 Harriette was listening to her Walkman, David was trying to do his homework, Mum was
feeding the baby and Dad was reading the paper.

- If you begin a sentence with a conjunction, use a comma to separate the dependent clause from
the main. In the previous sentence ‘if’ is a conjunction and there is a comma after ‘conjunction’.
 Because it was raining, we stayed inside.
 As the sun set, the sky glowed red.

- A comma is always used before question tags, that is expressions like ‘do you?’, ‘don’t you?’,
‘isn’t it?’, ‘won’t you?’ These are usually used in dialogue. There will be more about this in the
next chapter.
  You will come to the play, won’t you?
 I’d love to. It’s by Alan Ayckbourn, isn’t it?

- A comma should also be used when addressing a person by name. This would also be used in
dialogue:
 You shouh be quiet, Valentine.
 John, where are you?

- Always use a comma to separate direct speech from the rest of the sentence unless a question
mark or an exclamation mark has been used. There will be more about direct speech in the next
chapter.
 He pleaded, “Let’s go to McDonalds.”
 “I don’t know her whereabouts,” she replied.

3. Semi-colon (;)
- The semicolon is a useful punctuation mark although it is not used a great deal. It can be used
when you don’t feel you need a full stop; usually the second statement follows closely on to the
first one. Don’t use a capital letter after a semicolon.
 It was growing very dark; there was obviously a storm brewing.

- A semicolon can also help to emphasise a statement:

 The thieves had done a good job; every drawer and cupboard had been ransacked.

- A semicolon can also be used when you wish to emphasise a contrast as in the following sentence:
 Kate may go to the disco; you may not.
 “You may not” stands out starkly because it stands alone.

4. Colon (:)
- A colon can be used for two purposes. It can introduce a list of statements as in the following
sentence:
 There are three good reasons why you got lost: you had no map, it was dark and you have
no sense of direction.

- Like the semicolon, you need no capital letter after it. It can also be used to show two statements
reinforcing each other:
 Your punctuation is weak: you must learn when to use full stops.
- It is used to introduce explanations. e.g.
 The meeting was postponed: the Dean was ill.

- A colon is used to start a list. e.g.

 Three aspects were identified: financial, social and . . .

- A colon is used to introduce a quotation

 As the Duchess of Windsor said: ‘You can never be too rich or too thin’.

6. The Dash (–)

- A dash is used for emphasis. What is said between dashes or after the dash if there is only one is
more emphatic than if there were no dash. If you break your sentence in the middle to make an
added point, use a dash before and after it.
 Janice, Elaine, Maureen, Elsie – in fact all the girls – can go on the trip to London.

- If the added section is at the end of the sentence, only one dash is needed:
 This is the second time you have not done your English homework – or any of your
homework.

7. The Question Mark (?)

- The question mark is obviously placed at the end of a question. Do remember to put it there.
Students frequently miss it out through carelessness.
 Is it raining?
 You won’t go out in the rain, will you?

- If you are using direct speech, the question mark takes the place of the comma and is always
placed inside the inverted commas.
 “When is your interview?” asked Lucy.
 “Are you travelling by train?” queried John.

- In is not places at the end of an indirect question:

 Rosette asked if you’d go to the cinema tonight.
8. Apostrophes (’)
These are one of the most misused features of English punctuation. They are mainly used in two
situations:
- To show contractions:
 He’s the leading authority
NB: Contractions are not common (used) in academic English.

- With possessives:
 The professor’s secretary (singular)
 Students’ marks (plural).

9. Quotations Marks/ Inverted Commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’)

i. Single quotation marks (‘ ’)
- Single quotation marks (‘ ’) are used to emphasise a word:
 The word ‘factory’ was first used in the seventeenth century.

- Single quotation marks are also used to give quotations from other writers:
 Goodwin’s (1977) analysis of habit indicates that, in general, ‘it will be more difficult to
reverse a trend than to accentuate it’.
- Moreover, they’re used to show direct speech:
 ‘Can anyone find the answer?’ asked the lecturer.
NB: Longer quotations are usually indented (i.e. have a wider margin) and/or are set in smaller
type. Nonetheless, American English uses double quotation marks to show quotations.

ii. Double Quotation Marks (“ ”)

- Double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations (nested quotations):
 As Kauffman remarked: ‘his concept of “internal space” requires close analysis.’

