General Chemistry 1: Grade 12 STEM (WEEK 2) Page 1 of 18

LEARNING PACKET IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

LEARNERS: GRADE 12 STEM

DURATION: WEEK 2

MELC AND CODE:

1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses. (STEM_GC11AMIc-e19)
2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas, and
models. (STEM_GC11AMIc-e-21)
3. Name compounds given their formula and write formula given the name of
the compound. (STEM_GC11AMIc-e-23)
4. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound.
(STEM_GC11PCIf-32)
__________________________________________________________________________
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR LEARNERS

ISOTOPES
Isotopes are variants of a chemical element which differ in neutron number, and
consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom. Some
isotopes are naturally occurring while others are artificially produced. Isotopes
of an element share similar chemical properties but have different nuclear
properties. Every element has isotopes. The 81 stable elements have 275
isotopes. But, elements with stable isotopes also have radioactive isotopes or
radioisotopes. The radioactive elements, on the other hand, have no stable
isotopes. Over 800 radioactive isotopes have been identified. Some of the
radioactive isotopes are natural, while others have only been produced in the
laboratory.
ISOTOPE EXAMPLES
Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14 are isotopes of Carbon, with 6, 7, and 8
neutrons respectively (all with 6 protons). Carbon-12 is a stable isotope, while
carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope (radioisotope). The isotopes of hydrogen are
hydrogen-1 (protium, which is a stable isotope), hydrogen-2 (deuterium, which
is another stable isotope), and hydrogen-3 (tritium, which is a radioisotope).
Uranium-235 and uranium-238 are two isotopes of uranium. Both are natural
isotopes that are found in the Earth’s crust.
( https://sciencenotes.org/what-is-an-isotope-definition-and-examples/)
ISOTOPIC NOTATION
Isotope notation, also known as nuclear notation, is important because it allows
us to use a visual symbol to easily determine an isotope's mass number, atomic

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number, and to determine the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus
without having to use a lot of words.

Example 1: What is the isotopic notation for the isotope carbon-14? From the
periodic table, we see that the atomic number (number of protons) for the
element carbon is 6. The name carbon-14 tells us that this isotope's mass number
is 14. The chemical symbol for carbon is C. Now write the isotopic notation for
carbon-14. We can determine the number of neutrons as 14−6=8 neutrons.

STABLE ISOTOPES
Stable isotopes have a stable proton-neutron combination and do not display
any sign of decay. This stability comes from the number of neutrons present in
an atom. If an atom has too many or too few neutrons, it is unstable and tends
to disintegrate. Since stable isotopes do not decay, they do not produce
radiation or its associated health risks.

USES OF STABLE ISOTOPES

Scientists performing environmental and ecological experiments use stable
isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and carbon. For example, in
geochemistry, scientists study the chemical composition of geological materials
such as minerals and rocks. Stable isotopes are dependable tools for
determining many facts about geological materials, such as their age and where
they came from.

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
Radioactive isotopes have an unstable combination of protons and neutrons.
These isotopes decay, emitting radiation that includes alpha, beta and gamma
rays. Scientists classify radioactive isotopes according to their creation process:
long-lived, cosmogenic, anthropogenic and radiogenic. Long-lived radioactive
isotopes emerged during the creation of the solar system, while cosmogenic
radioactive isotopes occur as a reaction of the atmosphere to cosmic rays
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emitted by stars. Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-made nuclear
activities, such as weapons testing and nuclear fuel production, while
radiogenic isotopes are the result of radioactive decay.
USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
Radioactive isotopes find uses in agriculture, food industry, pest control,
archeology and medicine. Radiocarbon dating, which measures the age of
carbon-bearing items, uses a radioactive isotope known as carbon-14. In
medicine, gamma rays emitted by radioactive elements are used to detect
tumors inside the human body. Food irradiation -- the process of exposing food
to a controlled level of gamma rays -- kills many types of bacteria, making food
safer to eat. https://sciencing.com/types-isotopes-uses-8571746.html

CHEMICAL FORMULA
A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a
compound. It contains the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the
compound as well as how many there are for each element in the form of
subscripts.

Each chemical substance has a specific chemical composition, so these chemical

substances have their own chemical formula. Let's take a look at the chemical
formula of sucrose: there are 12 carbon (C) atoms, 22 hydrogen (H) atoms and
11 oxygen (O) atoms.

