Epithermal ore deposits: first-order features relevant to
exploration and assessment
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Antonio Arribas R.
Akita University, Akita, Japan
Abstract. The general features of ore deposits in the
epithermal environment are influenced by their tectonic,
magmatic and geologic associations. Geologic variability
means that there is a wide variation in features associated
with individual districts, deposits, and prospects. In this
presentation we review some of the first-order features
relevant to exploration and assessment of epithermal
deposit targets. Our recommendations combine
knowledge from traditional and recent geologic and
genetic models with personal lessons from exploration and
published exploration case studies. These
recommendations provide a framework for investigation
and documentation of key features such as genetic models
and deposit classification, depth of formation, alteration
mineralogy and zoning, and ore and gangue assemblages
and textures, among others. Use of this framework for the
design and later interpretation of geochemical and
geophysical surveys will assist greatly in the development
and testing of epithermal precious- and base-metals
exploration targets.
1 Introduction
The general features of ore deposits in the epithermal
environment are influenced by their tectonic, magmatic
and geologic associations (Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003).
While highly variable, alteration and ore minerals plus
textures and zonation patterns have defining
characteristics (Arribas 1995; Hedenquist et al. 2000).
These characteristics have implications for the assessment
of prospects during mineral exploration.
Waldemar Lindgren recognized nearly a century ago
(Lindgren 1933) that the group of ore deposits he termed
epithermal formed within the upper km or so of Earth's
surface. He and his colleagues appreciated that
geothermal hot springs and volcanic fumaroles are the
active surficial expression of hydrothermal systems that
formed epithermal deposits. Lindgren realized that the
epithermal group has characteristic styles of deposits, and
he distinguished several deposit groups on the basis of
metal association, gangue and alteration assemblages,
based on relative contents of Au, Ag, base metal (Zn, Pb,
and/or Cu) sulfide minerals and the abundance of Se or
Te. Here we use three precious- and base-metal epithermal
deposit groups, Au-Ag, Ag-Au±base metal sulfides
(bms), and Au-Ag-Cu-As (Table 1). The first two groups
have gangue and alteration minerals indicative of near-
neutral pH fluids, whereas the alteration halos of the latter
deposit style indicate an initial fluid with an acidic pH,
SY01 – Gold through time and space
related to volcanic emanations (Ransome 1907). These
three endmembers correlate with low-, intermediate-, and
high-sulfidation epithermal deposit types, respectively
(Hedenquist et al. 2000).
The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits may be
spatially associated with one another (Hedenquist et al.
2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003), and either or both
occur in association with (and centered on) subvolcanic
porphyritic intrusions, which, within districts, can be hosts
to more deeply formed (~1.5-3 km) porphyry Cu-Au
deposits (Sillitoe 2010). These epithermal deposits are
typically associated with intermediate-composition,
oxidized magmas and hydrothermal fluids of moderate- to
high-sulfidation state in volcanic arcs. By contrast, Au-Ag
deposits (with very low base metal contents) commonly
form in zones of crustal extension, typically in back-arc
rifts, and are associated with more reduced and low
sulfidation-state bimodal rhyolite-basalt magmatism
(John et al. 2001; Einaudi et al. 2003). Volcanic rocks
most commonly host all epithermal deposit styles, but all
rock types, particularly sedimentary basement, can be
potential hosts, especially where the ore body form is
strongly influenced by structures and veins have a large
vertical interval.
The low sulfide-content Au-Ag deposits in rifts
typically contain arsenopyrite or pyrrhotite plus Fe-rich
sphalerite, indicating a reduced and low-sulfidation state,
in addition to pyrite; chalcopyrite and other intermediate
sulfidation-state sulfides can be present in minor
quantities, caused by sharp cooling (due to boiling). By
contrast, the more sulfide-rich Ag-Au±bms veins contain
chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite, galena and low-Fe
sphalerite, as well as local hematite and pyrite, defining a
more oxidized and intermediate sulfidation state, related
to more oxidized magmas in volcanic arcs. Enargite in
Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits, also located in volcanic arcs,
define these deposits as high sulfidation state, along with
fine pyrite, covellite and locally native S; the early
residual quartz and advanced argillic stage of alteration in
these deposits is typically barren and associated with
coarse pyrite. The high sulfidation state of these is related
to cooling of an intermediate sulfidation-state fluid and
the lack of any buffering capacity of the residual quartz
host rock (Einaudi et al. 2003). In these deposits, the Au
stage mainly follows the Cu stage, and is associated with
chalcopyrite, tennantite/tetrahedrite and low-Fe
sphalerite.
47
 Veins of Ag-Au±bms (intermediate sulfidation-state
sulfides) have local high sulfidation-state assemblages
proximal to the feeder zone, and there can be local halos
of advanced argillic alteration, consistent with the close
genetic association of these two sulfide-rich (up to several
wt% base metals) deposit styles.