- In references, quotation marks are used for the names of articles and chapters, but book or journal
titles normally use italics:
 Russell, T. (1995) ‘A future for coffee?’ Journal of Applied Marketing, 6, 14-17.
10. The Exclamation Mark
- The exclamation mark should be used rarely or it loses its impact. It should not be used for
emphasis; your choice of words should be sufficient. It is used in direct speech – again in place of
a comma – when the speaker is exclaiming. There should always be an exclamation mark if the
word ‘exclaimed’ is used:
 ‘I don’t believe it!’ he exclaimed.

- However, the word ‘exclaimed’ is not always necessary. It can merely be suggested:
 ‘I can’t reach it!’ she cried.
In example above, a comma could have been used but an exclamation mark is more appropriate.

- The only other place where an exclamation mark can be used is where there is an element of
irony in the statement. The speaker or writer comments with ‘tongue in cheek’. What is said is not
literally true but is said to make a point:
 Jean’s Christmas card arrived a year late. It had been on a trip round the world!

11. Hyphens (-)

They’re used with certain words and structures: well-engineered / co-operative / three-year-old
etc.

12. The Capital Letter

It is difficult to give precise rules about the use of capital letters in modern English. However,
they should be used in the following cases:
- The first word in a sentence:
 In the beginning . . .

- Names of organisations:
 Sheffield Hallam University

- Days and months:

 Friday 21 July

- Nationality words:
 France and the French
- Names of people/ places:
 Dr Martin Lee from Sydney

- Book titles (main words only):

 Power and the State

13. Writing Numbers

- Numbers less than eleven (0-10) are written in words. e.g.
 Out of 100 students in our class, there only ten boys.

- Numerals should be used for rates, percentages and other data indicators. e.g.
 “Six percent of the population died of boredom.” Or, “26 percent of the group had blue
eyes.”

Application Exercises
Re-write the text below, punctuate where necessary and appropriate.

1. John was furious he stormed out of the house slamming the door behind him never again
would he try to help anyone he’d gone to see Peter to offer financial aid and Peter had
angrily thrown his offer back in his face surely he could have shown some gratitude now
he would be late for work and he had an early appointment with an important client

2. The team those who were present lined up to meet the new manager they had had a bad
season Clive hoped Brian would improve their chance of promotion at the moment the
team was a disaster the goalkeeper never saw the ball until it was too late the defence
players were too slow and the captain was indecisive

3. I don’t believe it she exclaimed Why not he enquired Surely it could not be true why hadn’t
she been told before it wasn’t fair why was she always the last to hear anything if she’d
been the one going to New York she’d probably only have heard about it after she should
have left why had Pat been offered the chance of a lifetime hadn’t she worked just as hard
LESSON TWELVE:
BRITISH ENGLISH (BrE.) AND AMERICAN ENGLISH (AmE.) CONVENTIONS

As language is changeable, English also develops constantly and produces many kinds of varieties
among which, British English and American English are the two important ones. They have great
differences in vocabulary, pronunciation grammar, and other aspects. The paper focuses on lexical
differences between British English and American English. Although there are differences
between them with the development of globalisation and communication between the USA and
UK, British English and American English are now influencing each other.

If you are writing a letter to America but you’ve been studying British English (or vice versa), it
is obvious that the receiver would encounter some comprehension (semantic) hurdle. If a scholar
of British English asks an American where they could watch a football match, they’d take them to
where the American football (different from what the British meant) is played. The American
would understand if the British talked of soccer, not football. As would be seen subsequently, the
differences between the two systems (Englishes) are in all levels of language: phonetic,
orthographical, syntactic, semantics, lexicological and even mechanical (punctuation). In
conformity with the scope of this course, the phonetic aspect will be left out.

Summary of the Origin and Evolution of American English

American English, on the other hand, is becoming one more dialect of the world English, and it
has exercised greater influence on world English than any other variety( Crystal; 1995). American
variety of English will, thus, imply the language spoken in the U.S with its geographically ,
politically and economically conditioned characteristics ( Jankowaki ; 1977 ). But, the American
English accents changed and influenced by the immigrations of the British and Germanic in the
North America.

American English evolved even more when the first wave of immigrants came to the country from
the British Isles. These immigrants are often called economic-immigrant, because they left the
British Isles for economic reasons, to search for a new life in America (Wikipedia Contributions
B; 2005). Until recently, “American English was considered less educated, less cultured and less
beautiful than British English” (Totti; 2000:1), but with its status in media, international business,
computing and science, American English has gained as a world language (Totti; 2002:245).
Furthermore, American English is more accessible to a larger and, naturally, this has made
American English more international.