There are different types of chemical formulas and each type gives us different
information about a chemical substance. The different types of chemical
formulas include molecular, empirical, structural and condensed structural
formulas.
The molecular formula, sometimes known as the true formula, tells us the
actual number of the different elements in one molecule of a compound. In a
molecular formula, each element is written as their symbols in the periodic
table, and the number of atoms for each element is shown by the subscript (the
small number to the lower right of the element). Here are some examples of
molecular formulas:

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If we look at butane, we see it has 4 carbon (C) atoms and 10 hydrogen (H)
atoms.

The empirical formula is defined as the simplest ratio of whole numbers of

elements that make up a compound, and this type of formula is derived from
experimental data. Just like how we simplify fractions in math class, in
chemistry we can simplify formulas as well. In this case, let's look at the
molecular formula of glucose:

While the molecular formula gives us the actual number of atoms of each
element in a molecule, the empirical formula gives us the simplest ratio and not
the actual number of atoms of an element. Here are some examples of empirical
formulas derived from molecular formulas:

Sometimes, there are molecular formulas that are already at their simplest ratio
which means they cannot be further reduced. In these cases, the molecular
formula is the same as the empirical formula which can be seen with these
examples.

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In Sucrose, the subscripts 12, 22 and 11 do not have a greatest common factor,
so they cannot be further reduced. The same goes with ethanol.

The structural formula shows both the actual number of atoms of elements in
a compound, how the atoms are arranged and which atoms are bonded to one
another. Here are the structural formulas of ethane, propane and ethanol. The
molecular formulas of each are reflected below the structural formulas.

A molecular model, in this article, is a physical model that represents molecules.

Molecular models fall into three basic categories: ball-and-stick, skeletal, and
space-filling. The best way to study the three-dimensional shapes of molecules
is by using molecular models.

In chemistry, the ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical

substance which is to display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms
and the bonds between them.[1] The atoms are typically represented by
spheres, connected by rods which represent the bonds.

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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Inorganic compounds are formed by combining two or more atoms of different
elements in fixed proportion by mass. The general characteristics of inorganic
compounds are:
They don’t possess C-H and C-C bonds.
They are ionic.
Highly soluble in water.
Non-volatile
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Highly reactive and form less complex set of products
They are formed due to natural processes or are made in laboratories.
However, Wohler found exceptions to this.
They make salts.
Contain metals and other elements.
Mostly function as catalysts.
Based on inorganic compound constituents, ionic compounds could be
classified into bases, acids, and salts. An ionic compound that has hydrogen
ions (H+) is classified as an acid. Conversely, an ionic compound that has
hydroxide (OH–) or oxide (O2-) is classified as a base. An ionic compound
formed by acid-base reactions and without those ions is called a salt.
INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
REFER to the attached handout.

PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

The percentage composition of an element in a compound is the mass
percentage of the element present in the compound. It tells the mass percentage
of each element present in a compound.

DETERMINING PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

All we need is the molecular formula and the molar mass of each element
present in a compound to determine percentage composition. It is the
percentage ratio of the total mass of an element to the total mass of the
compound.

Now, the total mass of each element is the molar mass of that element times the
number of atoms of that element. And the molar mass of a compound is the
sum of the molar mass times the number of atoms of each element.

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Example: Water
Let take a real example. Water, the most abundant compound in our solar
system, is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. The molecular formula is H2O.
One mole of water has two moles of hydrogen atoms and one mole of oxygen
atoms.
1. The molar mass MH2O of water is as follows:

2. The percentage composition of hydrogen in water is calculated as follows:

3. Similarly, for oxygen,

4. Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to 100 %.

MOLE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Mole percentage composition is a mole percentage of each element in a
compound. We only need the molecular formula of a compound to determine
it.

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 Example: Carbon Dioxide
The molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO2. So, one mole of CO2 contains
one mole of carbon and two moles of oxygen. Thus, the total number of moles
is nC + nO = 1 + 2 = 3 mol.
1. The mole per cent of carbon in carbon dioxide is as follows:

2. Similarly, for oxygen:

APPLICATION OF PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

To Identify Unknown Chemicals
By knowing the mass percentage of each element in a compound, we can determine
the molecular formula (or empirical formula if the molar mass of the compound is
unknown). Consider the following example.
Example: To Determine Molecular Formula from Mass Percentages
1. It is known that a chemical compound contains 52.14 % carbon, 13.13 %
hydrogen, and 34.73 % oxygen. The molar mass of the chemical is also
known; it is 46.069 g mol−1.
First, we need to convert the mass percentages into moles. Consider 100 g of
the compound.
So, it has 52.14 g of carbon, 13.13 g of hydrogen, and 34.73 g of oxygen.
Now, the respective moles are:
nC = 52.14 ÷ 12.011 = 4.341 mol,
nH = 13.13 ÷ 1.008 = 13.026 mol, and
nO = 34.73 ÷ 15.999 = 2.170 mol.
2. Now, we take the mole to mole ratio of each element such that the divisor is
the smallest number.

