Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

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Social and Cultural Boekhout van Solinge, Tim (1996), Ganja in Jamaica.
Analyses Amsterdams Drug Tijdschrift, nr 2, December 1996, pp. 11-
14.
English translation by Jeanette Roberts.
© Copyright 1996, 2000 Tim Boekhout van Solinge. All
rights reserved.

Ganja in Jamaica
Tim Boekhout van Solinge

Jamaica is a country that appeals to one's imagination. The

tropical island in the Caribbean Sea, once mainly famous
for its rum, is nowadays more associated with reggae,
Rastas, and ganja, i.e., marijuana. No other country
supposedly has a higher consumption of cannabis than
Jamaica. Myth or reality? Tim Boekhout van Solinge was
recently in Jamaica and investigated this issue.

Jamaica
has a

longstanding reputation for its ganja, marijuana of

international top quality. In fact, Jamaica is a country with a
traditional use of cannabis, dating back already many
generations. Jamaica's traditional cannabis use took on
mythical proportions in the course of the 1970s, not lastly
due to the emergence of Bob Marley. This reggae singer
from the ghettos of Jamaica's capital, Kingston, was the
first Third World artist, who achieved world-wide
recognition. The hippie movement of the West embraced
Bob Marley and many other Rasta singers. Apart from
preaching peace & love, many Jamaican artists also called
for the legalisation of cannabis in their reggae songs.
These artists did not only sing about ganja, many of them
were also passionate smokers. Reggae artists (but not
each and every single one) quite often like to light up a
spliff or two during studio sessions. Reggae music, the
message of the texts that often could not be seen

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

independently of Rastafarian religious beliefs, combined

with the use of cannabis... 'Jamaica, reggae, Rastas and
ganja', as a whole appealed to the imagination, and to
some extent determined the picture that was formed of
Jamaica.

Of course, things are not that simple. The population of

Jamaica does not consist of Rastafarians alone - they form
an estimated 5 percent of the population - and not every
Rastafarian smokes ganja. On the other hand, ganja is
widely used as stimulant by non-Rastafarians.

Jamaica

Jamaica is one of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea.

It is located about 200 kilometres south of Cuba, covering a
surface equal to a third of the Netherlands, and is inhabited
by approximately 2.5 million people. Jamaica is a beautiful
country with white beaches, a turquoise sea, and a tropical
climate. Thanks to plenty of rain, a lot of sun and fertile soil,
Jamaica has a magnificent, green landscape, its hilly and
thinly populated interior criss-crossed by rivers with
waterfalls.

Jamaica, despite this heavenly beauty, is a country

plagued by many problems. The vast majority of the
population is poor; a situation, which is even more
deplorable, when compared to the - even by Western
standards - very rich, upper section of society. Another
problem is that the country suffers under a huge burden of
debt, which makes Jamaica one of the (relative) largest
debtor countries of the Third World. Finally, Jamaica is a
country characterised by the level of violence. With roughly
700 murders per year, it is one of the most violent countries
in the world. The majority of these murders take place in
Jamaica's capital, Kingston, where all of Jamaica's
problems are concentrated.

The population of Jamaica is mainly of African origin (about

80 percent). Further, there are Indians, Chinese, Lebanese,
Jews, and Caucasians. In Jamaica, skin colour and social
class are closely connected. One could generally say that
the lighter the colour of a person's skin, the higher his/her
social standing in the community. In this context, the afore-
mentioned structure is therefore also referred to as a
'colour caste' system. The origin of this structure has to be
sought in Jamaica's colonial history.

History

Columbus landed in Jamaica in 1494 during his second

journey to the Americas. His advent led to the Spanish
dictatorship that lasted until 1655. When the British
defeated the Spanish on Jamaica in the same year, the
original inhabitants, the Arowak Indians, were already
extinct. They had been wiped out, or had succumbed to
European illnesses, against which they had no resistance.
From 1655 until 1962, the year of independence, Jamaica
was a British colony and thus the country of the
Commonwealth empire under the longest colonial rule.

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

The colonial era was characterised by the plantation

system. The Jamaican economy consisted of plantations
that produced for the world market. In the case of Jamaica,
the product was sugar. In the 18th century, Jamaica was
one of the largest sugar producers of the Caribbean region,
and with that the country had one of the most perfected
plantation systems in the Caribbean. The workforce
necessary for the production of sugarcane was 'imported'
from Africa: many hundreds of thousands of slaves, mainly
from West Africa, were shipped in.

