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Causes of Temporal Variations
G S Burr, University of Arizona, AZ, USA
ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction
A principal assumption underlying the radiocarbon
dating method is that the amount of radiocarbon
(14C) in the atmosphere is constant over the useful
range of the technique (Libby, 1955). In the calcula-
tion of a radiocarbon age, the 14C content of a sam-
ple is measured relative to a standard, and that
standard is chosen to reflect a fixed atmospheric
14
C value. It is now known that the 14C content of
the atmosphere is not invariant; however, radiocar-
bon age calculations continue to assume constant
atmospheric 14C. This is done with the caveat that
ages are quoted in radiocarbon years and are distin-
guished from calendar years. To account for the dif-
ference, the radiocarbon years are calibrated to
calendar years using detailed information about the
radiocarbon content of the atmosphere at the time
the sample formed.
The key to understanding atmospheric radiocar-
bon variations through time is the development of
time series records that reflect prehistoric atmo-
spheric 14C values. The most precise time series of
this type is based on tree rings. Trees absorb carbon
dioxide and sample the atmosphere as they grow.
Certain trees form distinct annual rings and can be
dated very accurately using dendrochronology.
Dendrochronological dates are used to fix the calen-
dar age of a tree ring, and 14C measurements on the
wood determine the atmospheric radiocarbon at the
time the tree grew. The first measurements of this
type began in the 1950s, when it was observed that
the radiocarbon content of the atmosphere was not
static (Suess, 1954; de Vries, 1958). Today, an inter-
nationally agreed upon composite tree ring record
(IntCal04; Reimer et al., 2004) is available for any-
one interested in calibrating a radiocarbon date. The
current tree ring record contains thousands of radio-
carbon measurements and provides a continuous
record with annual to decadal resolution for
approximately the past 12,400 years. The curve is
a compilation of results for trees from North
America and Europe.
Beyond the limit of the tree ring calibration, it is
necessary to rely on other geological archives to
document past atmospheric 14C variations, includ-
ing (1) lake and ocean sediments, calibrated by
counting varved layers or with 18O profiles from
2932 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations

