NUST

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & HEALTH

Radiation & Pollution
ESH 1204

USES/ APPLICATIONS
OF RADIATION

Feb 2016
A. Maviza

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

“Every mistake is an opportunity to learn
something new"
- Unknown

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Uses of Ionising Radiation
 To diagnose and treat illnesses.
 To kill bacteria and preserve food without chemicals and
refrigeration.
 To process sludge for fertilizer and soil conditioner.
 To locate underground natural resources and tell a dry hole
from a gusher.
 To make smoke detectors, non-stick frypans, and ice cream.
 To grow stronger crops.
 To power satellites and provide future electrical needs for
space laboratories with people on board.
 To design instruments, techniques, and equipment.
 Measure air pollution.
 To prove the age of works of art and assist in determining
their authenticity.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Uses of Ionising Radiation

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Uses of Ionising Radiation

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Areas of use of radiation
 Agriculture
 Medicine
 Space Exploration
 Architecture /Engineering
 Industry/Manufacturing
 Government
 Geology (Including Mining)
 Ecology
 Education

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Medicine

Use in nuclear medicine

 For Diagnosis
 Therapy

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Medicine

 Diagnoses due to Differential absorption

 Plain radiography- 2 dimensional images

 Interventional techniques- use of contrast

 Computerised tomography- cross-sectional images

(NB: Read more about these)

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Medicine:
Radiation Therapy
 To treat some diseases e.g. cancer where
malignant growths are subjected to high
doses of radiation in order to kill off the
cancerous cells.
 Used radically or pallliatively on its own or

with other modalities:

◦ Pre-operative
◦ Post- operative
◦ Palliative
◦ NB: Read more on these

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Medicine:
Radiation Therapy
 Palliative Use, to control symptoms e.g. Pain,
Bleeding and Pathological fractures

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Medicine:
Radiation Therapy
 Radiation is used to treat certain cancers.
 Radioactive iodine, e.g. iodine-131, ( with a

Half life of 8 days; a Beta and gamma emitter)

is being used to treat thyroid cancer.
 Radioactive iron, Fe-59 (half life 45days: beta

and gamma emitter) used for blood studies

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in medicine:
Diagnosis
 Radioactive pharmaceuticals are injected into the
patients
 These are taken up by specific organs e.g.
pancreas, kidney, thyroid, liver, or brain.
 Function and conditions of these are assessed to
diagnose clinical conditions.
 Distribution of the isotope can detect abnormalities
◦ Hot Spots – high activity
◦ Cold spots- low activity
 E.gs hyperthyroidism, bone cancer, brain tumours, etc.

Equipment Used
 Scintillation counter
 Gamma camera

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in medicine:
Sterilisation  
 Many medical products today are sterilised by gamma
rays from a cobalt-60 source, a technique which
generally is much cheaper and more effective than steam
heat sterilisation.
 The disposable syringe is an example of a product
sterilised by gamma rays. Because it is a 'cold' process
radiation can be used to sterilise a range of heat-
sensitive items such as powders, ointments and
solutions and biological preparations such as bone,
nerve, skin, etc, used in tissue grafts.  
 Apart from syringes, medical products sterilised by
radiation include cotton wool, burn dressings, surgical
gloves, heart valves, bandages, plastic and rubber sheets
and surgical instruments.
NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016
 Radiation In Science
 Scientists can label substances that pass
through plants, animals, or our world.
 To study such things as the paths that
different types of air and water pollution take
through the environment.
 To detect what types of soil different plants
need to grow,
 To detect the size of newly discovered oil
fields, underground water bodies
 The track of ocean currents.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Science:
Radiocarbon Dating Method
 To find the age of ancient objects - carbon dating.
 e.g. in the upper levels of our atmosphere, cosmic
rays hit atoms of nitrogen and form a naturally
radioactive isotope called carbon-14.
 Carbon is found in all living things & A small % of
this carbon is carbon 14.
 When a plant or animal dies, it no longer takes in
new carbon
 The carbon-14 it contains begins the process of
radioactive decay.
 However, new isotopes of carbon-14 continue to
be formed in our atmosphere,
 After a few years the % of radioactivity in an old
object is less than it is in a newer one.
 By measuring these differences we are able to
determine the age of objects.
NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016
 Radiation In Science
 To find the age of ancient objects - carbon dating.
 e.g. in the upper levels of our atmosphere, cosmic rays
hit atoms of nitrogen and form a naturally radioactive
isotope called C-14.
 Carbon is found in all living things & A small % of this
carbon is carbon 14.
 When a plant or animal dies,no longer takes in new C
 The C-14 it contains begins the process of radioactive
decay.
 However, new isotopes of C-14 continue to be formed
in our atmosphere,
 After a few years the % of radioactivity in an old object
is less than it is in a newer one.
 By measuring these differences we are able to
determine the age of objects.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Science:
Radiocarbon Dating Method
 Carbon is found in all life
 It has 3 isotopes
◦ Carbon 12 and 13 are stable but carbon 14 is not
◦ Carbon 14 has a half-life of 5730 years
◦ Carbon 14 dating uses the carbon 14/carbon 12
ratio of material that was once living
 The short half-life of carbon 14 makes it
suitable for dating material < 70,000 years old
 It is not useful for most rocks, but is useful
for archaeology and young geologic materials