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 Thus, we have nC : nH : nO = 2 : 6 : 1.
3. We can determine the empirical formula from the mole ratios. So, the
empirical formula is C2H6O. And the molar mass of the empirical mass is
as follows:

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VOCABULARY WORDS
Proton -(noun): a positively charged subatomic particle.
Nucleons -(noun): all the subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom, the
protons and neutrons.
Radioactive -(adjective): a scientific term for an energy- emitting substance or
thing. A material containing unstable nuclei.
Radioactive decay-(noun): (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive
disintegration or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
Nomenclature -(noun): a system for naming things.

__________________________________________________________________________
STUDY-GUIDE QUESTIONS

➢ What are ➢ What is a ➢ What are the ➢ What is ➢ How is

isotopes? chemical characteristics percent empirical
➢ What are the formula and of inorganic composition? formula of
common a molecular compounds? ➢ What are the compounds
isotopes? model? ➢ How are steps in deduced from
➢ How is an ➢ How do inorganic determining their percent
isotopic chemical compounds percent composition?
notation formula, classified? composition
written? structural ➢ What are the of
➢ What are the formula, and distinguishing compounds?
uses of molecular features of
isotopes? model differ acids, bases,
from each and salts?
other? ➢ What are the
➢ How are rules in
chemical and naming
structural inorganic
formulas compounds?
written?

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ACTIVITIES
1. “Writing Isotopic Notations”
Apply the generic notation for element X to write the correct notations for the
following isotopes:
a) Americium-241

b) Cesium-137

c) Cobalt-60

d) Iodine-131

e) Fluorine-18

18
F
9
2. “Ball-Stick Model”
Identify one industrially beneficial compound and construct a ball-stick model of that
compound using locally available and scrap materials. Send a picture of your model to
claresamcaneda@gmail.com.

CRITERIA POINTS
CREATIVITY (30%)
The use of the imagination or original ideas
INDIGENIZATION (40%)
The use of local and indigenous materials
COLOR COMBINATION (10%)
The model express beauty and art
SYMMETRY (10%)
Balance in shape, form, texture, space, and
color.
TIMELINESS (10%)
Time expectation for submission
TOTAL 100%
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3. “Acids, Bases, and Salts”
Apply the rules to name the acids, bases, and salts given their chemical formula and
write the chemical formula given their names.
Chemical Formula IUPAC Name IUPAC Name Chemical Formula
1. NaOH 11. Calcium
2. HCl carbonate
3. H2SO4 12. Carbonic acid
4. HF 13. Hydroiodic acid
5. BaSO4 14. Iron (II) sulfate
6. Mg(OH)2 15. Lithium
hydroxide
7. FeCl3 16. Sodium
bicarbonate
17. Hydrocyanic
8. CuO acid
18. Potassium
iodide
9. KOH 19. Copper (I) oxide
20. Silver nitrate
10. KMnO4

4. “Percent Composition Calculation”

Calculate the percent composition of NITROGEN in the following nitrate, nitrite,
and nitride.
a) Sodium nitrate
b) Selenium nitrite (bonus item) this is supposedly Ammonium nitrite
c) Cesium nitride

5. “Determination of Empirical and Molecular Formula from Percent

Composition”
Use the given percent composition to determine the compound’s empirical and
molecular formula.

a) A compound is found to contain 64.80 % carbon, 13.62 % hydrogen, and

21.58 % oxygen by weight. What is the empirical formula for this compound?
The molecular weight for this compound is 74.14 g/mol. What is its molecular
formula?

b) Ammonia reacts with phosphoric acid to form a compound that contains 28.2%
nitrogen, 20.8% phosphorous, 8.1% hydrogen and 42.9% oxygen. Calculate
the empirical formula of this compound.

