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Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49 – 62

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Holocene fires in East Amazonia (Carajás), new evidences,

chronology and relation with paleoclimate
R.C. Cordeiroa,⁎, B. Turcqa,b , K. Suguioc , A. Oliveira da Silvaa ,
A. Sifeddinea,b , C. Volkmer-Ribeirod
a
Universidade Federal Fluminense, Departamento de Geoquímica, Outeiro de São João Batista s/n°
Instituto de Química, 5°andar, Niteroi, RJ, Brazil
b
Centre IRD d'Ile de France, Bondy, France
c
Universidade São Paulo, Instituto de Geociências, Brazil
d
Museu de Ciências Naturais da Fundação Zoobotânica do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Available online 4 September 2007

Abstract

Past studies have evidenced the presence of charcoal in soils and lacustrine sediments of Amazonia region and suggested occurrences of
widespread fires during the Middle Holocene. However, the available records do not indicate the changes in fire regime with enough time
resolution. We quantified charcoal fragments in lacustrine sediments in a lake of North Carajás plateau in East Amazonia (5°50′–6°35′S and
49°30′–52°00′W). The charcoal quantification was compared to other sediment proxies, allowing a connection between paleofires and climate
changes.
Large variations in sediment characteristics led to distinct stages of sedimentation. From 11,800 (base of CSN 93/4) to 4750 cal yr B.P., low
accumulation rates of organic matter are observed. Between 7600 cal yr B.P. (base of CSN 93/3 core) and 4750 cal yr B.P., this initial phase of
sedimentation is characterized by low chlorophyll derivate accumulation rates and high accumulation rates of Botryococcus braunii, an alga
resistant to episodic drought. The first phase of sedimentation would therefore correspond to, a low lake level and a drier climate than today. Large
biomass burning events occurred between 7450 cal yr B.P. and 4750 cal yr B.P., as indicated by the high charcoal particle concentration.
From 4750 cal yr B.P. to 2800 cal yr B.P., accumulation rates of charcoal particles decreased, and the accumulation rate of chlorophyll derivate
was low. From 2800 cal yr B.P. to 1300 cal yr B.P., the charcoal accumulation rates reached their lowest values in the core and a rapid increase in
lacustrine production is evidenced by the increase in chlorophyll derivates and carbon accumulation rate. From 1300 cal yr B.P. to the last century,
the charcoal accumulation rates increased. During the most recent period, the record is characterized by high accumulation rates of chlorophyll
derivates while the charcoal particle accumulation rate decreased. This region is still unaffected by the current increase of anthropogenic fires.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Amazonia; Holocene; forest fire; paleoclimate; charcoal; Carajás