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Science:
Radiocarbon Dating Method

NB: Read more on how

Carbon dating works

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Science:
Radiodating (some isotopes used)
 The isotopes used in radiometric dating need
to be sufficiently long-lived so the amount of
parent material left is measurable
◦ Such isotopes include:

Parents Daughters Half-Life (years)

Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.5 billion
Most of these
Uranium 234 Lead 207 704 million are useful for
Thorium 232 Lead 208 14 billion dating older
Rubidium 87 Strontium 87 48.8 billion rocks
Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.3 billion

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation In Science
Environmental tracers
 Radioisotopes also play an important role in
detecting and analysing pollutants, since even very
small amounts of a radioisotope can easily be
detected, and the decay of short-lived isotopes
means that no residues remain in the environment. 
 Nuclear techniques have been applied to a range of
pollution problems including smog formation,
sulphur dioxide contamination of the atmosphere,
sewage dispersal from ocean outfalls and oil spills. 

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Forensic science
 Detectives search the scene of a crime for traces of
paint, glass, hair, gunpowder, or blood.
 This is evidence is often exposed to radiation and
then analyzed to find out its exact makeup.
 If material is exposed to streams of neutrons,
 some of the neutrons can be absorbed into the
nucleus of the exposed material.
 Causing the material to be slightly radioactive
 These are unstable and decay with time.
 Scientists are then able to read the exact chemical
signatures of theses substances.

NB: Read more on uses of radiation in forensics

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Radiation in Forensic science

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Radiation in Forensic Science: Activation Analysis

 Can tell if a single hair found at the scene of a

crime came from a certain person.
 Can be used to find out the chemical makeup of
materials when scientists only have small samples,
 Can be used to prove that older works of art are
not made of modern materials.

PGAA Spectrometer
(Prompt Gamma-ray
Activation Analysis
instrument)
 Radiation in Industry
 Radiation (eg, x-rays) can kill germs without harming
the items that are being disinfected and without
making them radioactive.
 Food treated with radiation, takes much longer to
spoil,
 Medical equipment such as bandages, hypodermic
syringes, and surgical instruments can be sterilized
using radiation other than exposure to toxic chemicals
or extreme heat.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Industry
Industrial tracers
 The ability to measure radioactivity in minute amounts has

given radioisotopes a wide range of applications in industry

as 'tracers'.
 By adding small amounts of radioactive substances to

materials used in various processes it is possible to study

the mixing and flow rates of a wide range of materials,
including liquids, powders and gases and to locate leaks.
 Tracers added to lubricating oils can help measure the rate

of wear of engines and plant and equipment.