the same cores, and (2) corals, sediments, or spe- weapons. A third and relatively minor source of atmo-
leothems dated directly with U-Th isotopes. None spheric radiocarbon is produced as a by-product of the
of these techniques provide time series records nuclear energy industry.
with the precision or resolution of the tree ring
record; however, they do allow meaningful infer-
ences to be made about temporal atmospheric 14C Definitions
variations beyond 12,400 years, to the limit of the
The definition of a radiocarbon date includes several
radiocarbon method at approximately 50,000
conventions that need to be stated explicitly to
years.
preface the discussion of temporal radiocarbon var-
iations. These conventions were developed by the
Natural Radiocarbon Variations
radiocarbon community over many years and forma-
The impetus for developing radiocarbon time series lized by Stuiver and Polach (1977). They are as
was driven by the need to achieve accurate radio- follows:
carbon dates with respect to calendar ages. These
1. The present year for radiocarbon dating is
time series also provide fundamental insights into
defined as 1950 AD. This date corresponds to the
processes that affect the amount and distribution of
time when the radiocarbon technique was first devel-
carbon on Earth. There are three fundamental nat-
oped. Radiocarbon dates are expressed in years
ural processes that affect atmospheric radiocarbon:
before present (BP), or years before 1950.
changes in the Earth’s geomagnetic field, variable
2. The half-life for a radiocarbon measurement is
solar activity, and carbon cycle dynamics. Changes
assumed to be 5,568 years (the ‘Libby’ half-life).
in the Earth’s geomagnetic field during the past
3. As stated previously, the original amount of
50,000 years are now well-known, and the effect
radiocarbon in the atmosphere is assumed to be con-
of these changes on atmospheric radiocarbon is
stant and known. This value is quantified using the
also understood. This variability occurs over thou-
National Institute of Standards and Technology
sands of years. Solar activity produces periodic var-
(NIST; formerly the National Bureau of Standards)
iations on timescales of years to hundreds of years.
Oxalic Acid I standard (NIST-SRM-4990B).
Carbon cycle dynamics affect the net amount of
Secondary standards used for analysis are adjusted to
carbon in the atmosphere at any given time and the
the original NIST Oxalic Acid I standard value.
rate of carbon exchange between different reservoirs
4. Radiocarbon measurements are normalized for
on the Earth’s surface. The balance established by
isotopic fractionation by adjusting the measured
the carbon cycle reflects the contemporary global
activities, or carbon isotope ratios, to 13C ¼ 25‰.
climate.
Two of the statements (Nos. 2 and 3) are not
Anthropogenic Radiocarbon Variations valid. The actual half-life of radiocarbon is closer
to 5,730 years, and the amount of radiocarbon in
Radiocarbon is a useful tracer because it is carried in
the atmosphere is not invariant. However, the
carbon dioxide molecules, a key component in
operational definition outlined previously ensures
Earth’s carbon cycle. In addition to the natural
consistent reporting between different laboratories
influences governing atmospheric 14C, there are
and makes comparisons of radiocarbon dates
three measurable anthropogenic influences. The
unambiguous. The inaccuracies implicit in this defi-
first is a small (approximately 2%) decrease in the
nition are removed when the radiocarbon ages are
amount of atmospheric radiocarbon over the past
converted to calendar years using a calibration
several centuries. This effect was caused by wide-
curve.
spread use of fossil fuels that are depleted in 14C,
sometimes referred to as the industrial effect. The
Correction for Isotopic Fractionation—d 13C
industrial effect began to have a significant impact
Correction
on atmospheric 14C in the late 17th century and
continues to influence atmospheric radiocarbon The adjustment of a radiocarbon measurement to
today. A second anthropogenic influence on atmo- remove isotopic fractionation is a critical point
spheric 14C was the production of radiocarbon by when discussing temporal 14C variations because
nuclear weapons testing. This effect began to increase some temporal 14C variations have amplitudes that
atmospheric radiocarbon in the mid-1950s. A distinct are of the same magnitude as the corrections. Carbon
maximum in atmospheric radiocarbon occurred in has two stable isotopes—12C and 13C. The ratio of
1963 when the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed, these two isotopes is essentially the same everywhere
prohibiting atmospheric detonation of nuclear in the atmosphere; however, this ratio may be
 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations 2933

changed when carbon is removed from the atmo- where t is the age of the sample in calendar years,
sphere, for example, through photosynthesis. When  is the decay constant for 14C appropriate for the
plants respirate carbon dioxide, they discriminate 5,730 year half-life, and AON is the activity of the
against both 13C and 14C, relative to 12C. This gives oxalic acid standard at 1950, normalized to 19‰.
plants slightly reduced 13C/12C ratios compared to Notice that when D14C is positive, the sample has a
the contemporary atmosphere in which they grew. greater 14C activity than the 1950 atmosphere, and
For the purposes of radiocarbon measurement, it is when D14C is negative the sample has a smaller 14C
necessary to adjust for these small differences by activity than the 1950 atmosphere. In this equation,
normalizing the measured radiocarbon values to cor- the age of the sample, t, must be known from inde-
respond to a uniform 13C/12C. To facilitate compar- pendent information.
ison of 13C/12C ratios, they are expressed in the  Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) laboratories
notation as follows: measure sample isotope ratios instead of sample
2   3 activities. Either 14C/13C ratios or 14C/12C ratios
12
13
C= C may be utilized for radiocarbon dating purposes. In
6  S – 17 the case of 14C/13C, the normalized sample ratio,
d13 C ¼ 4 5  1000‰
13 C=12 C (14C/13C)SN, is calculated using the following for-
STD
mula (Donahue et al., 1990):
where (13C/12C)S is the ratio of the sample, and 14  14   25 
(13C/12C)STD is the ratio of a standard. 13C is a unitless C C 1 – 1000
¼ 13
proportion, like percent, and is quoted in parts per 13 C
SN C S 1 þ d13 C
1000
thousand, or permil (‰). The standard for 13C is a
14 13
marine carbonate, so samples from the ocean have 13C where ( C/ C)S is the measured ratio for the sam-
values close to zero. Radiocarbon dates are adjusted to ple, and the 13C value is measured from the sample.
13C ¼ 25‰, which is a typical value for trees. Notice that when measuring 14C/13C ratios, the
exponent in the conversion factor is reduced to 1
because the difference in mass between the two iso-
Calculation of D14C topes is 1 atomic mass unit.
The fraction modern carbon (F) value is calculated as
The quantity D14C is useful when describing tem-
 