After the abolishment of slavery in 1838, many slaves left

the plantations. They preferred a small, independent
farmer's existence above the work on the plantations. The
demand for labour initiated the advent of new immigrants:
the contract workers. In the 19th century, about 33,000
Indians and 5,000 Chinese came to Jamaica.

It is assumed that marijuana came to Jamaica with the

Indians. This also explains why in Jamaica a Hindi word is
used for marijuana, namely ganja. Through the Indians
ganja spread to the lower classes of society; in fact, the
black section of the population. Ganja is currently a widely-
used stimulant in the countryside and in the poor districts
of the large towns. To Rastafarians, the followers of the
religious black consciousness movement Rastafari, the
reason for using ganja is more profound. They look upon
ganja as a holy plant, which enables them to deepen their
faith.

Rastafari

The religious black consciousness Marcus Garvey

movement, Rastafari, was founded
in the 20s and 30s of this century
in Jamaica. Key person and in a
certain sense the father of the
Rastafarian movement is the
Jamaican Marcus Garvey. In the
1920s, he denounced the inferior
treatment of Blacks in Jamaica and
the US. Garvey is considered as
one of he first black nationalists
and Pan-Africans. He founded the Marcus Mosiah
Universal Black Negro Association Garvey
in the US, which was represented
in forty countries and supposedly had ten million members.
Garvey's influence on the black consciousness movement
was enormous. Malcolm X and Martin Luther King in the
US, and African leaders such as Nkrumah, Lumumba and
Kenyatta were inspired by his ideas and his many writings.

Some of Garvey's followers (the 'Garveyites') considered

him to be a prophet. Garvey supposedly predicted that a
black king would come to power, who would be the saviour
of the black people. It is unclear whether Garvey really did
make this predication. In 1930, a stage play by Garvey
entitled The Coronation of the King and the Queen of Africa
was performed in Kingston, the capital of Jamaica. Some
people believed the content of this play to be real. In any
case, shortly afterwards Ras (= Prince in Aramaic) Tafari

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

was crowned emperor of Ethiopia, immediately accrediting

himself with the biblical titles King of Kings , Lords of Lords ,
and Conquering Lion of the Twelve Tribes of Judah , and
claiming to be a direct descendant of King Salomon. For
some of Garvey's followers this was the fulfilment of the
prophesy. They began to call themselves Ras Tafaris and
believed in the divineness of Haile Selassie, subsequently
referring to themselves as Jah (from Jehovah).

Haile Selassie Apart from the biblical titles

they also saw other signs
that this emperor had to be
the saviour. At that time
(thus prior to Mussolini's
invasion in 1935), Ethiopia
was the only African
country that had not been
under Western rule. The
fact that many foreign
dignitaries were present
was therefore interpreted
as yet another sign that this
was a special coronation. In
the 1950s, Selassie
frequently made statements
in favour of the
independence of African
Haile Selassie colonies and Ethiopia
became more or less a symbol for African independence.
Many African countries therefore adapted the colours of
Ethiopia's national flag, green-yellow-red, when they finally
became independent. The Rastafarian movement too,
adapted these colours.

Being a Rastafarian actually means that one believes in the

divineness of Haile Selassie and wants to return home to
Africa, the country of origin. Selassie is said to be the
saviour of the black (African) people, who were taken to the
Americas against their will. There they live in virtual
captivity, just as the 'Babylonian Captivity' mentioned in the
bible.

Over the years the role of Haile Selassie and Africa

gradually changed from a literal significance to a more
symbolic significance. This change was brought about by
the death of Selassie in 1975 and the realisation by an
increasing number of Jamaicans that not all of Selassie's
actions were 'soul-saving'. Furthermore, Africa and
Ethiopia are no longer looked upon as the promised land
by all Rastafarians. Being a Rastafarian now rather
symbolises black consciousness and the understanding
that Blacks are not inferior to Whites.

The holy herb

Although there are various Rastafarian groups, the majority

of Rastafarians does not belong to a group; being a
Rastafarian is - above all else - a personal perception.
There are, however, a number of rules. Rastafarians eat
'Ital', which means that only natural, vegetarian food
without salt is consumed. The most eye-catching aspect is

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

the hairdo of the Rasta, the dreadlocks. One of the most

famous 'rules' is smoking the holy herb. To Rastafarians,
ganja is not only a mere stimulant, it is the holy herb
mentioned in the bible. Sometimes it is also claimed that
the holy herb grew on the grave of King Salomon. The use
of ganja is supposed to lead to a deeper faith, which
explains the fact why ganja is smoked at religious
Rastafarian ceremonies.