1. Introduction et al., 1996; Haug et al., 2001), including vegetation changes in

The climate changes recorded in the ice cores of Greenland
and Antarctic, reflecting the past atmospheric temperature, have
shown that the climatic variability during Holocene is smaller
when compared to the last glaciation (Blunier and Brook, 2001).
Conversely, significant climatic changes have been observed
during the Holocene in tropical continental records (Overpeck
⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +55 216207025.
E-mail address: rcampello@yahoo.com (R.C. Cordeiro).
0921-8181/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.08.005
South America (Behling, 1996; Ledru et al., 1998a,b; Behling
and Costa, 2000, 2001; Mayle et al., 2003). General circulation
models indicate that the Holocene climate is driven by
insolation changes (Kutzbach et al., 1998; Valdes, 2000).
A high resolution record of atmospheric CO2 in an ice core
from the Taylor Dome in Antarctica, for the last 11,000 yrs
(Indermühle et al., 1999), shows that an increase in CO2
concentration occurred from 7000 to 1000 cal yr B.P. by
25 ppmv. The relative contribution by marine and continental
carbon pools to this increase were investigated by Indermühle
50 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
et al. (1999) measuring the δ13C of the CO2 in the ice record.
The δ13C values decreased from 7500 to 1000 yrs B.P.
indicating a terrestrial carbon source since terrestrial biomass
is significantly depleted in δ13C while ocean outgassing of CO2
would not significantly alter the atmospheric isotopic composi-
tion (Ciais, 1999). Broecker and Clark (2003) suggest an
alternative hypothesis, where the increase in CO2 is probably
due to changes in ocean CO3− ion distribution in response to the
atmospheric CO2 decrease, induced by an early Holocene
increase in terrestrial biomass.
Charcoal fragments in Eastern Amazon soils were dated by
Soubiès (1980), and their ages range from 6850 cal yr B.P. to
3150 cal yr B.P. The mature forest of the high Rio Negro region,
near San Carlos do Rio Negro, where current annual rainfall is
3530 mm, has burned repeatedly during the last 6000 yrs
(Sanford et al., 1985; Saldarriaga and West, 1986). An increase
in micro-charcoal deposition between 8900 cal yr B.P. and
4500 cal yr B.P. was found in the montane forest of Bolivia,
(17°50′S, 64°43′W) by Sifeddine et al. (1998).
Fire regimes have changed during the Holocene due to
changes in climate, vegetation, and in human practices.
Carcaillet et al. (2002) hypothesized that changes in fire regime
from Europe, South, Central and North America, and Oceania
may have affected the global CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere through the Holocene. Today, forest fires are
disturbance events resulting from the interaction between
cumulative damaging effects of human forest occupation, forest
clearing by fire, and droughts caused by inter-annual climatic
variability such as ENSO (Goldammer, 1999). Land
use changes, especially slash-and-burn in the Amazonian
rainforest, are responsible for carbon emissions to atmosphere
of ca. 0.2 Pg C yr− 1 (Houghton et al., 2000). During dry years,
the intensification of fire led to an additional emission of 0.2 Pg
C yr− 1 (Houghton et al., 2000). Forest fires may, therefore, have
influenced the atmospheric carbon concentration in the past.
Holocene forest fires are documented by charcoal fragments
found in many sites in Amazonia. High concentrations of
charcoal particles, with ages dating from 7000 to 4000 yr B.P.,
have been observed in lacustrine cores from Serra Sul de
Carajás (Sifeddine et al., 1994; Turcq et al., 1998; Sifeddine
et al., 2001). Other Amazonian lakes also contain a record of
sedimentary charcoals (Bush et al., 1992; Cordeiro, 1995; Bush
et al., 2000; Behling and Costa, 2001). Holocene soil charcoals
have also been observed in other Brazilian regions (Pessenda
et al., 1998a,b). The cause of forest fires, which can be related to
climate changes or human activities, is much discussed (Bush
et al., 2000). The quantification of past vegetation burning and
the evaluation of the related climate conditions are important
tools to understand the relationship between forest, climate and
the carbon cycle. Analysis of charcoal fragments in lake
sediment allows temporal reconstructions of biomass burning
(Carcaillet et al., 2002).
In the Carajás region, a 60,000 year old palynological record
from a lacustrine core, located at Serra Sul, demonstrated the
occurrence of three intervals of substantially reduced forest
cover that was replaced by savannah, suggesting drier climate.
The most recent dry interval occurred during the Middle
Holocene, between 7800 cal yr B.P. to 4500 cal yr B.P. (Absy
et al., 1991). Although savannah development is not observed
during the Middle Holocene phase, there was a decrease in
arboreal pollen, a development of pioneer elements and
increased occurrences of micro-charcoal fragments (Sifeddine
et al., 1994, 2001). The fires, which occurred in that area (Serra
Sul), have been revealed using levoglucosan as a molecular
marker and charcoal fragments microscopical counting which
validates the application of levoglucosan for tracing vegetation
combustion in sediments (Elias et al., 2001). Both indicators
enabled the recognition of major fires that occurred 700, 1200,
5000, and 7000 yrs ago. In this study we presented results from
another core in a neighbouring region (Serra Norte de Carajás,
40 km northward of Serra Sul), in order to investigate the
regional signal of fire and to better examine the relationship
between climate changes and fire occurrences.
2. Area description
Serra Norte de Carajás is located within a dry corridor in
Amazonia, between two regions of intense rainfall. The western
region corresponds to the maximum of convective rainfall. In
the eastern region, closer to the Atlantic Ocean, rainfall is
related to the ITCZ position and to onshore sea breezes.
According to Silva et al. (1986), the average rainfall in Carajás
is 2126 mm, and the average annual temperature ranges from
23.5 °C (at 835 m of altitude) to 26.2 °C (at 203 m).
The cores were collected from a lake (called N 4) situated on
a lateritic plateau of Serra Norte de Carajás, at 5°50′ to 6°35′ S
lat and 49°30′ to 52°00′ W long, 800 m high (Fig. 1). During
the coring campaign, this 12 ha shallow lake had a pH of 4.0, a
low conductivity (7.5 μS) and moderate dissolved oxygen
content (5.12 mg l− 1). The palm tree Mauritiella sp. surrounds
the lake margin. In Serra Norte de Carajás three vegetation types
can be observed:
a) Rain forest, including closed or open rainforests, the last
being characterized by greater occurrences of lianas.
b) Open ground (“Campos rupestres” according to Silva et al.,
1986), representing a vegetation community which is
characterized by low plant diversity and endemic species
richness, composed of shrubby and herbaceous plants, with
patches of small trees. This vegetation developed on iron-
rich crust and is linked to edaphic constraint on this soil.
c) Hydroseral vegetation (Silva and Cleef, 1989), represented
by aquatic and swamp vegetation.
The three types of vegetation are presented in the Lake N 4
watershed.
3. Materials and methods
The study is based on twin cores dating back to 11,800 cal
yrs B.P. The sediment cores, of 68.5 cm (CSN93/3) and 89.0 cm
length (CSN93/4), were collected in the central part of lake N 4.
For sediment characterization purposes, density, water content,
dry weight of the granulometric fractions and organic matter
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
Fig. 1. Geographical location of Serra Sul and Serra Norte de Carajás. (South America map is adapted from “IBGE, 2004. Atlas Geográfico, 2° ed., Instituto Brazsileiro
de Geografia e Estatística. Rio de Janiero”).
were determined. In the sediment core CSN 93/3, organic matter
was analysed for pigments (chlorophyll derivates, total carote-
noids), carbon and nitrogen, using four granulometric fractions
(N 200 μm, 200 μm–50 μm, 50 μm–20 μm, b20 μm). Charcoal
amount and size, and the concentration of algae Botryococcus
braunii (Chlorococcales) colonies and Corvomeynia thumi
(Porifera) spicules were also determined.
Aluminium U channels were used to determine sediment
bulk density. Sub-samples were taken every 1 cm along the
core, or less, according to lithologic variations. Water content
was measured after oven drying at 60 °C for at least 48 h or until
constant weight and organic mater was determined by loss-on-
ignition (450 °C until constant weight).
The granulometric fractioning of bulk sediment, including
the organic particles, was performed after stirring the samples in
water solution for 8 h and sieved out into four fractions (N200,
200–50, 50–20, b20 μm), which were dried, weighted and
analysed for carbon and nitrogen concentrations.
Chlorophyll derivates were extracted with 90% acetone and
measured at 667 nm in Perkin Elmer spectrometer. The results
were expressed, in arbitrary units, as absorbance per gram
organic matter, where one unit (SPDU) is equal to an
absorbance of 1.0 in a 10 cm cell, when dissolved in 100 ml
of solvent (Sanger and Gorham, 1972). The reproducibility of
the method was ± 7.8% (n = 20). The 410/350 ratios were
obtained through the division of the absorbance by wavelength
in 410 nm and 350 nm (Gorham, 1960).
Carbon and nitrogen contents in the total sediment and in the
granulometric fractions were measured with a CHN analyser
(Na2000-Fisons Instruments), with a reproducibility of ± 2.5%
for Carbon and ± 4.5% for Nitrogen. The carbon measurements
51
correlated strongly (r2 = 0.94, n = 40) with the organic matter
measurements. The determinations of δ13C were obtained by
mass spectrometry at Paris 6 University (Isotopic mass
spectrometer, Sira 10, Fison Instruments). The mineral
contribution in the granulometric fractions was determined by
calculating the difference of organic matter concentration in the
four granulometric fractions (N 200, 200–50, 50–20, b20 μm)
and the dry weight of the sample.
The method for quantification of charcoal fragments and other
microscopically identified biogenic elements (Corvomeyenia
thumi spicules, Botriococcus braunii colonies) consisted as
follows: 1 g of humid sediment sample was submitted to an
alkaline extraction with KOH 10%. The sample was attacked with
the solution as many times as necessary, until the supernatant was
clear. The sediment samples treated with the alkaline solution
were washed with distilled water and stored humid in a 100 ml
water solution. From the 100 ml solution 2 ml were taken, during
agitation, and then filtered through an acetate cellulose filter
(Millipore, HAWP 24 mm, and 0.45 μm porosity). The filter was
dried, weighted and then glued with ethyl acetate in plexiglas
slides. Either twenty fields were counted, or a sufficient number,
to reach a minimum of 30 particles for each counted type. The size
of the particles was measured considering the length and the width
of each particle counted. The minimum size of the particles
counted in 250× magnification was 2 μm in a 280 × 370 μm size
field. Thus, the maximum size of counted particles was about
370 μm. The method used herein differs from other quantification
methods once there is a control of the sediment mass through the
filter weight. Weighting of the filters allows quantification of
particles relative to sediment dry weight and calculation of
accumulation rate. Usually in fire history reconstruction charcoal
52 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62