2 Depth of formation
The Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits form as deep
as ~1+ km (Table 1), with vertical ore intervals of ~100
up to 600 m; the top of ore may be 100-300 m below
paleosurface. By contrast, Au-Ag deposits form at a
shallower depth, and the top of ore veins may lie a few
tens of meters below the paleosurface, capped by silica
sinter, with a surficial blanket above the groundwater table
of steam-heated acid sulfate water (pH~2.5) and kaolinite-
alunite alteration. Temperature at the paleosurface was a
maximum of ≤ 100°C, whereas temperature increases
along the boiling point-for-depth curve to ~300°C at 1000
m depth (Fig. 1). This temperature-depth relation controls
the distribution of temperature-sensitive alteration
minerals (Fig. 2).
Figure 1. Boiling-point-for-depth curve in upflow (red) and
marginal (mixing; orange) zones; alteration mineral zonation in
upflow and marginal zones differ, with steam-heated alteration
blankets above the groundwater table. Modified from
Hedenquist et al. (2000).
3 Alteration minerals and zonation
Alteration mineralogy is controlled largely by temperature
as well as pH (Hedenquist et al. 2000). In Au-Ag deposits,
their shallow depth of formation (Table 1) means that the
paleotemperature was low, typically <230°C at
paleodepths <300 m (Fig. 1). At this temperature the
alteration is dominated by illite next to the vein, plus local
adularia and silicification. At distal positions or depths
<150 m (<200°C), interstratified illite-smectite and then
smectite are the stable clays. The Ag-Au±bms deposits
typically form at greater depths and hence higher
temperature, to about 1 km and ~300°C. Above ~250°C
48 Mineral Resources to Discover - 14th SGA Biennial Meeting 2017, Volume 1
the white mica in the alteration halo is crystalline
(muscovite) with illite and lower temperature clays in
distal positions or shallow depths over ore veins.
By contrast, Au-Ag-Cu-As deposits are proximal to
intrusive centers, hosted by early-formed hypogene
advanced argillic alteration (Hedenquist and Taran 2013).
Core zones of residual quartz (locally vuggy in texture),
closest to feeder zones, form by acidic condensates of
magmatic vapor (pH~1). Alteration halos flare outward as
depth decreases and consist of an inner zone of quartz-
alunite±dickite that grades outward and upward to quartz-
kaolinite, then to clays. Where a structure intersects a
horizon of lithologic permeability, a lithocap of advanced
argillic alteration can form where the acidic condensate
flows laterally (Sillitoe 2010), with this lithocap typically
being offset from (on the shoulder of) the deep source
intrusion (Hedenquist and Taran 2013). Pyrophyllite ±
diaspore is common in the high-temperature feeder zones,
and similar alteration may occur in proximal positions
along structures that are subsequently reopened by quartz
Ag-Au±bms veins of a later system, with deep halos of
white mica.
Figure 2. Variation in mineral stability with temperature at
quartz solubility (dashed curves for stability at amorphous silica
solubility). Modified from Hedenquist et al. (2000).
4 Gangue minerals and textures
Deposits of Ag-Au±bms and Au-Ag-Cu-As commonly
have sulfate minerals such as barite and anhydrite as
gangue, which indicate relatively oxidized fluid. By
contrast, Au-Ag deposits do not have sulfate minerals, and
the pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite plus Fe-rich sphalerite
indicate a reduced fluid.
 Both Au-Ag and Ag-Au±bms veins are dominated
by quartz, with subsidiary adularia, carbonates (bladed
calcite, indicative of boiling) and in Ag-Au±bms veins
only, Mn carbonates ± rhodochrosite (Table 1).
Crystalline quartz occurs in the deeper, higher
temperature Ag-Au±bms veins, commonly with banded or
crustiform textures, whereas finer quartz and chalcedony
occur at the shallower depths (and lower temperatures) of
Au-Ag veins. Colloform textures are present where
boiling and vapor loss of an ascending liquid,
accompanied by sharp cooling (Fig. 3), results in
amorphous silica saturation of a colloid, which deposits as
a gel, locally banded (Fig. 3, inset). Gold saturation from
a bisulfide complex – dominant in epithermal systems – is
strongly driven by boiling due to the loss of H2S to the
vapor phase (Hedenquist et al. 2003). The presence of
such colloidal features in banded quartz veins and breccia
fills are evidence of boiling and potentially gold
precipitation. Indeed, high gold grades in all styles of
epithermal deposit are commonly associated with such
colloform or laminated colloidal features (also seen in
banded quartz veins of porphyry Au deposits, again due to
vapor loss).