Cannabis lovers in the West with an overly romanticised

image of Jamaica and the Rastafarian movement may
occasionally get the impression that Rastafarians spend a
good part of their day smoking 'peace pipes' filled with
ganja. True, Rastafarians usually do smoke regularly and
more frequently than non-Rastafarians, yet it is still a
matter of moderate and integrated use, like the
consumption of ganja in Jamaica in general. In the streets
of Jamaica you will seldom come across people heavily
intoxicated from smoking ganja. Larger amounts of ganja
are only consumed at special occasions like religious
ceremonies or during an afternoon or evening in the circle
of friends.

Ganja in Jamaica

Earlier we already suggested that ganja is not only smoked

by Rastas but that marijuana, especially among the lower
classes, is a widely-consumed stimulant in Jamaican
society. Jamaica is sometimes quoted as the country with
the highest consumption of cannabis. Estimates given in
this regard state that about 60 to 70 percent of the
population occasionally use (or used) cannabis.

In reality there is little reliable information to support these

estimates. However, it is certain that Jamaica is one of the
countries where the use of cannabis has existed for many
generations and occurs very frequently. This was the very
reason why a team of American researchers travelled to
Jamaica in the 1970s to carry out a prolonged and
extensive study on the effects of chronic (long-term)
cannabis use. In 1976, the researchers Vera Rubin and
Lambros Comitas published the findings of this study
entitled: Ganja in Jamaica. A medical anthropological study
of chronic marihuana use. This study is still considered one
of the classic studies of cannabis use. This particular study
was probably also the source of the stories that about.60 to
70 percent of the population use cannabis. Though this
study does not provide any precise data to that effect, an
estimation was made nevertheless. In the different
communities across the Jamaican countryside where the
research was carried out, over 50 percent of the men older
than 15 years were found to smoke cannabis, and 7
percent were found to have smoked in the past. As women
also smoke cannabis, albeit less than men, and drinking
ganja tea is common among non-smokers, Rubin &
Comitas conclude that about 60 to 70 percent of the lower
classes of the rural population use cannabis in one form or
another.

Manner of use

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

There is no reason to assume that current cannabis use in

Jamaica differs substantially from the situation described
by Rubin & Comitas. However, the situation has changed
in the sense that today stronger forms of cannabis can be
found in Jamaica compared to then. In the 1970s and
1980s, Americans have exported their knowledge about
stronger cannabis variants also to Jamaica.

The fact that today's ganja is stronger than 20 years ago

has probably led to the fact that people smoke fewer joints
per day. The daily amount of joints (spliffs) that was
consumed by ganja smokers according to Rubin &
Comitas, namely seven on average, (low use was defined
as less than four joints per day, high use as more than
eight), no longer appears to apply to present-day Jamaica.
I have personally visited Jamaica several times and for
prolonged periods of time and have lived in rural
communities as well, and such amounts appear to me as
extremely excessive.

I have always compared the use of ganja in Jamaica with

the consumption of alcohol in France. Alcohol is consumed
frequently, but in a general sense the consumption is
moderate and socially integrated. Just as the French can
sometimes be seen drinking a glass of wine in the morning
and think nothing of it to enjoy a glass of wine at lunch,
Jamaicans may smoke a joint in the morning and light up
another in their midday break.

But here has to be mentioned that the entire use pattern of

ganja in Jamaica differs completely from what we are used
to in the West: a Jamaican actually never finishes his joint
in one go. A smoker usually takes one or several puffs, lets
the joint go out, lights it up again later, and repeats the
process. It is not unusual that a joint is lit five or six times
and that it takes half an hour or an hour before the whole
joint is smoked. This method of use - moderate and not at
all aimed at becoming heavily intoxicated - explains why in
Jamaica people are seldom seen really stoned on ganja.
Should you come across a very intoxicated person in the
street, it is much more likely that the intoxication is the
result of Jamaican rum.