poral radiocarbon variations. D14C values express 14 13
C= C
the difference between the sample and the modern F¼   SN
atmosphere (1950 AD). There are two ways to calcu- 14 C=13 C
late D14C, depending on how one measures the ON

amount of radiocarbon: decay counting or mass spec- 14 13

where ( C/ C)ON is the measured ratio for the oxa-
trometry (measuring isotopic ratios). Counting lic acid standard, normalized to its value in 1950,
laboratories measure decay rates (activities) based with 13C ¼ 19‰.
on the number of beta particles counted per unit For AMS measurements, D14C may be calculated
time, from the decay of 14C. In a counting laboratory, as follows:
the activity of 14C is measured in disintegrations per
minute. This is the sample activity AS. To normalize D14 C ¼ Feð1950 – tÞ
the sample to 13C ¼ 25‰, AS may be recalculated
to the normalized sample activity ASN using the Counting and mass spectrometry yield equivalent
following equation (Donahue et al., 1990): results and the time series discussed later derive
from both sources.
 25 2
1– 1000
ASN ¼ AS
d13 C
1þ 1000 Natural Radiocarbon Variations
13
In this equation,  C is measured from the sample. Radiocarbon is one of many cosmogenic isotopes
The exponent in the equation is related to the mass produced continuously in the upper atmosphere
difference between 14C and 12C (2 atomic mass (Lal and Peters, 1967). It is formed predominantly
units). D14C is then calculated as follows (Stuiver by the reaction 14N(n, p)14C (Libby, 1955). The glo-
and Polach, 1977): bal average production of 14C is currently approxi-
  mately 2 atoms cm2s1 and the vast bulk of this
ASN elð1950 – tÞ production is in the atmosphere. Radiocarbon is also
D14 C ¼ – 1  1000‰
AON produced in situ in the lithosphere and hydrosphere
2934 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations
but in negligible amounts. The production of 14C
depends on galactic cosmic rays, composed primarily
of high-energy protons. Although the galactic cosmic
ray (GCR) flux has been constant on a timescale of
millions of years (Lal, 1974), it is modulated by the
Earth’s magnetic field (geomagnetic field) and the
Sun’s magnetic field (heliomagnetic field), producing
temporal variations (Castignoli and Lal, 1980). This
temporal variability affects the number of secondary
thermal neutrons produced by nuclear reactions
between cosmic rays and atmospheric molecules.
Once radiocarbon is produced in the atmosphere, it
is subject to further temporal fluctuations associated
with the transport and exchange of carbon between
different carbon reservoirs, through the carbon cycle.
These factors are discussed next.
14
C Variability Related to Earth’s
Geomagnetic Field
The Earth’s geomagnetic field directly influences the
production of radiocarbon in the atmosphere. It
serves to deflect incoming galactic cosmic radiation.
The geomagnetic field is not homogeneous and the
production of 14C is highest at the poles, where
magnetic field lines are steeply inclined (Fig. 1).
The geomagnetic influence on radiocarbon produc-
tion operates on a scale of thousands of years.
Figure 2A shows the marked decrease in D14C,
which has occurred during the past 26,000 years.
Figure 2B shows a relative paleointensity curve for
the Earth’s geomagnetic field inferred from globally
distributed marine sediment records (Guyodo and
Valet, 1999). It can be seen by comparison of the
two figures that the radiocarbon content of the
N might provide the answer. Speleothems can be
Galactic
cosmic
rays
S marine sediments, lake sediments, and corals, but
Figure 1 Diagrammatic sketch of the geomagnetic field sur-
rounding the Earth. The geomagnetic field deflects cosmic radia-
tion most strongly at the Equator, where the geomagnetic field is
subparallel to the planet’s surface.
atmosphere is inversely related to the geomagnetic
field strength. This finding was first shown by Suess
(1970) and Bucha (1970). Bard et al. (1990) were
the first to document atmospheric D14C variations
beyond the limit of the tree ring record, where
radiocarbon dates diverge from calendar ages by
thousands of years. Although a first-order correla-
tion between the geomagnetic field strength and
atmospheric 14C is evident, this does not account
for all the long-term variability. The details are
complicated by multiple 14C pathways in nature
within the carbon cycle.
It is worth noting that time series of 10Be, another
cosmogenic isotope produced in the atmosphere, are
more closely tied to the Earth’s geomagnetic field
intensity than radiocarbon (McHargue et al., 1995).
This is because 10Be has an atmospheric residence
time of less than 1 year. A well-known feature of
10
Be studies is a striking maximum in 10Be produc-
tion between approximately 35 and 45 kyr BP that
was observed first in polar ice cores (Raisbeck et al.,
1987) and later in marine and lake sediments.
Radiocarbon scientists have made an effort to iden-
tify a radiocarbon excess from this time period; how-
ever, this is more difficult for 14C than for 10Be. Since
the 35–45 kyr BP period is approximately 6 radio-
carbon half-lives before present, the original 14C sig-
nal would have decayed to approximately 1 or 2% of
its original magnitude. This is not true for 10Be,
which has a half-life of 1.3 million years. In addition,