Differences in Language Use Conventions

Here are some of the key differences in language use conventions.
 Dates: In British English, the standard way of writing dates is to put the day of the month
as a figure, then the month (either as a figure or spelled out) and then the year. For example,
19 September 1973 or 19.09.73. The standard way of writing dates in American English is
to put the month first (either as a figure or spelled out), then the day of the month, and then
the year. For example, September 19th 1973 or 9/19/73. Commas are also frequently
inserted after the day of the month in the USA. For example, September 19, 1973.
 -ou: In British English, the standard way of writing words that might include either the
letter o or the letters ou is to use the ou form. For example, colour, humour, honour,
behaviour. The standard way of writing such words in American English is to use only o.
For example, color, humor, honor, behavior.
 Through: In American English, the word through (or thru) can be used to mean until. For
example, ‘September 19th thru October 1st’, would be in British English ‘19 September
until 1 October’.
 Hyphens: Hyphens are often used in British English to connect prefixes with the main
word. For example, pre-emption, pre-trial, co-operation. They are less common in
American English. For example, preemption, pretrial, cooperation.
 z or s: In British English, s is generally used in such words as recognise, authorise. The
letter z is used in American English in such words as recognize or authorize. However, it
is not wrong to use z in such words when using British English as standard.
 l or ll: In American English, a single l is used in such words as traveled or counseled. In
British English, ll is used (e.g. travelled, counselled).
 Note, however, that in British English, some words that end in a double ll lose one l when
a suffix is added: skill becomes skilfully, will becomes wilfully. In American English, the
double ll is retained: skill becomes skillfully, will becomes willfully.
 -re or -er: In American English, the -er ending is used in words like theater, center, meter,
and fiber. In British English, these words are spelt theatre, centre, metre, and fibre.
 oe and ae: Some scientific terms retain the use of the classical composite vowels oe and
ae in British English. These include diarrhoea, anaesthetic, gynaecology, and
homoeopathy. In American English, a single e replaces the composite vowel: diarrhea,
anesthetic, gynecology, homeopathy.
 -e or -ue: In British English, the final silent -e or -ue is retained in such words as analogue,
axe and catalogue. In American English, it is omitted: analog, ax, and catalog.
 -eable or -able: The silent e, produced when forming some adjectives with a suffix is
generally used in British English in such words as likeable, unshakeable, and ageing. In
American English, it is generally left out: likable, unshakable, and aging. The e is however
sometimes used in American English where it affects the sound of the preceding consonant:
traceable or manageable.
 -ce or -se: In British English the verb that relates to a noun ending in -ce is sometimes
given the ending -se. For example, advice (noun) / advise (verb), device/devise,
licence/license, practice/practise. American English uses -se for both the noun and verb
forms of these words. It also uses -se for other nouns which in British English are spelt -
ce, including defense, offense, pretense.
 Prepositions: In American English, it is acceptable to omit prepositions in certain
situations. In British English, this habit is less common. For example, an American lawyer
might find a certain clause in a contract to be ‘likely enforceable’. A British colleague
would be more likely to say that it was ‘likely to be enforceable’. An American civil rights
activist might ‘protest discrimination’, while his British colleagues would ‘protest against
discrimination’.
 Have and got: In American English it is quite acceptable to use the word got without have
in sentences like ‘I got two tickets for the show tonight’. In British English, it is more usual
to say ‘I’ve got two tickets for the show tonight’. Gotten. Gotten is a proper word in
American English, but is only used as an Americanism in British English, except in certain
phrases such as ‘ill-gotten gains’.
 While or whilst: Both while and whilst are used in British English. In American English,
while is the right word to use, and whilst is regarded as a pretentious affectation.
 The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell (only in the word-related
sense), burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.)
 or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In British English, both irregular and regular forms are
used, but the irregular forms tend to be used more often. In AmE, only the regular form is
used.
 Directional suffix -ward(s): British forwards, towards, rightwards, etc.; American
forward, toward, rightward.
 Full stops/Periods in abbreviations: In American English, we write ‘Mr.’, ‘Mrs.’, ‘St.’,
‘’Dr.’ etc., while in British it is usually ‘Mr’, ‘Mrs’, ‘St’, ‘Dr’, etc.
 Quotation marks: In British English, single quotation marks are used, and in American
English, double quotation marks are used. In British English, double quotation marks are
used within the single quotation marks, whereas in American English, single quotation
marks are used inside double quotation marks.
 Period and comma: In British English, the period and comma are placed outside quotation
marks. However, if the punctuation mark is a part of the quote itself, then the quotation
mark is placed after the period or comma. In American English, the period and comma are
always placed inside quotation marks.
 Use of the Present Perfect: In British English the present perfect is used to express an action
that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example:
I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In American English the following is also possible: I lost my key. Can you help me look
for it?
In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are
generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of
the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already,
just and yet.
British English: - I've just had lunch
- I've already seen that film
- Have you finished your homework yet?
American English: - I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch
- I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
- Have you finished your homework yet? or Did you finish your homework
yet?
Practical Differences between British English and American English

