CAVENDISH UNIVERSITY

ZAMBIA
BA115: BUSINESS AND
ACADEMIC COMMUNICATION

@2024
 WRITING
• Writing is a system of graphic symbols that can be used to
convey meaning. It is the act of composing a text that uses and is affected
by alphabet, graphemics, handwriting, ideogram, language, etc. Richard
nordquist, 2019. Therefore, it is the process of using symbols (letters of
the alphabet, punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas
in a readable form.
• Writing is the fourth of the four language skills, which are: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing.
• Good writing reveals a structure or organization that is logical and
effective. The order of ideas and the way the writer moves from one idea
to the next is felt natural. The sentence fluency of good writing feels
Academic Writing
• Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up
by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. It has a
formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use
of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.
• Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and
scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books
on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write
your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style.
• Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of
texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and
style.
 Types of Academic Writing
The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical,
persuasive and critical. Each of these types of writing has specific language
features and purposes. In many academic texts you will need to use more
than one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:
 you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is
a gap or opportunity in the existing research
 the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the methods
used to collect and analyse information
 the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report
on the data you collected
 the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back
to your research questions, and also persuasive, as you propose your
interpretations of the findings.
Academicians mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal
articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the
most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Type of Academic Text Definition

Essay A fairly short, self-contained argument, often using sources
from a class in response to a question provided by an
instructor.

Research paper A more in-depth investigation based on independent research,

often in response to a question chosen by the student.
Thesis/dissertation The large final research project undertaken at the end of a
degree, usually on a topic of the student’s choice.

Research proposal An outline of a potential topic and plan for a future dissertation or
research project.
Literature Review A critical synthesis of existing research on a topic, usually written
in order to inform the approach of a new piece of research.

Lab report A write-up of the aims, methods, results and conclusions of a lab
experiment.

Annotated bibliography A list of source references with a short description or evaluation of

each source.
 Characteristics of Academic Writing
Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an
understanding of the subject.

Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together

related points and material.

Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports opinions

and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.

Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is
clear, concise and balanced.
 Essay writing
Developing the skill of essay writing takes practice, time and patience, your
essay writing skills will improve and develop the more you write.