Table 1 Spectrometry at Utrecht University, Netherlands (UTC prefix).

Stratigraphy of the Lake N 4, Serra Norte Carajás The measurements were made in the bulk sediment. The
Depth (cm) Description calibrated ages were calculated through the Software CALIB
0.0 – 7.0 cm Very dark brown organic clay with plants 4.4 (Stuiver et al., 1998a). The age models were built from
remains N200 μm. 5 YR 2/2 calibrated ages obtained on the two analysed cores considering
7.0 – 40.0 cm Very dark brown organic clay with plants the good correspondence among the lithological facies of the
remains 20–200 μm. 5 YR 2/2
two cores. The accumulation rate of the analysed variables were
40.0 – 60.0 cm Very dark brown organic clay with little plants
remains b20 μm. 5 YR 2/2 calculated from the product of the sedimentation rate (calibrated
60.0 –64.0 cm Brownish grey clay. 5 YR 6/1 ages), bulk density and element concentrations.
64.0–87.0 cm Pale yellowish brown clay. 5 YR 6/2
4. Results

particles N 125 μm are considered, because studies of charcoal 4.1. Stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating
deposition have shown that such large particles were not
transported by winds and, therefore, provided a record of fires The CSN 93/4 and CSN93/3 cores (89.0 cm and 68.5 cm
occurring inside the lake watershed (Millspaugh and Whitlock, length, respectively), consisted mainly of dark organic clay, rich
1995; Clark and Patterson, 1997). The sieving method proved to in vegetal remains from the top to 40.0 cm, a dark reddish
be useful to detect a very local fire signal. The filters method, as brown clay between 40.0 and 60.0 cm and a pale brown to grey
other methods based on microscopical counting, has a greater clay between 60.0 and 89.0 cm (Table 1).
sensitivity to small particles and is useful to determine a regional The age data (Table 2) clearly indicated a change in
airborne charcoal signal (Carcaillet et al., 2002). In the lake N 4, sedimentation rate between the top unit and the lower unit
which has a small watershed partially occupied by grasses, the (Fig. 2). This transition is also marked in most of the studied
local signal may not be representative of the regional regime of parameters. The age depth model was built considering a
Amazonia forest fires. progressive change in sedimentation rate beginning at 35.0 cm
Epifluorescence with a 420 to 490 nm excitation and a (Fig. 2). Between 11,800 cal yr B.P. and 1550 cal yr B.P. the
515 nm low-pass filter was used for identifying and counting B. sedimentation rate was low (0.0052 cm yr− 1) and increased
braunii on the plexiglas slides and white reflected light for
charcoal fragment identification and quantification on the same
slides. Two filters have been counted for each level in the core Table 2
to determine uncertainty. The particles counting had ± 5.6% Radiocarbon dates from the two studied cores. Intervals, given in calendar years
reproducibility. B.P., correspond to maximum and minimum values, considering one-sigma error
Another type of slides (organic petrography slides) was on radiocarbon measurements. Different intervals are given when several
intercepts are present and when the distance between intervals is larger than 20 yr.
made in order to evaluate the quality of the deposited organic Calibration datasets are from Pearson and Stuiver (1993), Stuiver et al. (1998a,b)
matter. Organic petrography slides were made for some specific 14
Core number Sample Laboratory C age Calendar age
layers to identify the palynological organic matter after
depth (cm) number (yrs B.P.) (yr. B.P.)
digestion with HF–HCl (Bertrand et al., 1990). Five main
CSN 12.5–14.5 OBDY 1524 170 ± 40 286 – 260;
fractions (palynofacies) were considered in this study: (1)
93/3 166 – 222;
gelified organic matter (GelOM) derived from degraded plant 139 – 163;
tissues, specific of humid degradation conditions or in 2 – 29
anaerobic conditions (Sifeddine et al., 1998), (2) grayish 30.5–32.5 OBDY 1528 1090 ± 50 951 – 1013;
amorphous organic material (GAOM) derived from phyto- 1026 – 1055
57.5–59.5 OBDY 1530 5750 ± 50 6489 – 6571;
plankton (Patience et al., 1995), (3) reddish amorphous organic
6582 – 6635
material (RAOM) derived from aerial macrophyte decomposi- CSN 15–17 OBDY 1543 210 ± 40 272 – 301;
tion. (4) ligno-cellulosic fragments (LCF), from slightly 93/4 201 – 208;
decomposed vascular plant tissues. These fragments were 146 – 192;
mainly produced by aquatic macrophytes (Hui et al., 1995), 3 – 14
34–36 OBDY 1545 1500 ± 40 1314 – 1316;
whose tissues had settled in the water column and rapidly
1330 – 1414
incorporated into the sediment. (5) The amalgam of amorphous 51–53 OBDY 1547 4160 ± 40 4617 – 4733;
organic material that contains micro-charcoal fragments of ca. 4749 – 4765;
1 μm observed by 1000× magnification (AmalgOM). And the 4790 – 4821
last fraction, (6), consisted of charcoal fragments, which can be 67–69 UtC 3863 6800 ± 50 7590 – 7599;
7609 – 7671
differentiated under microscope from opaque ligno-cellulosic
83–85 UtC 3864 9430 ± 110 10432 – 10437;
fragments by their brightness under the reflected light 10497 – 10774;
(Sifeddine et al., 1994). 10832 – 10838;
Radiocarbon was obtained by liquid scintillation counting at 10944 – 10946;
the “Laboratoire des Formations Superficielles” (OBDY prefix, 10956 – 11007;
11017 – 11060
IRD, Bondy, France) and counting by Accelerator Mass
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62 53