 Tracer techniques have been used in plant operations to

check the performance of equipment and improve its

efficiency, resulting in savings in energy and the better use
of raw materials.
NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016
 Radiation in Industry
Instruments
 Gauges containing radioactive (usually gamma) sources are in wide
use in all industries where levels of gases, liquids and solids must
be checked.
 They measure the amount of radiation from a source which has been
absorbed in materials. These gauges are most useful where heat,
pressure or corrosive substances, such as molten glass or molten
metal, make it impossible or difficult to use direct contact gauges.
 Radioisotope thickness gauges are used in the making of continuous
sheets of material including paper, plastic film, metal, glass, etc.,
when it is desirable to avoid contact between the gauge and the
material.
 Density gauges are used where automatic control of a liquid, powder
or solid is important, for example, in detergent manufacture.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Industry
Radioisotope power sources
 Some radioisotopes emit a lot of energy as they
decay. Such energy can be harnessed for heart
pacemakers and to power navigation beacons and
satellites.
 The decay heat of plutonium-238 has powered
many US space vehicles.
 It enabled the Cassini space probe to investigate
Saturn, and it powers the Mars Science Laboratory,
the rover Curiosity.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Industry
Radiaography
 Radioisotopes which emit gamma rays are more
portable than x-ray machines, and may give
higher-energy radiation, so can be used to check
welds of new gas and oil pipeline systems, with the
radioactive source being placed inside the pipe and
the film outside the welds.
 Other forms of radiography (neutron radiography/

autoradiography), based on different principles, can

be used to gauge the thickness and density of
materials or locate components that are not visible
by other means.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Industry
 To help clean up toxic pollutants
 E.g. exhaust gases from coal-fired power stations
and industry.
 Sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides can be
removed by electron beam radiation.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Radiation in Industry

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation
 Use of ionising radiation from radioactive
isotopes of cobalt or cesium or from
accelerators that produce controlled amounts
of beta rays or x-rays on food.
 Food does not become radioactive

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation
 Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation
Benefits Of Food Irradiation
 Decrease in
foodborne
illnesses
 Shelf life of

food can be
extended

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation
 Use of ionising radiation from radioactive
isotopes of cobalt or cesium or from
accelerators that produce controlled amounts
of beta rays or x-rays on food.
 Food does not become radioactive

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation

Why the interest in food irradiation?

 Increasing concern over foodborne diseases and
uses of certain chemicals in food
 High post-harvest food losses from infestation,
contamination, & microbial spoilage
 Stringent regulations related to quality &
quarantine in international trade in food products

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in the Food Industry:
Food Irradiation
Effects of irradiation on food
 Nutrients in food – no significant impairment
observed
 Wholesomeness of irradiated foods
WHO (1992) “Irradiated food produced under
established Good manufacturing Practices is to be
considered safe and nutritionally adequate
because:

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Agriculture
 To improve food production, Plant seeds, have
been exposed to radiation to bring about new and
better types of plants.
 Radiation can also be used to control insects
populations, thereby decreasing the use of
pesticides.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Agriculture
Fertilisers
 Fertilisers are expensive hence their efficient use of
fertilisers is of concern .
 It is important that as much of the fertiliser as possible
finds its way into plants & a minimum is lost to the
environment.
 Fertilisers 'labelled' with isotopes, such as Nitrogen-15 and
Phosphorus-32 provide a means of finding out how much
is taken up by the plant and how much is lost, allowing
better management of fertiliser application.
 Using N-15 also enables assessment of how much nitrogen
is fixed from the air by soil and by root bacteria in
legumes.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation in Air Space
 Plutonium-238 has powered many US space
vehicles/spacecrafts.
 Such materials have also been used to supply
electricity to satellites sent on missions to the outer
most regions of our solar system.
 E.g.powered the Cassini space probe to Saturn, & it
powers Mars Science Laboratory, Rover Curiosity.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Radiation: Other uses
Smoke detectors
 One of the commonest uses of radioisotopes today

is in household smoke detectors.

 These contain a small amount of Americium-241

which is a decay product of Plutonium-241

originating in nuclear reactors.
 The Am-241 emits alpha particles which ionise the

air and allow a current between two electrodes.

 If smoke enters the detector it absorbs the alpha

particles and interrupts the current, setting off the

alarm. 
 Radiation:Future Uses
 To disinfect drinking water
 Kill all the germs in the sewage.
 N/B Ultraviolet light is already used to

disinfect drinking water in some homes.

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Future Uses

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

Questions

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016

 Self Study Topics
 Research on other various uses/ applications of
radiation in various industries e.g. military &
defense.
 Research about the debate on food irradiation

NUST, ESH 1204, By A. Maviza 2016