The purpose of an essay

• Essays, and other academic writing, focus the mind and encourage you to
come to conclusions about what you are studying.
• Writing is often the best possible way to assimilate and organise information.
Writing helps to highlight any areas that you have not fully understood and
enables you to make further clarifications. It develops your powers of criticism,
analysis and expression, and gives you a chance to try out your and other
writers' ideas on the subject.
• The feedback you receive from the marker of your essay should help to
Planning Your Essay
A well-planned and organised essay indicates that you have your ideas in
order; it makes points clearly and logically. In this way, A well-planned and
structured essay enables the reader, or marker, to follow the points being
made easily.
Essay assignments are usually formulated in one of the following ways:
• As A question
• A statement is given and you are asked to comment on it
• An invitation to ‘outline’, ‘discuss’ or ‘critically assess’ A particular
argument or point of view
Remember always write your essay based on the question that
is set and not on another aspect of the subject. Although this may sound
obvious, many students do not fully answer the essay question and include
irrelevant information. The primary aim of an academic essay is to answer
 Sources of Information
Being able to research and use materials which back up your study or offer
different interpretations of your study area is an essential aspect of studying
and learning. Sources of information include: the internet, newspapers,
journals, transcripts from radio or TV programmes, leaflets, photographs and
other artefacts (man-made objects). These sources are divided into:
1. Primary documents - A primary document is a document that was written
at the time of an event or period of research. Types of primary sources
include:
a) Original documents: Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews,
news film footage, autobiographies, pamphlets, meeting notes, photographs,
sketches.
2. Secondary documents - a secondary document is written after an
event - usually the authors will not have witnessed the event
themselves. Examples of Secondary Sources are textbooks, edited
works, books and articles that interpret or review research works,
histories, biographies, literary criticism and interpretation, reviews of law
and legislation, political analyses and commentaries.
3. Tertiary documents - tertiary documents usually act as pointers to
primary and secondary documents. They are dictionaries/
encyclopaedias (may also be secondary), almanacs, fact books,
Wikipedia, bibliographies (may also be secondary), directories,
guidebooks, manuals, handbooks, and textbooks (may be secondary),
indexing and abstracting sources.
 Structuring Your Essay
An essay should be written in a flowing manner with each sentence following on
logically from the previous one and with appropriate signposts to guide the
reader. An essay usually takes the following structured format:
1. The introduction: Introduce the subject, to explain how you understand the
question, and describe briefly how you intend to deal with it.
2. The main body: a development of the issues - Back up the points you
wish to make from your experience with the findings of other published
researchers and writers.
3. A conclusion: Sum up or draw a conclusion from your argument or
comparison of viewpoints.
4. A list of references of the sources of information you have used:
 Constructing Paragraphs
Paragraphs show when you have come to the end of one main point and
the beginning of the next. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to
aspects of the same point. Within each individual paragraph an idea is
introduced and developed through the subsequent sentences within that
paragraph.
Make the first sentence, your topic sentence.
Provide support via the middle sentences.
Make your last sentence a conclusion or transition.
Know when to start a new paragraph.
Use transition words.
 Report Writing
In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the
two words are sometimes used interchangeably, but reports are more
likely to be needed for business, scientific and technical subjects, and in
the workplace.
Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report
concentrates on facts. Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise
document which is written for a particular purpose and audience.
Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:
• A description of a sequence of events or a situation;
• Some interpretation of the significance of these events or
situation, whether solely your own analysis or informed by
the views of others, always carefully referenced of course
(see our page on academic referencing for more
information);
• An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;
• Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of
action;
• Your recommendations as to a course of action; and
conclusions.
 Numbering, Bullets and Indentation
Depending on the type of Word document you’re creating, there may be
more to creating a list than, well, creating a list. Maybe you want to use
custom bullets for some pizzazz, or perhaps you want to define your list style
from the start.
TO ADJUST LIST INDENTS IN WORD:
1) Select the bullets or numbers in the list. You can do this by clicking any
one of them, which highlights them all.
2) Right-click and select Adjust List Indents from the shortcut menu.
3) When the small window appears, you can make changes to any or all of
the following list indent settings:
Bullet position: Enter a number or use the side arrows to determine how
far the bullet point or list number will be positioned away from the left margin
(in inches).
•Text indent: Enter a number or use the side arrows to select the distance
(in inches) away from the bullet or number that the text should appear.
•Follow number with: This is what appears between the bullet or number
and the text. By default, it’s a tab character, but you can
pick Space or Nothing.
•Add tab stop: If you want to add a tab stop, check the box and enter the
measurement (in inches).

4) After making your changes, click OK.

You should see your list update immediately with your adjustments.
To change a single list item indent in Word:
1)Place your cursor next to the text for the list item.
2)Go to the Home tab and click the arrow next to Multilevel List.
3)Move to Change List Level and choose the level you want to use. Each
group provides a different bullet or number.
4)Alternatively, right-click and select Multilevel List in the floating toolbar.
5)Move to Change List Level and choose the level you want to use. Again,
you’ll see a different bullet or number for each level.
6) Press your Tab key for the number of times you want to indent the list
item. You move the item one list level with each key press and see a
different bullet or number.

Changing List Indents in Word

By changing list indents in your Word document, you’re giving yourself
additional ways to format your text. You may want to move your list further
in from the left margin, add more space between the bullets and the text, or
Sources
1. https://www.sydney.edu.au/students/writing/types-of-academic-
writing.html#:~:text=The%20four%20main%20types%20of,use
%20more%20than%20one%20type.
2. https://guides.library.harvard.edu/HistSciInfo/primary
3. https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing-course/
information-basics/tables-figures/
4. https://crk.umn.edu/library/primary-secondary-and-tertiary-sources
5. https://grammarist.com/writing/academic-writing-types-examples/
6. https://www.groovypost.com/howto/adjust-bullet-or-number-list-
indents-microsoft-word/