Fig. 2. Calibrated 14C age versus sediment depth in CSN93/3 and CSN93/4 cores.

progressively from 1550 cal yr B.P. reaching 0.067 cm yr− 1 at
the top of the core (Fig. 2). These changes in sedimentation rate
can be explained by the increase in productivity, attested
by coarser organic fragments, and in sedimentary pigments
indicators.
4.2. Water content, organic matter and bulk density
In cores CSN 93/3 and CSN 93/4, organic matter and water
content increased from the base of the core to ca. 33.5 cm
(1300 cal yr B.P.). Above ca. 33.5 cm, wet weight and organic
matter reached relatively constant high values, around 90%. The
density decreased towards the top (Fig. 3). Mineral material
presented high input between 11,800 cal yr B.P. and 6575 cal yr
B.P., decreasing exponentially towards the top of the core.
Organic accumulation rate shows a moderate increase between
7800 cal yr B.P. and 6600 cal yr B.P. (Fig. 4), and a large
increase after 1000 cal yr B.P.
4.3. Characterization of organic matter
Granulometric separation of total sediment by sieving
allowed the identification of the fractions where carbon is
located. The relative contribution of total organic carbon (TOC)

Fig. 3. Density and organic matter in CSN93/3 and CSN93/4 cores versus calibrated 14C age.
54 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62

Fig. 4. Mineral and organic accumulation rate in CSN93/3 and CSN93/4 cores versus calibrated 14C age.

Fig. 5. (a) total organic carbon in N200, 200–50, 50–20, b20 μm fractions and (b) carbon and nitrogen ratio in N200, 200–50, 50–20, b20 μm fractions.
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62 55

Fig. 6. Palynofacies in CSN 93/3 profile: GelOM — gelified organic matter; LCF — ligno-cellulosic fragments; GAOM — grayish amorphous organic matter; RAOM
— reddish amorphous organic matter; AmalgOM — aggregation of grayish amorphous organic matter with ca. 1 μm charcoal particles identified with 1000×
magnification; Charcoal — N2 μm charcoal particles analysed with 250× magnification.

in the N 200 μm coarse fraction is high between 0 cm and
33.5 cm (1300 cal yr B.P.) (Fig. 5a), and corresponds to the
development of macrophytes in the lake, as observed nowadays.
The C/N ratio in the four granulometric fractions showed higher
values between 6900 cal yr B.P. and 2510 cal yr B.P (Fig. 5b).
Organic petrography study indicated that the layer between
0 cm and 33.5 cm (1300 cal yr B.P.) is rich in ligno-cellulosic
fragments, gelified organic matter and reddish amorphous
organic matter, while the sediment is rich in charcoal and
grayish amorphous organic matter beneath 33.5 cm (Fig. 6).
The ligno-cellulosic, gelified organic matter and reddish amor-
phous fragments probably originated from the macrophytic
vegetation (Hui et al., 1995). Gelified organic matter has been
interpreted as derived from the degradation of plant tissues in
wet anaerobic conditions (Sifeddine et al., 1998). This will be in
good accordance with the macrophyte dominated environment.

Fig. 7. δ13C in b20 μm and 50–200 μm granulometric fractions in the CSN93/3 core.
56 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62

Fig. 8. Diagram of δ13C and C/N ratio in the CSN93/3 core.