polar ice is unsuitable for studies of D14C because the
ice contains a relatively large in situ 14C component
that cannot be distinguished from trapped atmo-
spheric 14C. Corals dated with U/Th could be used,
but continuous long-lived coral 14C records from this
period are not available. It is important to have such
samples in order to provide the time resolution neces-
sary to identify radiocarbon variations on timescales
of decades.
Speleothems, formed by drip waters in caves,
continuously deposited for thousands of years
and can be dated directly with the U/Th method.
Beck et al. (2001) examined speleothems from the
Bahamas and found several large D14C peaks
between 35 and 45 kyr BP from a stalagmite-
based time series calibrated with U/Th dates. The
record of Beck et al. is partially substantiated by
radiocarbon time series from other speleothems,
there are significant differences as well (van der
Plicht et al., 2004). Despite these differences, the
broad agreement among the multiple archives is
encouraging and further efforts should see the con-
vergence of these records.
 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations
600
500
400
Δ14C (‰)
300
200
100
0
25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000
(A) cal BP
Figure 2 (A) Inferred atmospheric D14C for the past 26 kyr with a 2 standard deviation envelope showing the 1,000- and 2,000-year
moving averages (red and blue lines, respectively). Figure from INTCAL04 database. Reproduced with permission from Reimer, P. J.,
Baillie, M. G. L., Bard, E., et al. (2004). Radiocarbon calibration from 0–26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46, 1029–1058. (B) Relative
paleomagnetic field intensity of the earth for the past 50 kyr. Data from the SINT800 record (Guyodo and Valet, 1999). Note the inverse
relationship between the relative magnetic intensity and atmospheric D14C.
14
C Variability Related to Solar Activity
Atmospheric radiocarbon production is influenced by
the Sun’s heliomagnetic field in the same sense that it is
affected by the Earth’s geomagnetic field. On a time-
scale of years, the heliomagnetic field modulates the
GCR flux in a periodic manner. A well-known exam-
ple of this behavior is observed in the 22-year solar
cycle from sunspot time series. A sunspot is a relatively
cool region of the Sun’s surface characterized by
intense magnetic activity. Sunspots were first observed
by Galileo, and sunspot records extend back in time
for centuries. Every 11 years, the heliosphere reverses
polarity, producing an 11-year periodicity and a 22-
year cycle. The Sun also varies on longer timescales,
and the amplitude of sunspot number variation
changes with time as well. Relatively few sunspots
occurred between approximately 1645 and 1715, a
period known as the Maunder minimum. This period
is plainly evident in decadal treering radiocarbon time
series (Fig. 3), and it was first recognized by Stuiver
(1961). Elevated D14C values from this period resulted
from reduced heliomagnetic field intensities, which
permitted a larger number of galactic cosmic rays to
enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
Since solar variations exhibit periodicities, it is
possible to use spectral analyses of D14C time series
to search for changes in past solar activity, predating
those known from historical sunspot records. Stuiver
and Braziunas (1993) used the maximum entropy
method of spectral analysis to study a tree ring time
series with annual resolution covering the past 450
years. This effort yielded a 10.4-year periodicity,
2935
8
Relative Paleointensity
6
4
2
0 0 10 20 30 40 50
(B) Age (kyr)
which the authors attributed to the Sun’s 11-year
cycle. They used the same method to identify a
206-year solar period from a bidecadal time series.
In a similar study, Damon and Peristykh (2000) used
a discrete Fourier transform method to identify the
same 10.4-year period from an annual treering
record. The authors also identified a prominent
88-year solar period and a 207-year solar period
from a decadal treering record (Fig. 4). Such studies
require the highest possible precisions for D14C
(2‰), currently obtained only from treerings.
14
C Production by Solar Flares A solar flare is a
sudden outburst of particles from the Sun’s surface.
Radiation from these bursts is emitted across a wide
range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some parti-
cles travel to the Earth’s atmosphere and produce
secondary thermal neutrons in the same manner as
galactic cosmic rays. Lingenfelter and Ramaty (1970)
demonstrated that a single solar flare can produce
measurable increases in atmospheric D14C. For
example, they calculated that a particular solar flare
that occurred on February 23, 1956, is expected to
have caused a 7.5‰ increase in the contemporary
level of atmospheric D14C. This was one of the stron-
gest flares on record (1031–1032 ergs) but not parti-
cularly rare. Similar flares occurred on September 29,
1989, October 28, 2003, and November 2–4, 2003.
Lingenfelter and Ramaty noted that the solar flare
contribution to the global atmospheric 14C in 1956
was impossible to resolve due to a much larger con-
current increase in atmospheric 14C from
2936 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations

