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1. Dihydrogen, H2
Atomic and Physical Properties of Hydrogen
Property Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
Relative abundance (%) 99.985 0.0156 10–15
Relative atomic mass (g mol–1) 1.008 2.014 3.016
Melting point / K 13.96 18.73 20.62
Boiling point / K 20.39 23.67 25.0
–1
Density / gL 0.09 0.18 0.27
–1
Enthalpy of fusion / kJ mol 0.117 0.197 -
–1
Enthalpy of vaporization / kJ mol 0.904 1.226 -
Enthalpy of bond
dissociation / kJ mol–1 at 298.2K 435.88 443.35 -
Internuclear distance / pm 74.14 74.14 -
–1
Ionization enthalpy kJ mol 1312 - -
–1
Electron gain enthalpy / kJ mol –73 - -
Covalent radius / pm 37 - -
–
Ionic radius (H ) / pm 208

* Very pure hydrogen is obtained

 Colourless, tasteless, odourless gas

 low solubility in liquid solvents
 Inert at room temperature due to high H-H bond enthalpy.

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2. Water (H2O)
Physical Properties of H2O and D2O
Property H2 O D2O
–1
Molecular mass (g mol ) 18.0151 20.0276
Melting point / K 273.0 276.8
Boiling point / K 373.0 374.4
–1
Enthalpy of formation / kJ mol –285.9 –294.6
–1
Enthalpy of vaporization (373K) / kJ mol 40.66 41.61
–1
Enthalpy of fusion / kJ mol 6.01 -
Temp of max. density / K 276.98 284.2
Density (298K)/g cm–3 1.0000 1.1059
Viscosity / centipoise 0.8903 1.107
2 2
Dielectric constant / C /N.m 78.39 78.06
–1 –1 –8
Electrical conductivity (293 K /ohm cm ) 5.7 × 10 -

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3. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2)

Melting point / K 272.4 Density (liquid at 298 k) / g cm–3 1.44

Boiling point (extrapolated)/K 423 Viscosity (290K) / contipoise 1.25

2 2
Vapour pressure (298 K) / mmHg 1.9 Dielectric constant (298 K) / C /N m 70.7

Density (solid at 268.e5K)/g cm–3 1.64 Electrical conductivity (298K) / Ω 1cm 1 5.1 × 10–8

1. Periodic Properties of IA (1) and II A(2) group elements

A : Atomic number
B : Effective nuclear charge (Z *  Z  )
Where  is screening constant
C : Number of shells
D : Atomic radius
E : Ionisation energy
F : Hydration and hydration energy
G : Size of hydrated ion
H : Polarising power (based on Fajan's rule)
I : Lattice energy of chloride
J : Reactivity
K : Ionic conductance

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2. Gradation in the Properties of Alkali Metals :

3. Reactions Involving NaOH

4. Reactions Involving Na2CO3

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5. Distinction between IIA(2) and IIB (12) elements :

Properties IIA (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) II B (Zn, Cd, Hg)

1. Electronic [Inert gas] ns 2 [Inert gas] (n – 1)d10 ns2

Configuration

Block s-block d-block

2.

3.
Oxidation state +2 +2, mercury also forms dimeric Hg 22 

BeO is amphoteric, other oxides are basic ZnO is amphoteric, CdO and HgO are
Nature of oxide
4. basic
Basic nature is in order.
MgO < CaO < SrO < BaO < RaO

Nature of halides Electron-deficient BeX2 covalent, others (MX2) are ZnCl2 , CdCl2 are ionic but less than
5. IIA; HgCl2 is covalent.
Ionic : MgCl2 < CaCl2 < SrCl2 < BaCl2

6. Nature of sulphates Less soluble in water and solubility decreases down more soluble than IIA
the group BeSO4 > MgSO 4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > Solubility of hydroxides decreases as
BaSO4 we move down the group.
7. Nature of hydroxides
Solubility of hydroxides increases as we move down ZnS, CdS, HgS insoluble and
the group precipitate in salt analysis.