Differently, reddish amorphous organic matter has been
associated to pedogenic organic matter in other lakes of the
region (Sifeddine et al., 2001). The match between reddish
amorphous organic matter, ligno-cellulosic fragments and Total
Organic Carbon in the coarse fractions (N 200 μm and 60–
200 μm) indicates that reddish amorphous organic matter
indeed is a product of degradation of macrophyte organic matter
in this lake. Moreover its increase toward the top of the core
while mineral content was decreasing does not correspond to a
soil origin. The development of macrophyte vegetation began at
3800 cal yr B.P. (47.5 cm) and increased after 1300 cal yr B.P.
(33.5 cm), leading to high carbon accumulation rates in the
coarsest fractions (Fig. 5a). In this uppermost layer, the C/N
ratio presents low values (Fig. 5b) and the δ13C is very negative
(Fig. 7). These values should have corresponded to algae
derived organic matter (Fig. 8, Meyers and Ishiwatari, 1993;
Meyers, 2003) but in Carajás lake N 4, the coarseness of organic
fragments and the richness in ligno-cellulosic fragments points

Fig. 9. The sedimentary facies and (a) the 410/350 nm and 667/448 ratios of the sediment acetone 90% extract; (b) the chlorophyll concentration in Sedimentary
Pigment Derivate Units in logarithmic scale and (c) the carbon accumulation rate in the coarsest fraction (N200 μm).
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
Fig. 10. The sedimentary facies and accumulation rates of (a) B. braunii colonies, (b) Corvomeyenia thumi megasclera spicules and (c) C. thumi gemosclera spicules.
towards a macrophyte origin or to periphyton associated to the
macrophyte (Fig. 8). In the uppermost layer, the δ13C values are
the same in the 200–50 μm and b20 μm fractions (Fig. 7),
which would indicate a common origin for the different organic
fractions.
The concentration of chlorophyll derivates increased towards
the top, reaching 2.54 SPDU at the top of the core (Fig. 9). This
value is low when compared to temperate lakes, as reported by
Swain (1985). Chlorophyll derivate pigments, in the surface
sediment, are correlated with the trophic state of the lake
(Gorham, 1960; Gorham et al., 1974; Guilizonni et al., 1983;
Swain, 1985). Thus, the low concentrations encountered in
Carajás lake N 4 corresponds well to those expected in an
oligotrophic lake. This is probably due to its location on a lateritic,
nutrient-poor plateau. The accumulation rate of chlorophyll
derivates is well correlated (r2 = 0.86, n = 40, p b 0.05) with the
N 200 μm carbon fraction (Fig. 9). The accumulation rate of
chlorophyll derivates is also correlated (r2 = 0.90, n = 68, p b 0.05)
with the 410/350 ratio (Fig. 9), which, according to Gorham
(1960), is associated with the trophic state of the lake. The 410/
350 ratio, which is an adimensional measurement, and the
concentration of chlorophyll derivates increased moderately at ca.
40 cm and sharply at 33.5 cm (1300 cal yr B.P.), indicating a step
up in the productivity of the system.
The 667/448 ratio (Fig. 9) expresses the relationship between
the sedimentary chlorophyll and carotenoids. The largest value
of that ratio is 0.286 at 1.0 cm depth, the smallest value is of
0.003 at 67.5 cm. It can be observed a similar pattern than the
410/350 ratio with a correlation coefficient of 0.88 (n = 68,
p b 0.01). At 68.5 cm depth the value of this ratio is high
decreasing soon after and presenting peaks at 50.5 cm (4375 cal
57
yr B.P.) and 48.5 cm (4050 cal yr B.P.). After some fluctuations
a small increase at 33.5 cm (1300 cal yr B.P.) marks a phase
with great oscillations and tendency to an elevation towards the
top. Lewis and Webezahn (1985) studied a core of Valência
Lake (Venezuela), also located in tropical area. In this work,
high carotenoids concentrations in relation to chlorophyll were
found in the clay layers of the core. The authors interpret the
high ratio of chlorophyll/carotenoids (667/448) as indicative of
an autochthonous control of the carbon accumulation rate. This
interpretation seems appropriate to the results obtained in the
present study and indicates that the increase of COT at the top of
the core is of autochthonous origin.
From the base to the top of the core, the organic matter
presented very different characteristics. The change occurred
progressively between 45.5 cm (3400 cal yr B.P.) and 33.5 cm
(1300 cal yr B.P.). At the base, the finest fraction (b20 μm)
contained most part of carbon (Fig. 5a). The sediment is poorer in
sedimentary pigment derivate (Fig. 9), the C/N ratio is higher,
particularly in the coarsest fraction (Fig. 5a), and the organic
matter tends to be less depleted in δ13C, especially in the 60–
200 μm fraction (Fig. 7). Both C/N and δ13C indicated that, in this
layer, the organic matter has a different origin from those of the
uppermost layer (Fig. 8). Distinct characteristics of organic matter
in the different granulometric fractions (Fig. 8) suggest that this
organic matter may come from specific sources. This was
confirmed by the organic petrography analysis, which showed the
substitution of grayish amorphous organic matter, by reddish
amorphous organic matter (Fig. 6). Charcoals and Amalgam of
amorphous organic material that contains micro-charcoal frag-
ments decreased from the base of the core to 18.0 cm. A
microscopic analysis at ×1000 magnification revealed that these
58 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
Fig. 11. The sedimentary facies and, in the first profile, average size of charcoal particles, in the second profile, standard deviation of particle sizes, and, in the third
profile, accumulation rate of charcoal particles.
amalgams with sizes between 10 and 30 μm are formed by fine