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 Sample Problem:
A compound is found to contain 50.05 % sulfur and 49.95 %
oxygen by weight. What is the empirical formula for this
compound? The molecular weight for this compound is 64.07
g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
Solution:
1) Assume 100 g of the compound is present. This changes the
percent to grams:
S ⇒ 50.05 g
O ⇒ 49.95 g
2) Convert the masses to moles:
S ⇒ 50.05 g / 32.066 g/mol = 1.5608 mol
O ⇒ 49.95 g / 16.00 g/mol = 3.1212 mol
3) Divide by the lowest, seeking the smallest whole-number
ratio:
S ⇒ 1.5608 / 1.5608 = 1
O ⇒ 3.1212 / 1.5608 = 2
4) Write the empirical formula:
SO2
5) Compute the "empirical formula weight:
32 + 16 + 16 = 64
6) Divide the molecule weight by the "EFW:"
64.07 / 64 = 1
7) Use the scaling factor computed just above to determine the
molecular formula:
SO2 times 1 gives SO2 for the molecular formula

REFLECTION ON LEARNING
NOVICE INTER PROFICIENT DISTINGUISHED MASTER
COMPETENCIES MEDIATE
1 2 3 4 5
1. Recognize
common isotopes
and their uses.
(STEM_GC11AMIc
-e19)
2. Represent
compounds using
General Chemistry 1: Grade 12 STEM (WEEK 2) Page 13 of 18
 chemical formulas,
structural
formulas, and
models.
(STEM_GC11AMIc
-e-21)
3. Name compounds
given their
formula and write
formula given the
name of the
compound.
(STEM_GC11AMIc
-e-23)
4. Calculate the
empirical formula
from the percent
composition of a
compound.
(STEM_GC11PCIf-
32)

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REFERENCES
1. Teaching Guide in General Chemistry 1
2. https://sciencenotes.org/what-is-an-isotope-definition-and-examples/
3. https://sciencing.com/types-isotopes-uses-8571746.html

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INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
I. BINARY COMPOUNDS (contain two elements): Name the more metallic element
first and the less metallic element second, putting an "-ide" ending on the less metallic
element. These compounds fall into three naming classes.
A. Covalent molecules (non-metal + non-metal): Use Latin numerical prefixes to show the
number of atoms of each element in the molecule.

B. Ionic compounds or salts (metal + non-metal): These contain metal cations and non-
metal anions. The positive oxidation number of the metal is indicated by a Roman
numeral in parentheses after the name of the metal. It is common to omit the Roman
numeral for Group IA and IIA cations as they only form +1 and +2 cations respectively
and for a few other cations with only one known oxidation state (Al3+, Ag+, Zn 2+,
Cd2+). In addition, Group VIIA form -1 anions, Group VIA form -2 anions, and Group
VA (N and P) form -3 anions.

C. Binary Acids (H + Group VIA or VIIA element): This special class applies to
compounds with H together with Group VIA or VIIA elements. They are
covalent as pure compounds, but form ions in water. Thus, they must be named
according to whether water solvent is present or not. The pure (covalent)
compound is named as in Part A, above, while the aqueous solutions are named
by modifying the stem of the non-metal by adding a "hydro-" prefix and an "-
ic" ending.

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II. TERNARY COMPOUNDS (contain three elements): These include the ternary
acids (oxo-acids) and the ternary salts formed by the anions of the acids.

A. Ternary acids (H + non-metal + oxygen): Most of the non-metals form more

than one oxo-acid that differ by the number of oxygen atoms in the formulas.
One ternary acid for each non-metal is designated as the reference acid and
the others are named in reference to it by using these prefixes and suffixes
determined by the number of oxygen atoms present.

B. Ternary salts (metal + non-metal + oxygen): These are ionic compounds with a
metal cation and an oxo-acid anion. They are named similar to the ionic binary
compounds. The oxidation state of the metal is given in Roman numerals after
the name of the metal. The anion from the oxo-acid ends in "-ate" if the acid
name ends "-ic" but the anion name ends in "-ite" if the acid name ends in "-
ous".

COMMON REFERENCE ACID FORMULAS

You should learn common reference acid formulas in the table below and the
naming pattern given on the reverse side. This will enable you to name all the
common oxo-acids and the oxo-anion salts.

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 COMMON IONS AND NAMES
The following table lists the most common members of the classes of cations and
anions. Many of the transition metals form more than one positive oxidation state.
By learning the proper formula and charge of anions, you can determine the
positive state of the metal in a compound without memorizing a long list of metal
ions and their charges.

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