General Chemistry 1

First semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Learning Competencies:
1. Recognize common isotopes and their uses.
2. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models
3.

LESSON 1:
COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

An isotope is any of two or more forms of an element where the atoms have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons; the forms have the same atomic number but a different mass
number. Isotopes may be stable or radioactive. Stable isotopes do not undergo nuclear decay while
radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo nuclear decay. Some radioisotopes/radioactive isotopes and
their uses are listed in the table below.
Radioisotopes Applications
Carbon-11 Tagged onto glucose to monitor organs during a PET scan
Carbon-14 Carbon dating of organisms and substances; used to study steps in plant
photosynthesis; used to study metabolism changes for patients with diabetes,
gout and anemia
Cobalt-60 Radiation therapy to prevent cancer growth
Iodine-123
Iodine-131 Treat thyroid disorders; used to locate brain tumors, monitor cardiac, liver and
thyroid activity
Phosphorus-32 Used in molecular biology and genetics research
Phosphorus-33
Sodium-24 Used in oil well studies and to locate leaks in pipe lines; used to study blood
circulation
Thallium-201 Determine damage in heart tissue, detection of tumors
Fluorine-18, Gallium- Common radioisotopes used in nuclear medical imaging
67, Krypton-81m,
Rubidium-82, Nitrogen-
13, Technetium-99m,
Indium-111, Iodine-
123, Xenon-133, And
Thallium-201
General Chemistry 1
First semester, S.Y 2020-2021
LESSON 2:
CHEMICAL AND STRUCTURAL FORMULAS AND MODELS
A. Molecular Formulas
Molecular formulas are a compact chemical notation that describe the type and number of atoms in
a single molecule of a compound. Molecular formulas describe the exact number and type of atoms in a
single molecule of a compound. The constituent elements are represented by their chemical symbols, and
the number of atoms of each element present in each molecule is shown as a subscript following that
element’s symbol. The molecular formula expresses information about the proportions of atoms that
constitute a particular chemical compound, using a single line of chemical element symbols and numbers.
Sometimes it also includes other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (–)
signs. A molecular formula is not a chemical name, and it contains no words. Although a molecular formula
may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula.
Molecular formulas are more limiting than chemical names and structural formulas.

B. Empirical Formulas
The simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which indicate the ratio of
each element in the molecule. The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of all the atoms in
a molecule. Examples: glucose (molecular formula: C6H12O6) has an empirical formula of CH2O and hydrogen
peroxide (molecular formula: H2O2) has an empirical formula of HO.

C. Structural Formulas
The structural formula of a chemical compound is a graphic representation of the molecular
structure, showing how the atoms are possibly arranged in the real three-dimensional space. A structural
formula is used to indicate not only the number of atoms, but also their arrangement in space. A structural
formula is not as compact and easy to communicate, but it provides information that the molecular formula
does not about the relative positioning of atoms and the bonding between atoms. Compounds that share a
chemical formula but have different chemical structures are known as isomers, and they can have quite
different physical properties.

Figure 1. Molecules of acetic acid (a) and methyl formate (b) are structural isomers; they have the same formula (C 2H4O2) but different
structures (and therefore different chemical properties).

D. Ball-and-stick Model
A ball-and-stick model shows the geometric arrangement of the atoms with atomic sizes not to scale.

E. Space-filling model
A space-filling model shows the relative sizes of the atoms.
General Chemistry 1
First semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Figure 2. A methane molecule can be represented as (a) a molecular formula, (b) a structural formula, (c) a ball-and-stick model, and (d) a
space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen atoms are represented by black and white spheres, respectively

Subscripts and Coefficients

Although many elements consist of discrete, individual atoms, some exist as molecules made up of two or
more atoms of the element chemically bonded together. For example, most samples of the elements hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen are composed of molecules that contain two atoms each (called diatomic molecules) and thus
have the molecular formulas H2, O2, and N2, respectively. Other elements commonly found as diatomic molecules are
fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2). The most common form of the element sulfur is composed
of molecules that consist of eight atoms of sulfur; its molecular formula is S 8.