On a recent trip to Jamaica, I discovered that drinking

cannabis is looked upon completely different than smoking
it. To my great surprise people of whom I knew that they
were strongly opposed to smoking ganja and had never
smoked it before, turned out to drink ganja tea (almost)
daily. Sure, I knew that ganja tea was often used as
medicine, particularly in the countryside, but that drinking
ganja occurred to such a large extent was new to me. Many
people who I had known for a long time and had always
considered non-cannabis users (among them grandpas
and grandmas in their 70s) turned out to start off the day
with a glass of ganja tea! However, ganja tea is not made
from the same, ripened and dried plants that are used for
smoking. Ganja tea is drawn from the young, green plant.

Many Jamaicans drink ganja tea - to which they attribute

various healing and prophylactic qualities - as medicine.
The tea is said to make the body strong and less

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

susceptible to illness. It is also often drunk, if someone

suffers from a fever or a cold. Furthermore, ganja is said to
be a good remedy for stress.

Policy

It goes without saying that if ganja is used on such a large

scale, production must be large as well. Many farmers
grow ganja, mostly on a small-scale basis. The profits from
ganja are mainly considered a little extra on top of the
normal income.

Ganja became big business in the 70s, as it was exported

on a large-scale basis to the US. This led to a higher, more
large-scale and export-oriented production in Jamaica. It is
a public secret that many upper-class families and other
high-ranking persons were involved in this export. The
grass was mainly exported in small one-engine planes, and
this required capital. Here and there in Jamaica, rests of
these former ganja planes can still be seen.

The export of the 70s was mainly aimed at the US. Since
Reagan and his successor Bush started the 'War on Drugs'
in the 80s, the nature of the production as well as the
nature of the export changed. Jamaica's fairly large-scale
production of ganja of the 70s (large fields), is no longer
evident today. The Jamaican Police and Army, with or
without the help of their American colleagues, are
searching for plantations with men and with helicopters.
The farmers have therefore adjusted their production, and
make sure that the ganja is hard to detect from the air by
planting it, for example, between high banana- or coconut
trees.

Due to the American 'War on Drugs', the export of ganja

has become harder and more limited. Nowadays, small
planes are seldom used and ganja is instead increasingly
often transported by boat or smuggled by passengers on
commercial flights. Another (unintended) consequence of
the 'War on Drugs' was that some of the former exporters
shifted from the export of ganja to the transit trade in
cocaine. Cocaine does not smell as strong as ganja and is
much more lucrative. This side-effect of the 'War on Drugs'
did not only mean that at the beginning of the 80s it was
sometimes easier to get crack than marijuana in, for
example, New York but it also led to the sudden availability
of lots of cocaine (in the form of crack) in Kingston's
ghettos.

The Jamaican authorities have a somewhat ambivalent

attitude with respect to ganja. Actions are taken against
production, trade and use. The army and police are
deployed to fight production. In order to fight the trade, the
police often sets up road blocks. These roadblocks are set
up mainly on the roads coming from the direction of
Westmoreland, the south-western province, which is known
as the primary production area. However, the question is
whether these roadblocks are erected in order to fight
ganja, or whether their primary purpose is to cash in on
bribes.

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Ganja in Jamaica - Social and Cultural Analyses

In principle ganja users in Jamaica are prosecuted but if

consumption is discrete, the police is unlikely to intervene
quickly. This however does not apply to Westerners, as the
police assumes that the foreign ganja smoker who got
caught, would rather part with a few US dollars, than
spend some time in a Jamaican prison.

So the Jamaican authorities in principle are fighting ganja

but mainly because the big brother in the North, the US, is
expressing such great desire. Every decision-maker in
Jamaica knows that ganja use is integrated in the country's
culture and tradition. These decision-makers also know that
ganja is a too important sector of the economy, as to
intervene all too hard. Ganja is often called the most
important pillar of the Jamaican economy, supposedly
bringing in 1 to 1.5 billion US dollars per year, ca. 250
million of which benefit the country as 'white' money. In any
case, ganja is by far Jamaica's most important export crop
and therefore too important for the national economy. High
and low classes of society are involved in this sector, from
the poor farmer in the mountains to the big businessman
involved in export.

Future

Jamaicans have been calling for the legalisation of ganja

for many years, not only in reggae songs but also in the
form of demonstrations. For a long time already, the
Rastafarian movement has devoted itself to fighting for the
legal use of their 'holy herb'. Last February 15,000
Rastafarians demonstrated in Kingston to that effect. For
the time-being, there will be no change in the ambivalent
attitude of the Jamaican authorities with respect to ganja.
For the time-being, the fight against production and trade
will continue in order to keep the US happy, but at the
same time, everyone knows that this is an economic
sector, which is too important to the economy of the
country.

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