charcoal fragments agglomerated by grayish and/or reddish
amorphous organic matter.
4.4. Microscopical quantification
4.4.1. Corvomeyenia thumi
C. thumi is a sponge species (Porifera) adapted to shallow
ephemeral waters (Volkmer-Ribeiro, 1992; Volkmer-Ribeiro
and Turcq, 1996). Waters with high concentrations of
suspended material limit the development of this species by
reducing its filtration capacity (Melão, 1991). This fact may
explain its low accumulation rate observed at the base of the
core. Minimum values are observed between 2800 cal yr B.P.
and 1300 cal yr B.P. and from 7800 cal yr B.P. until 6850 cal yr
B.P. (Fig. 10). High megasclere accumulation rate were
observed between 6760 and 2550 cal yr B.P. and more strongly
between 1300 and 20 cal yr B.P. Since 6760 cal yr B.P. C. thumi
megasclere accumulation rate increase together with B. braunii.
Both are indicators of ephemeral lake in this case. However
megasclere and gemosclere of C. thumi accumulation rate
shows higher values during the macrophyte phase after 1300 cal
yr B.P. It is probably because the macrophyte vegetation offers a
better substratum to the sponges (Figs. 5a, 6 and 10).
4.4.2. Botryococcus braunii
B. braunii (Chlorococalles) is a colonial alga which is well
adapted to shallow and ephemeral lakes. Its ability to stock
nutrients within its cellular wall components allows it to resist
desiccation (Guy-Olson, 1992).
High accumulation rate of B. braunii was found from
7450 cal yr B.P. to 4750 cal yr B.P. (Fig. 5), at levels where the
macrophyte vegetation was poorly developed, as shown by the
small contribution of the N 200 μm size organic fraction and
ligno-cellulosic fragments (Section 4.3). The high accumulation
rate of B. braunii may be due to lake fertilization by fire
aerosols (Servant et al., 1996), but sedimentary pigment
derivates indicate that B. braunii was most abundant during
the period represented by low lake productivity (Figs. 10
and 11). An alternative hypothesis would be that an ephemeral
lake would favor the high concentration of B. braunii during
this period. The algae would survive to a desiccation event and
would be the first to develop when the lake level rose again.
These “blooms” would be favoured by the lack of competition
by other producers as the macrophytic vegetation were faintly
represented at that time, as indicated by the absence of coarse
organic matter fraction (Fig. 5a) and the poorness of ligno-
cellulosic fragments (Fig. 6). Episodic desiccation phases were
probably responsible for the absence of macrophytic vegetation
at that time. The concentration of charcoal in the sediments
correlated with the B. braunii concentration (r2 = 0.79, n = 42,
p b 0.05), which would indicate an expected relationship
between drier climate episodes and forest fires.
4.4.3. Micro-charcoal fragments
The quantification of charcoal fragments on plexiglass slides
(alkaline attack with KOH 10% see Methods) and the
calculation of charcoal accumulation rate in the CSN93/3 core
revealed the presence of different phases of particle deposition,
linked to the occurrence of regional forest fires. The relative
small size (15 μm) and angular shape of charcoal particles
indicate a large regional source area and probably an atmo-
spheric transport (Clark and Royall, 1995). From 7800 cal yr B.
P. (68.5 cm) to 7600 cal yr B.P. (67.5 cm), the charcoal
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
accumulation rate was low and constant around ca. 10,300
particles cm− 2 yr− 1. Then, the accumulation rate increased to an
average value of ca. 42,000 particles cm− 2 yr− 1 between
7600 cal yr B.P. (67.5 cm), and 4750 cal yr B.P. (52.5 cm). This
value is considerably higher than the average accumulation rate
during periods of few fire occurrences, between 2800 cal yr B.P.
to 1300 cal yr B.P. (ca. 4600 particles cm− 2 yr− 1), and after
70 cal yr B.P. (ca. 6500 particles cm− 2 yr− 1). The accumulation
rate during the late Holocene, between 1300 cal yr B.P. and
70 cal yr B.P. (9000 particles cm− 2 yr− 1) is higher than the
accumulation rate after 70 cal yr B.P. (Fig. 11). High charcoal
deposition, about 10,000 particles cm− 2 yr− 1 ± 20%., occurred
around 150 cal yr B.P., 300 cal yr B.P., 350 cal yr B.P., 600 cal
yr B.P. and 1200 cal yr B.P. During this period the mean of
charcoal fragment sizes are higher (Fig. 11) indicating probably
a more local origin of the fires. The standard deviation of
charcoal sizes is also higher probably because the input of local
fires was mixed to charcoal fragments with a distant origin.
During the phase from 7450 cal yr B.P. to 4750 cal yr B.P.,
the carbon accumulation rate in the lake seems to be associated
with the charcoal input produced by the forest fires. The carbon
in this period is predominantly linked to the b 20 μm fraction
(Figs. 8 and 9a), corresponding to micro-charcoal input, with
particle average size of 15 μm. The high values of the C/N ratios
confirm that the organic matter in this lake was substantially
affected by the alochtonous micro-charcoal input (Figs. 5b and
8). The influence of the charcoal input to the sedimentary
organic matter depends on the dilution by autochthonous
organic matter. Bird and Cali (1998) found an increase in the C/
N ratio related to an increase in black carbon deposition in an
extensive record from the African Atlantic Shelf. Likewise, the
Carajás record shows a clear relationship between the charcoal
accumulation rate and the C/N ratio, especially between
7800 cal yr B.P. and 4750 cal yr B.P.
5. Paleoenvironmental interpretations
5.1. Proxy evidence
Changes in water depth greatly affect biological, limnological
and sedimentological processes. In the present study, variations