350
20
Maunder
Sporer
300 10
Wolf Dalton

Δ 14C (‰)
0
250 Oort
–10

200
–20
Δ 14C (‰)

150 –30
1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800
Time (calendar year)

100

50

0
raw data
smooth. spline (8,000 yr, 99%)
–50
–12,000 –10,000 –8,000 –6,000 –4,000 –2,000 0 2,000
Time (calendar year)
Figure 3 Atmospheric D14C for the past 16 kyr from the INTCAL98 tree ring compilation. Inset shows solar minima (Oort, Wolf, Sporer,
Maunder, and Dalton), which appear as D14C maxima in the unfiltered data. Reproduced with permission from Damon, P. E., and Peristykh,
A. N. (2000). Radiocarbon calibration and application to geophysics, solar physics and astrophysics. Radiocarbon 42, 137–150.

30
2050

25
975

512
353

20
706
√P.S.D.

207

15
228

149
288

87.9
130

10
136

104
123
169
160

118

97.5

84.3
91.8

57.4
76.1

60.4
68

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
Frequency (yr–1)
Figure 4 Fourier spectrum of detrended decadal D14C data. Reproduced with permission from Damon, P. E., and Peristykh, A. N.
(2000). Radiocarbon calibration and application to geophysics, solar physics and astrophysics. Radiocarbon 42, 137–150.

aboveground nuclear tests. Scientists have looked to resolution of treerings is too long to identify solar
treering time series to identify solar flare compo- flares that may last hours or days. The effect of solar
nents, but the radiocarbon produced by flares is flares on atmospheric radiocarbon production is
diluted by the relatively large inventory of 14C counterintuitive. Solar flares enhance 14C produc-
already in the atmosphere. In addition, the annual tion, whereas sunspot maxima imply reduced 14C
 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations 2937

–6
raw
3-point
–8

–10

–12

–14
Δ 14C (‰)