1. Vocabulary

British English American English

Autumn Fall ("autumn" is used, but only informal or
poetic language)
Aerial (radio/TV) Antenna
Mad; Angry Mad; Crazy
Barrister/solicitor Attorney, lawyer
Bath Bathtub, tub
Bill (restaurant) Check
Biscuit Cookie, cracker
block of flats Apartment house/building
Booking Reservation
Boot Trunk (of a car)
Bonnet Hood (of a car)
braces (to hold up trousers) Suspenders (men’s)
Car Automobile, car
Car park Parking lot
Caravan Trailer
Chap Guy, man, boy
Chemist's Drugstore
Chemist Pharmacist
Cinema Movie theater
Chips (French) fries
Cigarette; fag(slang) cigarette or cigaret(in the US fag or faggot
means homosexual man (rude, offensive)
City centre Downtown
class, form - Grade (school levels 1st -12th)
 - Class (top 4 levels 9th - 12th = freshman,
sophomore, junior, senior)
Crisps Potato chips
Crossroads Intersection
Cooker Stove
Cupboard Closet
Curtains Drapes
Curriculum Vitae, CV Resume
diary(personal account) Journal, diary
Dressing gown Robe
Driving licence (c for noun, s for verb) Driver's license (s for noun or verb)
Film Movie
fizzy drink Pop, soda, coke
Dummy (for babies) Pacifier
Bath gown Bath robe
Engine Motor
Estate agent Realtor
flat (‘apartment’ is sometimes used in Apartment
formal written documents)
Flyover Overpass
Floor Storey
Football Soccer
Fortnight Two weeks
Foyer Lobby/foyer
full stop (punctuation) Period
Fringe Bangs
Garden Yard
Gas Fossil fuel in gaseous state used to heat & cook
Ground floor First floor
Gear-lever Gear shift
 Handbag Purse
Hand brake Parking brake, emergency brake
headmaster, headmistress, head teacher Principal
Holiday Vacation
Hire (hire a car) Rent (rent a car)
Jumper Sweater
Luggage Baggage / luggage
Lift Elevator
Lorry Truck
Maize Corn
mackintosh, raincoat Raincoat
Managing director Chief executive officer (CEO)
Marks Grades
Motorway Freeway
Mince Chopped beef
mobile phone Cell(ular) phone
Nappy Diaper
Pavement Sidewalk
Petrol / filling station Gas, gasoline / gas station

2. Grammar

This part will be dealing with grammar as a description of the structure of the English language
taking into account the differences in the usage of verbs, tenses, prepositions, adjectives and
adverbs in both British and American English.

i. Verbs

A number of verbs can be either regular or irregular in the past simple, however, in the BrE and
AmE the forms most commonly used are not the same. Where two forms are given following list,
the first is the more commonly employed. It will be seen that in American English; the regular
forms are usually preferred, and in British English the irregular.
 British English American English
Burnt Burned
Dive Dived, dove
Dreamt Dreamed
Learnt Learned
Smelt Smelled
Spilt Spilled
spoilt Spoiled

The verb (fit, quit and wet) are regular in British English, but irregular in American.

British English American English

Fit-fitted-fitted Fit-fit-fit
Quiet-quietted-quietted Quiet-quiet-quiet
Wet-wetted-wetted Wet-wet-wet

In American English, the past participle of get is either gotten or got, except in the structure
have got, used as an alternative to have, which is the same as in British English.
British English American English
His tennis has got much better His tennis has gotten (got) much better
I’ve got to know him over the years I’ve gotten to know him over the years
I’ve got a terrible headache I’ve got a terrible headache

ii. Tenses
Use of past simple and present perfect tenses. In American English these two tenses are often
interchangeable in conditions where only the present perfect can be used in British English. For
instance, when an action in the past has a result now, the present perfect is normally empted. Other
typical cases are with words like just, already and yet, and with ever and never when referring to
a period of time that continues until now.
 iii. Adjectives and Adverbs
British and American use of adjectives shows such of systematic variation between the two
varieties. Most of the differences are as follow:
 British and American differ in their use of the suffix -ed to form adjectival modifiers from
nominals. British uses certain forms that American does not, such as booted.
 The use of adjectival forms of certain place names as attributives of nouns is British.
American English would have the place names themselves as noun adjuncts (California,
India, Texas, Virginia).
 Adjectives are freely and spontaneously formed by adding -ish to adjectives, nouns and a
few other forms. Such as; cheapish, donnish, fastish (Algeo; 2006:119).