of some proxies, such as chlorophyll derivates B. braunii
colonies and C. thumi spicules, probably correspond to changes
in the water level. B. braunii (Guy-Olson, 1992) and C. thumi
(Volkmer-Ribeiro, 1992; Volkmer-Ribeiro and Turcq, 1996) are
aquatic species adapted to shallow waters or ephemeral lakes,
and the high accumulation rates of these species are indicative, in
aquatic system, of their ecological optimum.
The concentration of chlorophyll derivates indicates produc-
tivity changes of the lake. In this case, considering the low
nutrient input from the lateritic crust surrounding the lake
basin, the aquatic production should be associated to a rise of the
lake level in relation to an increase in precipitation. In the lake N
4, the concentration of chlorophyll derivates increased during
low charcoal accumulation phases. In contrast, the phase of fire
occurrences, between 7450 cal yr B.P. and 4750 cal yr B.P., is
associated to low lake productivity and probably to a drier
59
climate. During the phase between 2800 cal yr B.P. and
1300 cal yr B.P., when the charcoal particle input was low, the
productivity increased abruptly (Fig. 7), indicating a wetter
phase.
5.2. Paleoenvironmental changes
The chronology of paleoenvironmental changes is based on
CSN 93/3 and CSN 93/4 age models. Both cores presented the
same lithological units and a good correlation in radiocarbon
chronology.
– From 89.0 to 67.5 cm; ca. 11,800 cal yr B.P. (in CSN 93/4
core) to 7600 cal yr B.P.: this phase is characterized by strong
input of clastic mineral material in the lake (Fig. 4). This
input indicates higher erosion in the watershed due to heavier
rainfall and/or regression of the vegetation cover. The
accumulation rates of total organic carbon (Fig. 4), in the
four granulometric fractions (Fig. 9) and of sedimentary
pigments derivates (Fig. 6) were low. The same is observed
for the accumulation rates of B. braunii colonies and C.
thumi spicules (Fig. 5). The absence of macrophyte
vegetation during this period may indicate high variability
in the lake level. Perhaps the dry episodes are too long to
allow the survival of B. braunii. Low accumulation rate of
charcoal, in the order of 9500 particles cm− 2 yr− 1, indicates
low occurrence of forest fires.
– From 67.5 to 52.5 cm; ca. 7600 cal yr B.P. to 4750 cal yr B.
P.: the clastic input decreased during this phase. Accumula-
tion rates of total organic carbon (Fig. 4), in the coarsest
granulometric fractions (Fig. 9) and sedimentary pigments
derivates (Fig. 6) remained low. High accumulation rates of
B. braunii, and C. thumi spicules were found (Fig. 7),
possibly indicating a more positive water budget than the
preceding period in a still ephemeral lake. There was a large
biomass burning, as indicated by high charcoal accumulation
rate principally between 7450 cal yr B.P. and 4750 cal yr B.P.
(Fig. 11). Human presence was probable in the Serra Norte
de Carajás at that time (Magalhães, 1994) and man may have
been an important contributor to forest fire ignition.
However, the good correlation between B. braunii and
charcoal concentration would indicate a direct relation
between drier episodes and larger forest fires. The same is
observed nowadays: the forest fires, due to human activities,
are exacerbated during the driest years.
– From 52.5 to 42.5 cm; ca. 4750 cal yr B.P. to 2800 cal yr B.
P.: the chlorophyll derivate accumulation rate presented
relatively high values, with a maximum at 48.5 cm, when
charcoal accumulation rate was low (Fig. 7). However, the
accumulation rate of charcoal particles still showed, on
average, high values in this interval (ca 15,000 particles
cm− 2 yr− 1).
– From 42.5 to 33.5 cm; ca 2800 cal yr B.P. to 1300 cal yr B.P.:
lacustrine production increased, as shown by the increase of
chlorophyll derivates. B. braunii colonies and C. thumi
spicules decreased (Fig. 7), probably due to an increase in
lake level. The charcoal accumulation rate presented the
60 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
lowest value in the core (1300 particles cm− 2 yr− 1, at ca
2450 yr B.P., 40.5 cm).
– From 33.5 to 7.5 cm; ca. 1300 cal yr B.P. to 70 cal yr B.P.: the
charcoal accumulation rate increased slightly, with relative
higher values at ca 1200 cal yr B.P. (10,800 particles cm− 2
yr− 1, 32.5 cm), 600 cal yr B.P. (11,900 particles cm− 2 yr− 1,
24.5 cm), 350 cal yr B.P (11,794 particles cm− 2 yr− 1,
18.5 cm), 300 cal yr B.P (14,000 particles cm− 2 yr− 1,
16.5 cm), at ca 150 cal yr B.P. (12,660 particles cm− 2 yr− 1,
11.5 cm) and at ca 70 cal yr B.P. (11,158 particles cm− 2 yr− 1,
7.5 cm). The bioindicators such as C. thumi and B. braunii
species adapted to desiccation phases increase. This period
probably witnesses the occurrence of episodic dry climate
events. The charcoal fragments are larger and the higher
standard deviation of their size indicates mixed origins
between distant and local fires.
– From 7.5 to 0 cm; ca 70 cal yr B.P. to present: the period is
characterized by the highest accumulation rate of pigments.
The mean accumulation rate of charcoal particles (6500
particles cm− 2 yr− 1) would represent accumulation rates in a
non-disturbed area (ca.1,000,000 ha preserved area), during
the present wet climate phase.
6. Holocene paleoclimate and correlation with other studies
The data presented herein indicate the occurrence of two dry
periods during the Holocene, a main one during the Lower to
Middle Holocene, between 11,800 and 4750 cal yr B.P. and a
second milder one from 1300 to ca.70 cal yr BP. The dry phase
of the Middle Holocene is well established for many South
American sites (Martin et al. 1992; Martin et al, 1993; Turcq
et al., 2002).
In La Yeguada, Panamá (8°27′N, 80°51′W, 1500 m eleva-