–16

–18

–20

–22

–24

–26
998 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
Year (AD)
Figure 5 A small but distinct atmospheric D14C peak that could be related to a supernova observed on April 30, 1006. Reproduced with
permission from Damon, P. E., and Peristykh, A. N. (2000). Radiocarbon calibration and application to geophysics, solar physics and
astrophysics. Radiocarbon 42, 137–150.

production. Both effects tend to occur at the same
time. It is clear from Figure 3 that the latter effect has
been more significant during the past millennium.
14
C Production by Supernovas Lingenfelter and
Ramaty (1970) also considered the possibility of pro-
ducing atmospheric 14C from nearby supernovas.
They identified two potential pathways of atmo-
spheric radiocarbon production related to superno-
vas: (1) a short-term increase produced by gamma
rays made in the explosion and (2) a much longer
term transient increase produced by direct enhance-
ment of the GCR flux. Damon and others investi-
gated the possibility of elevated atmospheric 14C
from a supernova that was observed in 1006 AD.
This supernova was the brightest and closest to
Earth of all supernovas on record. Figure 5 shows
an annually resolved tree ring time series from 1003
to 1030 AD that features a sharply rising 2-year D14C
pulse with an amplitude of 8‰, possibly related to
the 1006 supernova.
14
C Variability Related to the Carbon Cycle
Once 14C forms in the upper atmosphere, it rapidly
oxidizes to carbon dioxide and becomes efficiently
mixed by atmospheric transport and gas exchange.
This results in a nearly homogeneous atmospheric
14
C content at any given time. The fate of a particular
carbon dioxide molecule is subsequently controlled
by the carbon cycle, and by extension, the amount of
14
C in the atmosphere at any given time is also con-
trolled by carbon cycle dynamics. The carbon cycle
connects carbon reservoirs of the atmosphere, hydro-
sphere, biosphere, and lithosphere in a dynamic
balance (Fig. 6). More than 90% of the Earth’s
exchangeable carbon is in the ocean, and less than
2% is in the atmosphere. Hence, ocean–atmosphere
coupling is strongly leveraged by the mass of carbon
in the ocean. Ocean–atmosphere exchange in parti-
cular exerts dominant temporal control over the
amount of CO2 and 14C in the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle balance can be understood in
terms of (1) the number and size of carbon reservoirs
on Earth, (2) the exchange mechanisms that transfer
carbon between these reservoirs, (3) the rates of
exchange between carbon reservoirs, and (4) the
dynamics that control the balance of the various
exchange pathways. Of particular interest is how
these factors might have changed during the past
50,000 years. Studies from the 1950s began to trace
the movement of CO2 between the oceans and atmo-
sphere and within the ocean depths using mass bal-
ance, or box models, to describe the carbon cycle
(Revelle and Suess, 1957; Craig, 1957). A key finding
in subsequent work was that the ocean is naturally
divided into two reservoirs: (1) a thin surface layer
(above the thermocline) that exchanges very quickly
2938 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations

Figure 6 Diagrammatic representation of the carbon cycle. Radiocarbon is produced from secondary thermal neutrons in the atmo-
sphere. The deep ocean is the largest carbon reservoir on Earth. The surface ocean rapidly exchanges with the atmosphere over a
decade or two. Figure created by Tanya Burr.