8. Nature of sulphides Soluble Decreases as we move down the group

Zn > Cd > Hg
9. Reactivity Increases as we move down the group
Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba

6. Trends in properties of p - Block Elements in the direction of arrow

where ...... represents

x : covalent / van der Waals' radius y : metallic character
z : heat of sublimation p : electronegativity
q : ionisation energy (N > O, P > S) r : oxidising power
s : stability of higher oxidation state within a group t : stability of lower oxidation state within a group

BORON :
- B exist in many allotropic forms
- All allotropes have B12 icosahedra units made up of polyhedron having 20 faces and 12 corners.
- Simplest form :  - Rhombohedral

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Isolation of “B”
(i) Preparation of B2O3 from Borax / Colemanite
Na 2 B4 O7  HCl 
 2NaCl  H 2 B4 O7

H 2 B4 O7  5H 2 O 
 4H 3BO3  B2 O3  H 2 O
(ii) Reduction of B2O3
B2 O3  Na / K / mg / Al 
 B  Na 2 O / K 2 O / mgO / Al2 O3

7. Reactions Involving Boron :

Diborane

- 3c  2e B – H – B bond (Banana bond) : 2

- Non – planar Molecule

- No. of atoms in 1 plane : 6
- e– deficient Molecule

8. Reactions involving Diborane

9. Ortho Boric acid : weak monobasic acid

(H3BO3) : lewis acid
Structure :

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Titration of B(OH)3 with NaOH :

10. Borax :

Preparation :
2CaO.3B2 O3  2Na 2 CO3 
 2CaCO3   Na 2 B4 O7  2NaBO2
Filtered concentrated

 Na 2 B4 O7  NaBO 2 
 Na 2 B4 O7 .10H 2 O  NaBO 2
Reaction :
2H 
(a)  2B(OH)3  2[B(OH)4 ]  2B(OH)3  H 2 O
Na 2 B4 O7  5H 2 O 
 
(b) Na 2 B4 O7 .10H 2 O  Na 2 B4 O7  NaBO2  B2 O3

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11. Alumina : (Al2O3)- White crystalline Powder – amphoteric

- Insoluble in water -  from is known as corundum

12. AlCl3 :
- Colourless crystalline solid ; - Soluble in water
Structure :
 In Gas phase : (C . N = 4) : Exist as dimer
- Both Al are sp3 hybridized ; - 2 (3c – 4e– ) Al – Cl – Al bond
- 4 (2c – 2e– ) Al – Cl bond
- Bridge bond is longer than terminal bond
 In aq. Phase, it exist as [Al(H 2 O)6 ]3 (C.N = 6)
 In solid state, at low temp, AlCl3 exist as closed packed lattice of Cl– with Al3+ Occupying Octahedral
lattice (C.N = 6)

13. Alums : M 2SO 4 .M '2 (SO4 )2 .24H 2 O

M  Na  , K  , Rb  , Cs , As  , NH 4 , Tl  ; M   Al3 , Cr 3 , Fe3 , Mn 3 , Co3
K SO (aq)
Preparation Al 2 O3  H 2SO4 
 Al2 (SO 4 )3 
2 4  Crystallise (Double salt) i.e Alum

CARBON :
Allotropes : Graphite, Diamond, Fullerene

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Physical properties Graphite Diamond

–3
Density (g cm ) 2.26 3.51
Enthalpy of combustion to yield CO2(kJ/mol) –393.3 –395.5
Melting point (°C) 2820 3730
Boiling point (°C) 4830
Conductivity (electrical) Fairly good Non-conductor
Conductivity (thermal) good Max-conductivity

14. Reactions involving CO and CO2

15. Silicon :
- 2nd most abundant element on Earth crust
- does not occurs in free state
- Occur widely in form of Silica and Silicates

Silicon Carbides (SiC)

2000C
SiO 2  2C 
 Si  2CO
2000C
Si  C   SiC
- Very hard
- Inert

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16. Silica (SiO2)
- Three dimensional network structure
- Si is sp3 hybridised