tion), there was a decrease in lake levels between 9150 and
6600 yr B.P. and from 2050 cal yr B.P. to 520 cal yr B.P. they
were considered by Bush et al. (1992) as dry periods. Bush and
Colinvaux (1988) have also found in Ayauch Lake (500 m high,
Equador), a dry period between 7800 cal yr B.P. and 5750 cal yr
B.P. and an even drier period between 4800 cal yr B.P and
3400 cal yr B.P. In the Anãgucocha Lake record (0°40′S, 76°25′
W, 300 m high, Equador), a dry period was observed between
3300 cal yr B.P. and 1200 cal yr B.P. (Frost, 1988), which
overlaps with the humid phase found in the core CSN 93/3. A
wet period was observed at the Yambo Lake (1°05′ S, 78°35′ W,
2600 high) between 1200 cal yr B.P. and 650 cal yr B.P.
(Colinvaux et al., 1988).
In Laguna Loma Linda (3°18′N, 73°23′W), eastern
Colombia (Behling and Hooghiemstra, 2000), the vegetation
was an open forest at 6850 cal yr B.P. and the current rainforest
only developed after 3900 cal yr B.P. In Laguna Bella Vista
(13°37′S, 61°33′W), eastern Bolivia (Mayle et al., 2000), an
increase in forest development has occurred since 2800 cal yr B.
P. In another lake, Laguna Chaplin (14°28′S, 60°04′W),
situated in the same region, the forest development began at
2200 cal yr B.P. (Mayle et al., 2000).
Lake Tititica receives precipitation from the Amazon region
and some considered it records Amazonian climate (Baker et al.,
2001). Paleoenvironmental studies in Lake Titicaca showed low
water level between 9000 cal yr B.P. and 3900 cal yr B.P.
(Wirrmann and Mourguiart, 1995; Baker et al., 2001). In the
same Andean region, ice core studies also record Middle
Holocene droughts (Thompson et al., 1992).
Absy (1979), in a palynological study of five Brazilian
Amazon lakes, showed the occurrence of dry periods in the Late
Holocene sediments at around, and shortly after, 4500 cal yr B.
P., 2100 cal yr B.P., 1400 cal yr B.P., and 1200 cal yr B.P. A
marked dry phase around 650 cal yr B.P. and a minor phase
around 500 cal yr B.P. was observed. Archaeological studies
across the Amazonian lowlands show discontinuities in cultural
sequences, represented by different ceramic traditions, at ca.
1400 cal yr B.P., 900 cal yr B.P., 650 cal yr B.P. and 500 cal yr
B.P. (Meggers, 1994). These discontinuities have been related
to dry climate event. The dry phase at 650 cal yr B.P. is also
observed in core CSN93/3 (present study), once the B. braunii
and the micro-charcoal accumulation rate presented a marked
increase.
In tropical South America, the occurrence of charcoals has
been registered in soils and lacustrine sediments (Bush et al.,
1992; Sifeddine et al., 1994; Cordeiro, 1995; Behling, 1996;
Turcq et al., 1998; Pessenda et al., 1998a,b, Behling and Costa,
2000, 2001; Sifeddine et al., 2001). The relationship between
fires and human presence is much discussed. Forest fires today
are disturbance events resulting from the interaction between
cumulative damaging effects of human forest occupation, forest
clearing by fire, and extreme drought caused by inter-annual
climatic variability, such as ENSO (Goldammer, 1999). For
example, in Malaysia, the charcoal data supports the idea that an
increase in regional burning is likely to have at least part of its
origin in climatic change, rather than solely in human influence
(Haberle and Ledru, 2001). However, the trend towards
increased burning seems to have accelerated in more recent
geological times, due to human activities (Kershaw et al., 1997).
7. Conclusions
The results presented show the occurrence of two dry phases
in the Holocene. The first and main one occurred during the
Early and Middle Holocene from, at least, 11,800 cal yr B.P. to
4750 cal yr B.P., when the proxy data suggests a low lake water
level. During this first dry phase, a high accumulation rate of
charcoal particles was observed between 7450 cal yr B.P. and
4750 cal yr B.P. The second dry phase, between 1300 cal yr B.P.
and ca. 70 cal yr BP, revealed by C. thumi and B. braunii peaks
presented less dry characteristics and showed a lower charcoal
accumulation rate, a higher variability in the charcoal deposition
and a greater size of the charcoal fragments. This is probably
due to fire occurrences more restricted to the neighbouring
forest.
The middle Holocene dry phase is in agreement with a
palynological study from the same site and are comparable with
paleoclimate data from other Amazonian regions.
The present data show that the major cause of perturbations
in the tropical forest, during the Holocene, was the climate
that modified the water balance, as revealed by changes of
 R.C. Cordeiro et al. / Global and Planetary Change 61 (2008) 49–62
lake level, leading to the occurrence of forest fires, which
were characterized by the high accumulation rate of charcoal
fragments.
The disturbance record detected here is in agreement with the
increase of atmospheric CO2 recorded in Taylor Dome
(Antarctica) during the early to Middle Holocene, ca.
8000 cal yr B.P. It indicates that Amazon forest fires could
have contributed to changes in carbon storage balance between
the terrestrial reservoir and the atmosphere.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to CNPq process 540846/01-5
(Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnoló-
gicas from Brazil), CNPq-IRD (Institut de Recherche pour le
Développemment) convention, CNPq LBA Millennium, Vale
do Rio Doce company for logistic support for the field work, the
INQUA Executive and Carbon commission in the person of Dr.
Louis Scott and Dr. Hughes Faure (In memorium), the IGCP
and the French national project LEFE-ECHOS. We also would
like to thank Dr. Marioti and ECOFIT project for the 13C
analysis.
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