with the atmosphere (on the order of 10–20 years)
and (2) a much larger deep ocean reservoir that
exchanges very slowly (on the order of thousands of
years). This structure was incorporated into the
model of Oeschger et al. (1975), who distinguished
a mixed surface ocean carbon reservoir and a deep
ocean carbon reservoir. Their model reliably pre-
dicted the major features of atmospheric 14C varia-
bility in the latter half of the 20th century, following
massive inputs of bomb-produced 14C.
Mass balance models are more loosely constrained
during times of climate change, such as during the
last ice age. This is because the amount and rate of
carbon exchange between reservoirs varied substan-
tially in the past, and the details of these changes are
unknown. The Last Glacial Maximum occurred
approximately 20,000 years ago, and since then sea
level has risen more than 120 m. This implies large
carbon reservoir changes, unseen during the
Holocene, where the atmospheric radiocarbon record
is well established. The most recent large change in
atmospheric radiocarbon occurred 11,000–12,000
calendar years ago. This 10% drop in D14C was
first observed in corals from Papua New Guinea
(Edwards et al., 1993). This feature is very likely
related to climate change associated with the
Younger Dryas climatic event.
Anthropogenic Radiocarbon Variations
Man’s activities have left a distinct imprint on the
atmospheric radiocarbon record. Three primary
anthropogenic inputs can be identified in the
atmosphere: 14C-depleted carbon from fossil fuel
burning, radiocarbon from nuclear weapons
testing, and radiocarbon from nuclear fuels repro-
cessing.
Fossil Fuels
Anthropogenic effects were first recognized by Suess
(1954), who observed a 2% reduction in atmospheric
14
C starting in the early 18th century (Fig. 7). This
reduction was caused by the onset of the industrial
revolution. The atmospheric inventory of 14C became
diluted when humans began to burn fossil fuels in
 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations
20
10
Δ14C (‰)
0
–10
–20
–30
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Year
Figure 7 Industrial affect on atmospheric D14C during the past
several centuries. A broad plateau exists because of fossil fuel
burning. First identified by Suess (1954). Data are from the
INTCAL04 data set.
large amounts. Fossil fuels are typically millions of
years old and any radiocarbon in the fuels has long
since decayed away. Fossil fuel burning produced a
gradual decrease in D14C over time. A side effect of
the decrease in radiocarbon is a 14C age plateau,
which makes it impossible to distinguish radiocarbon
ages between the 18th and 20th centuries.
Nuclear Weapons Testing and Nuclear Power
When Libby first published on the radiocarbon
method, anthropogenic inputs of radiocarbon were
minimal. Within 10 years, however, worldwide
nuclear weapons testing would nearly double the
amount of radiocarbon in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Anthropogenic radiocarbon was injected into the
stratosphere during these tests, and it entered the
troposphere within a couple of years (Nydal, 1963).
Atmospheric 14C increased rapidly in the Northern
Hemisphere, with the highest D14C levels occurring
in the mid to high latitudes (Fig. 8). Very few tests
were performed in the Southern Hemisphere, and
atmospheric D14C changed more slowly there, with
reduced peak radiocarbon levels. The maximum
amplitude of the 14C perturbation in the Northern
Hemisphere was reached in 1963, around the time
when the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed. After
1963, the radiocarbon content of the atmosphere
dropped off sharply. Within 10 years, atmospheric
14
C was reduced to approximately one-half of its
peak levels. This reduction was primarily due to the
efficient exchange of CO2 between the atmosphere
and the surface ocean. While the atmosphere contin-
ued to drop, surface ocean values rose, with peak
2939
1000
900
NH zone 1
800 NH zone 2
NH zone 3
700
SH zone
600
Δ14C (‰)
500
400
300
200
100
0
–100
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year (AD)
Figure 8 Atmospheric radiocarbon from nuclear weapons test-
ing in the 1950s and 1960s. Note the different amplitude and rate
of increase in the Southern Hemisphere compared to the
Northern Hemisphere. Zones represented in the figure are as
follows: NH1, Northern Hemisphere high-latitude sites; NH2 and
NH3, Northern Hemisphere mid- to low-latitude sites; SH,
Southern Hemisphere. Reproduced with permission from Hua,
Q., and Barbetti, M. (2004). Review of tropospheric bomb 14C
data for carbon cycle modeling and age calibration purposes.
Radiocarbon 46, 1273–1298.
values occurring in approximately 1970 (Nydal et al.,
1980; Linick, 1980). Figure 9 illustrates the dra-
matic increases that occurred in the surface ocean
during the 1960s. Surface ocean 14C is seen to stea-
dily increase from the late 1950s to 1972, when it
reached peak D14C values of approximately 200‰.
Figure 9 also illustrates the utility of 14C as a che-
mical tracer, showing evidence of equatorial upwel-
ling associated with low D14C values and enhanced
CO2 exchange in oceanic gyres at midlatitudes
showing relatively high D14C values. This aspect of
the anthropogenic input of 14C made it ideal for
tracer studies of the carbon cycle (Damon et al.,
1978).
To the benefit of all, radiocarbon is no longer
being produced in large amounts by nuclear weap-
ons testing. However, it is still being released into
the atmosphere as a by-product of the nuclear
power industry. At the LaHague reprocessing
plant in France, 14C is introduced directly to the
atmosphere through a 100-m chimney (Fontugne
et al., 2004), and at the Sellafield nuclear repro-
cessing plant in England 14C is released directly
into the marine environment (Cook et al., 2004).
Although these types of releases still occur, they
are miniscule in comparison to the quantities of
14
C released during the era of nuclear weapons
testing. Nuclear fuel reprocessing currently pro-
duces only a small fraction of the natural total
production of atmospheric 14C.
2940 RADIOCARBON DATING/Causes of Temporal Variations