17. Silicates (SiO44  tetrahedral unit)

- exist as discrete unit or may Polymerise into larger unit by sharing Oxygen

Classification of Silicate
Gen Formula No. of Example
Shared ‘O’

Orthosilicate SiO44  0 Mg 2SiO 4

Pyrosilicate [Si 2 O7 ]6 1 SC2Si2 O7

Cyclic Silicate (SiO3 ) n2n  2 LiAl(SiO3 )2

Chain Silicate (SiO3 ) n2n  2

Double chain silicate (Amphiboles) (Si4 O11 )n 6n  2.5 Ca 2 Mg 5 (Si 4 O11 )2 (OH)2

2D – Sheet Silicate (Si2 O5 )n2n  3 Al2 (OH)4 (Si 2 O5 )

3D – Sheet Silicate SiO 2 4 Quartz, Zeolites

4  x
 
Note : General formula : SiO x 
 4 
 2
(Hence x is no of shared oxygen)

18. Allotropes of Tin

 Alpha or Grey Tin[Sn]
Tin exists in this form at low temperatures, below 13.2°C. It has a cubic crystal structure similar to silicon and
germanium.

 Beta or White Tin[Sn]

Tin exists in this form when heated above 13.2°C. It is metallic and has a tetragonal structure.
It slowly changes back to the grey from when cooled, which is called the "tin pest" or "tin disease".

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19. Nitrogen

20. Oxide
Oxides Structure Physical state Colour
N2O Gas Colourless
NO Gas Colourless

N2O3 Blue liquid (30C)

NO2 Gas Brown

N2O4 Colourless

N2O5 Solid Colourless

21. Reaction involving N2O (Laughing Gas)

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22. Reactions involving NO(Nitric Oxide)

23. Reactions Involving HNO3 (Nitric Acid)

Decomposition Behaviour
500  900C
N 2 O 
 2N 2  O2
800C
2NO 
 N 2  O2
Room Temp.
N 2 O3 
 NO 2  NO
620C
2NO2 
 2NO  O 2
11C
N 2 O4 
 2NO  O 2

30C 40C 1
N 2 O5  N 2 O5  2NO2  O2
Colourless Yellow 2
Solid Liquid

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Reaction with H2 O & NaOH
H2O NaOH

N2O Neutral Solution -

NO Neutral Solution -

N2O3 2HNO 2 2NaNO2

NO2 HNO2 + HNO3 NaNO2 + NaNO3

N2O5 2HNO 3 2NaNO3

Reaction of Nitric acid with Metal

S. No. Conc of HNO3 Metal Product

1. Very dilute HNO3 (6%) Mg, Mn H2 + Metal Nitrate

Fe, Zn, Sn NH4NO3 + Metal Nitrate + H2O
2. Dilute HNO3 (~ 20%) Cu, Ag, Hg NO + Metal Nitrate + H2O
Fe, Zn N2O + Metal Nitrate + H2O
Sn NH4NO3 + Sn(NO3)2

3. Conc. HNO3 (~ 10%) All Metals NO2 + Metal Nitrates + H2O

Sn NO2 + H2SnO3

24. NH3

25. Phosphorous
- Allotropes
(a) White or yellow Phosphorous (P4)  (tetrahedral structure)
(b) Red Phosphorous  (linear chain)
(c) Black Phosphorous  (Sheet structure)

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Reactively : Black < Red < White
White phosphorus Red phosphorus Black phosphorus

Discrete tetrahedral P4 molecules Polymeric structure consisting of Exists in two forms  -black P
chains of P4 units linked together and  -black P

Very reactive Less reactive than white P Very less reactive

Glows in dark Does not glow in dark
Translucent waxy solid Has an iron grey luster Has an opaque monoclinic or
rhombohedral crystals

Soluble in CS2 but insoluble in Insoluble in water as well as CS2

water
It has low ignition temperature,
therefore, kept under water

Inter-conversion

Preparation (P4)
1200C
(i) Bone ash : Ca 3 (PO4 )2  3SiO2 
 CaSiO3  P2 O5

2P2 O5  10 C 
 P4  10CO 
Coke (White P)

26. (a) Reaction of P4 (b) Reactions Involving P4O10

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27. Reactions Involving Phosphorus chlorides.