Figure 3. Silica solubility vs temperature for quartz, cristobalite
and amorphous silica. Boiling and equilibrium vapor loss (red
lines) results in the cooling liquid to shift from quartz to
amorphous silica (sinter or colloid) deposition; non-equilibrium
vapor loss (e.g., during sharp depressurization; dashed red line)
can cause silica colloids to form with relatively small
temperature decreases. Mixing of any deep liquid with a shallow
groundwater (cool or steam-heated) will never cause amorphous
silica to form. Inset: dendritic Au overlain by colloform bands of
colloidal silica (Sleeper, NV, photograph by J Saunders; 2 mm
width).
5 Exploration implications
Ideally, exploration for epithermal prospects begins with
knowledge of the tectonic setting (e.g., arc vs rift), such
that the style of deposit and the nature of alteration and
geochemical signature can be predicted and utilized to
develop working exploration models. Assessment of
prospects, once identified, will benefit from an
understanding of the depth of erosion; paleosurface
features such as silica sinters (or laminated colloidal silica
formed in acidic lakes) and steam-heated alteration as well
as the chalcedony blankets formed at the paleowater table
SY01 – Gold through time and space
(Fig. 1) indicate little erosion (Sillitoe 2015). Zonation of
alteration mineralogy (Hedenquist et al. 2003), and
increasingly mineral chemistry (Chang et al. 2011),
provide powerful tools to assist in the location of the
feeder conduit(s) close to the main upflow center(s).
Patterns of temperature-dependent alteration mineralogy
and mineral composition can be mapped, assisted by
SWIR (short wave infrared spectral methods).
Appreciation that residual vuggy quartz and advanced
argillic minerals commonly have zoning asymmetric to
the feeder zone, and are typically barren of Au-Ag-Cu-As
(Hedenquist et al. 2000), is essential since, where
mineralized, feeder zones of lithocaps typically have
higher metal grades.
In this manner, knowledge of the tectonic, magmatic
and geologic setting, and documentation in plan view as
well as cross- and long-section of the temperature-
dependent alteration mineralogy, ore and gangue
assemblages, structures and lithological information, and
other potential district- or deposit-scale relevant features
(such as ore and mineral textures, mineral composition,
etc.) provide a framework for the design and interpretation
of geochemical and geophysical surveys. For example, the
nature of a geochemical anomaly (anomalous suite as well
as threshold of anomaly, etc.) can be highly variable
between districts and hence requires orientation surveys
to provide confidence in interpretation of stream, soil and
rock results. Clay halos (low resistivity zones) can vary in
width depending on permeability of host rock, whereas
residual quartz (particularly lithocaps) will provide high
resistivity anomalies. Sulfides in narrow veins typically
do not provide chargeable anomalies, whereas sulfides in
lithocaps and disseminated at shallow levels of porphyry
deposits do (unless supergene oxidized). Where alteration
halos are sufficiently wide around veins, etc. (particularly
under cover), magnetic lows may indicate extent of
alteration and/or structural corridors to assist in mapping
efforts. Among others, these observations will assist in the
development and testing of epithermal exploration targets.
References
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Table 1: Characteristics of end-member ore deposit styles in the epithermal environment

Deposit style Depth to ore top, m Alteration, proximal Host, gangue Sulfide minerals Ag:Au ratio
(tectonic setting) (vertical interval) to distal with ore
Au-Ag <50 to 400 m il±ad, il, il-sm, sm qz vein host, ad, asp, po, high-Fe spl (low ~20:1 to <1:1
(rift) (<100-300 m) cc sulf’dn), py, Se, Mo, rare cp
Ag-Au± bms 100 to 800+ m white mica (ms), il- qz vein host, ad, py, td/tn, low-Fe spl, cp, Te 10-25:1 to
(arc) (150-500+ m) sm, sm rhod, ba, an (intermediate sulf’dn) >100:1
Au-Ag-Cu-As 100 to 900 m al, ka-dk±pi-ds, (ms), residual qz host, py, en (lz, fa) (high sulf’dn), ~1:1 to ~100:1
(arc) (100-600+ m) il-sm, sm ba, an tn/td, low-Fe spl, cp, Te, Mo
Abbreviations: bms, base metal sulfides; sm, smectite; il, illite; il-sm, interstratified il-sm; ad, adularia; ms, muscovite; ka,
kaolinite; dk, dickite; pi, pyrophyllite; ds, diaspore; cc, calcite; rhod, rhodochrosite; ba, barite; an, anhydrite; qz, quartz; asp,
arsenopyrite; po, pyrrhotite; py, pyrite; spl, sphalerite; td/tn, tetrahedrite/tennantite; cp, chalcopyrite; en, enargite; lz, luzonite; fa,
famatinite; Se, selenides; Te, tellurides; Mo, molybdenum anomalies; sulf’dn, sulfidation state (Einaudi et al., 2003). Arc-related
deposits have variable anomalies of Bi, Sn, Cd (due to magmatic affiliation; Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003)

50 Mineral Resources to Discover - 14th SGA Biennial Meeting 2017, Volume 1