It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a number in front of a symbol (coefficient) do
not represent the same thing; for example, H2 and 2H represent distinctly different species. H2 is a molecular formula;
it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen, consisting of two atoms of the element that are chemically bonded
together. The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two separate hydrogen atoms that are not combined as a
unit. The expression 2H2 represents two molecules of diatomic hydrogen.

Figure 3. The symbols H, 2H, H2, and 2H2 represent very different entities.

Summary:

 A molecular formula uses chemical symbols and subscripts to indicate the exact numbers of different atoms in a
molecule or compound.
 An empirical formula gives the simplest, whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
 A structural formula indicates the bonding arrangement of the atoms in the molecule.
 Ball-and-stick and space-filling models show the geometric arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
 Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.

Activity 1:

1. Molecules of glucose (blood sugar) contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. What are the
molecular and empirical formulas of glucose?

2. A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains 8 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and
4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?

3. Write the empirical formula of the following compounds:

a) C6H6 b) C8H18 c) C2H6O2

General Chemistry 1
First semester, S.Y 2020-2021
LESSON 3:
PERCENT COMPOSITION AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS
Percent Composition by Mass
The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.

𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥 100%
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Where n = number of atoms of the element

Example:
1. What is the percent composition of CO2?
𝑔
𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1 𝑥 (12.01𝑚𝑜𝑙)
%C = 𝑥 100% = 𝑔 𝑥 100% = 27.29%
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 44.01𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
𝑛 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2 𝑥 (16.00𝑚𝑜𝑙)
%O = 𝑥 100% = 𝑔 𝑥 100% = 72.71%
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 44.01𝑚𝑜𝑙

Thus, CO2 is composed of 27.29% C atom and 72.71% O atom.

Empirical Formula from Percent Composition

The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated from the percent composition. Because percentage is given,
it is convenient to assume 100.00 grams of the compound.

Example:
1. A compound is found to consist of 7.81% C and 92.19% Cl. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. The sample will therefore contain 7.81 g C and 92.19 g Cl. The grams are
converted to moles to get the ratios of the moles of the elements in the compound:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
7.81 𝑔 𝑥 = 0.650 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶
12.01 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙
92.19 𝑔 𝑥 = 2.601 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶
35.45 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

The compound is C0.650Cl2.601. But chemical formulas are expressed in whole numbers. Empirical formulas are
expressed as the lowest whole number ratio between the atoms. To convert to whole numbers, divide the number of
moles by the smallest value (that is 0.650).
0.650
𝐶: =1
0.650

2.601
𝐶𝑙: =4
0.650

Therefore, the empirical formula is C1Cl4 or CCl4.

2. A compound is found to consist of 43.64% P and 56.36% O. The molar mass for the compound is 283.88 g/mol. What
is the empirical formula and molecular formula of the compounds?

Again, assume 100g so that P = 43.64 g and O = 56.36g, from here compute for n:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
43.64 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.409 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
30.97 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
General Chemistry 1
First semester, S.Y 2020-2021
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
56.36 𝑔 𝑥 = 3.523 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
16.00 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Divide the mole values by the smallest value to get:

1.409
𝑃: =1
1.409

3.523
𝑂: = 2.5
1.409

The compound is PO2.5. But the subscripts are still not whole numbers. Multiply the subscripts by a factor to
get the smallest whole number. When multiplied by 2, the empirical formula is P 2O5.

What is the molecular formula?

Compare the mass of the empirical formula to the molar mass:
Mass of P2O5 (Empirical Formula) = 141.94 g/mol
Molar mass = 283.88 g/mol

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 141.99

= =2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 283.88

Multiply this ratio to the empirical formula to get the molecular formula:
(P2O5)2 or P4O10

Therefore, the molecular formula of the compound is P4O10.

Activity 3:
Answer the following questions. Show calculations. Observe the use of significant figures for calculations and indicate
the appropriate units.

Aspirin has the molecular formula C9H8O4.

1. What is the % C in aspirin by mass in aspirin?
2. What is the % O in aspirin by mass in aspirin?
3. An oxide of chromium is made up of 5.20 g chromium and 5.60 g oxygen What is the empirical formula of the oxide?
(Note: An oxide of nitrogen contains 63.1% oxygen and has a molar mass of 76.0 g/mol.)
4. What is the empirical formula for this compound?
5. What is the molecular formula of the compound?