28. PH3 (Rotten fish smell)

29. Oxyacids of ‘P’

30. Oxygen
Allotropes : O2 and O3
Liquid O2 :Pale blue
Solid O2 :Blue

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31. Ozone
Gaseous O3: Pale Blue
liquidO3 : dark blue
Solid O3: Violet black

32. Reactions Involving O2 and O3

33. H2O2

34. Sulphur
- Allotropes : Rhombic or  Sulphur
95.5C
Monoclinic or  - sulphur 
S()  
 S()
 - sulphur

At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature. Both of them have S8 molecules.
The ring is puckered and has a crown shape. Another allotrope of sulphur - cyclo S6 ring adopts a chair form.
S2 is formed at high temperature ( 1000 K). It is paramagnetic because of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti
bonding II* orbital like O2 .
- Amorphous forms : Plastic sulphur
Colloidal sulphur
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Exist as S8 (most stable) (S6 form)

35. Reactions involving H2S

36. Reaction Involving Oxyacids of sulphur

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37. Reactions Involving H2SO4

38. Reactions Involving Na2S2O3(Sodium Thiosulphate)

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39. Reactions Involving Halogens

Reaction Comment
 With H2 O
Vigorous reaction with F2 ; atmospheric O2 can
 4H   4F   O2
2F2  2H 2 O 
oxidise I to I2 hence, reverse reaction
 4H   4X   O 2
2X 2  2H 2 O  Cl2  Br2  I 2 (F2 does not disproportionate).
 X   HOX  H 
disproportionate
X 2  H 2 O 
 With H2 All the halogens with Br2 photochemical
reaction, with I2 very slow even at high
H 2  X 2 
 2HX
temperature.
 With metals
Most metals from halides.
2M  nX 2 
 2MX n
 With CO
Only Cl2, Br 2 from carbony halide
CO  X 2 
 COX 2
 With P
For F, Cl, Br, I
2P  3X 2 
 2PX3

2P  5X 2 
 2PX5 For F, CI, Br
 With S
2S  X 2 
 S2 X 2
Cl, Br
S  2Cl 2 
 SCl4
S  3F2 
 SF6
 With H2 S
H 2S  X 2 
 2HX  S  
All the halogens oxidise H 2S S2 to S

 With SO2
SO 2  X 2 
 SO2 X 2 F and Cl

 With NH3
F, Cl, Br
8NH3  3X 2 
 N 2  6NH 4 X
 With halogens
X 2  X2 
 2XX Interhalogen compounds

 With cold NaoH

2NaOH  2F2 
 2NaF  OF2  H 2O
(X = Cl, Br) I2 does not react under the same
2NaOH  X 2 
 NaX  NaOX  H 2 O condition.
Cl2 reacts with dry slaked lime forming bleaching
powder Ca(OH) 2  Cl2 
 CaOCl2  H 2 O

 With hot NaOH

(X = Cl, Br, I)
6NaOH  3X 2 
 5NaX  NaXO3  3H 2 O

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40. Halogens

41. Oxides


a Cl2O Cl2  Na 2CO3  H 2O 
 Cl2O  NaHCO3  NaCl

b ClO2 AgClO3  Cl2 

 AgCl  ClO2  O2

P4 O10
c Cl2O7 
HClO 4  
 Cl2O7  H 2O

D Cl2O6 ClO2  O3 
 ClO3 
dim er
 [ClO 2 ] [ClO4 ]
 Cl2O6 
solid state

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42. Oxyacids of Cl2

 H O
Cl2 O 
2  HClO HOX, HXO2, HXO 3, HXO4

 H O
ClO2 
2  HClO  HClO
3 Acidity order 

 H O
Cl2 O6 
2  HClO  HClO
3 4 Thermal Stability 
 H O
Cl2 O7 
2  2HClO
4 Oxidising Power 

43. Bleaching Powder :

44. Xenon Fluoride

Reactions Involving Xenon Fluorides : -

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