50°

1957–59
40° 1960–61 1966
1962
1964–65
30° 1966
1968
1968–69 (Eastern)
1969
20° 1970
N
1971
1972
10°
Latitude

0°
1960
1962

19
64
-6 19 19
-61

5 69 71
10° 19
70
19
72

19
68
1957-59

S 20° 1968
-69

30°

40°

50°

60°

–100 0 +100 +200

Δ 14C (‰)
Figure 9 Latitudinal variation of D14C inorganic carbon dissolved in surface waters of the central Pacific Ocean, 1957–1972. Modified
with permission from Linick, T. W. (1980). Bomb-produced carbon-14 in the surface water of the Pacific Ocean. Radiocarbon 22, 599–606.

See also: Introduction: History of Dating Methods.
Dendrochronology. Geomagnetic Excursions and
Secular Variations. Radiocarbon Dating: Conventional
Method; AMS Method; Variations in Atmospheric 14C;
Calibration.
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RADIOCARBON DATING/Calibration 2941
Calibration
P J Reimer and R W Reimer, Queen’s University
Belfast, Belfast, UK
ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
14
C ages, or radiocarbon ages, are calculated from the
ratio of the radioactive carbon isotope 14C to one of the
stable isotopes (12C or 13C) in the sample compared to
a standard. This calculation assumes that the level of
14
C in the atmosphere has been constant since the time
the sample grew or was formed. If that were the case,
then no calibration would be needed. However, less
than 10 years after the establishment of the radiocar-
bon dating method, discrepancies between radiocarbon
and tree ring ages were noted and potential mechan-
isms discussed (de Vries, 1958). Such discrepancies are
especially important when comparing records with a
timescale based on radiocarbon ages with those based
on other methods, such as layer counting or historical
events, or for calculating rates of change.
The concentration of 14C in the atmosphere at any
given time depends on a number of factors, including the
strength of the geomagnetic field and the solar wind
intensity, which influence 14C production, and the
uptake or release by the Earth’s carbon reservoirs, parti-
cularly the ocean. Ocean surface water, which has par-
tially equilibrated with the atmosphere, diffuses or sinks
from the surface into the deep ocean, where it is isolated
from the atmosphere for hundreds to thousands of
years. The carbon in the water has time to undergo
radioactive decay before it is brought to the surface
again through upwelling. This lower oceanic radiocar-
bon content means that samples formed in the ocean
surface waters are on average ca. 400 years older than
samples formed in the atmosphere at the same time. This
offset between the atmosphere and ocean surface age is
referred to as the marine reservoir effect or marine reser-
voir age. In addition to natural causes of atmosphere 14C
variations, anthropogenic releases of fossil fuel and 14C
produced by nuclear weapons testing have altered the
14
C concentration in the atmosphere and oceans.
Thus began the quest for known age samples and
precise 14C measurements to correct for the variations
in atmospheric, and eventually oceanic, 14C levels
through what became known as radiocarbon calibra-
tion. The first high-resolution atmospheric calibration
based on ring-counted Sequoia gigantean was pub-
lished as both a calibration curve and a table of calen-
dar and radiocarbon ages extending from 1000 to
1850 AD (Stuiver and Suess, 1966). Although the reso-
lution and precision are not as high as the most recent
international calibration curve IntCal04, this was
undoubtedly a remarkable achievement (Fig. 1).