ISOTOPES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but some may have different
numbers of neutrons. For example, carbon atoms with the usual 6 neutrons have a mass number of
12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12), so they are called carbon-12. Atoms of the same element that
differ in their numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Different isotopes of an element generally
have the same physical and chemical properties because they have the same numbers of protons
and electrons.

Stable isotopes have a stable proton-neutron combination and do not display any sign of decay. This
stability comes from the number of neutrons present in an atom. If an atom has too many or too few
neutrons, it is unstable and tends to disintegrate. Since stable isotopes do not decay, they do not
produce radiation or its associated health risks.

Scientists performing environmental and ecological experiments use stable isotopes of oxygen,
hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and carbon. For example, in geochemistry, scientists study the chemical
composition of geological materials such as minerals and rocks. Stable isotopes are dependable tools
for determining many facts about geological materials, such as their age and where they came from.

Radioactive isotopes have an unstable combination of protons and neutrons. These isotopes decay,
emitting radiation that includes alpha, beta and gamma rays. Scientists classify radioactive isotopes
according to their creation process: long-lived, cosmogenic, anthropogenic and radiogenic.

Long-lived radioactive isotopes emerged during the creation of the solar system, while cosmogenic
radioactive isotopes occur as a reaction of the atmosphere to cosmic rays emitted by stars.
Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear activities, such as weapons testing and
nuclear fuel production, while radiogenic isotopes are the end result of radioactive decay.

Radioactive isotopes find uses in agriculture, food industry, pest control, archeology and medicine.
Radiocarbon dating, which measures the age of carbon-bearing items, uses a radioactive isotope
known as carbon-14. In medicine, gamma rays emitted by radioactive elements are used to detect
tumors inside the human body. Food irradiation -- the process of exposing food to a controlled level
of gamma rays -- kills many types of bacteria, making food safer to eat.