British and American differ somewhat in form, frequency, and use of adverbs.
 Adverbs of frequency (generally, never, usually), like those of probability, tend to occur in
medial position, after the first auxiliary, if there is one. However, with these also American
has a higher tolerance for placement before the first auxiliary than does British: she usually
is at work from nine to five versus she is usually at work from nine to five (Jahansson;
1979:200).
 The aphetic form most from almost has been used since the sixteenth century.
 Adverb of time-when typically occurs initially or at the end of its clause. For example:
- Last night/year: a girl aged four was last night waiting for a life-saving liver transplant in
a London hospital. When an adverb of time or duration co-occurs with an adverb of place,
the expected order is place +time/duration. The reverse order is exemplified by the
following citation:
- Last home: late home occurs in British texts a little more than one-third as often as home
late but not all in American texts. For example: his missus would go on a vinegar trip if he
was late home again.
 As a modifier of the subordinating conjunction since ever usually precedes: ever since. For
example: he has a cottage near the church, and since ever anybody can remember he’s been
saying he has lived in it for eighty-seven years (Algeo; 2006:133).
iv. Prepositions
The use of prepositions occasionally varies, especially in adverbial expressions. When a
preposition is used in one variety of English but not in the other, this is signified by (-). Here are
some well-known examples:
British English American English
It’s twenty to twelve, I’ve got to go go It’s twenty of twelve, I’ve got to go
What time is it? It’s half (-) nine. What time is it? It’s half past nine.
It was different from / to mine It was different from / than mine

2. Semantic Level
The human language consists of sounds that themselves do not have a meaning, but they can be
combined with other sounds to create a word that has full meaning. According to, Jackcobson
(1994) “language without meaning is meaningless”. Mervill (2000) commented by saying surely
all this is not without meaning”. Thus, semantics is the study that deals with meaning of words.
There are objects that have one name in American English, and a completely different one in
British. For example:

British English American English

Accumulator Car battery
Rubber Eraser
Mobile phone Cell phone
Petrol Gas
Dustbin Garbage can
Aubergine Eggplant
To sack To fire
Sweets Candy

3. Differences in Mechanics

i. Spelling
There are a few major spelling differences between British and American English. This is because
British English has generally kept the spelling of words that it has taken from other languages but
American English has changed the spelling to look more like how the word actually sounds when
you say it. For example:

British English American English

Colour, harbor, honour, labour, odour etc. Color, harbour, honor, labor, odor etc
Centre, litre, theatre Center, liter, theater
Organise, realise, analyse, apologise Organize, realize, analyze, apologize

Jewellry, traveller, woolen Jewelry, traveler, woolen

Licence License
Programme Program
Cheque (bank note) Check

Kerb Curb

Speciality Specialty
Storey (of a building) Story
Tyre (of a car) Tire

Cancelled, travelled, burnt Canceled, traveled, burned

Smelt, spelt, spoilt Smelled, spelled, spoilled
Judgement Judgment
Skilful Skillful
Licence License

Note, however, that some words must always end in -ise whether you are using British or American
English standards. These include:
i. advertise advise
ii. arise comprise
iii. compromise demise
iv. despise devise
v. disguise enfranchise
vi. excise exercise
vii. franchise improvise
viii. incise merchandise
ix. premise revise
x. supervise surmise
xi. surprise televise

ii. Dates:
In British English, the standard way of writing dates is to put the day of the month as a figure, then
the month (either as a figure or spelled out) and then the year. The standard way of writing dates
in American English is to put the month first (either as a figure or spelled out), then the day of the
month, and then the year. For example, September 19th 1973 or 9/19/73. Commas are also
frequently inserted after the day of the month in the USA. For example, September 19, 1973.

British English American English

17 May 2020 or 17/05/20[20] May 17th, 2020 or 05/17/20[20]

When writing, students are cautioned to adhere to a particular conventions (systems), and avoid
mixing / flirting with both systems. The system (encompassing its aspects discussed above)
recommended for Cameroonian students is standard British English, named Received
Pronunciation.

NB:
Between 9am and 4:00pm, Monday – Friday, you can forward your questions or worries (if any)
to the WhatsApp No.: 673198215.

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