‘ Hotton > 3 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS Report of the task committee on design criteria for retaining walls A. J. Aisenbrey, Jr. R. B. Campbell R. W. Kramer J. Legas LM. Stimson Engineering and Research Center First printed August 1971 | Division of Design Denver, Colorado Revised and Reprinted July 1977 me UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR + =—-_BUREAU OF RECLAMATIONDESIGN CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS CONTENTS GENERAL ... STATIC LOADS ......+. Fill Pressures . Water Pressure . Saturated Fill Pressure . Construction Loads ....-++ Windload .. Ice-load ....+ DYNAMIC LOADS ...eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeen ees Seismic Fill Pressure .... Seismic Effects on Concrete Wall Alone ...-..--+ Seismic Water Pressure on Rigid Malls ......---- Seismic Water Pressure on Flexible Walls ....- SAFETY FACTORS FOR STABILITY ....2sse0eeeeeees Static Factors ......+ Dynamic Factors ... a one Allowable Stresses - Working Stress Design - General Strength and Serviceability Requirements - Ultimate Strength Design .. MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS ...--.2+s0eeeeeeeereeeeeerres Selection of Backfill Material . Draining Backfill ....-.s.eesseeseererees Pile Foundations for Retaining Walls .....-+ Foundation Keys . Rock ANChOTS ++.-+-2+++ Surcharge from Debris . Wall Displacements .... Construction Considerations Liquefaction Slip Surface Failure .... DIVIDER WALLS10 Bry 12 43 Table CONTENTS (Continued) LIST OF FIGURES Active Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls ......... Elastic Foundations Analyzed by the Theory of Redundant Reactions ..... Calculation of Saturated Fill Pressure ..........+ Forces Exerted by Expanding Ice Sheet ...... Dynamic Increment in Active Earth Pressure Coefficient ...... Seismic Zone Map of the United States ........ Approximate Relationships: Earthquake Intensity, Acceleration, and Magnitude .... Design Spectrum Giving Magnification Factor as a Function of Period and Damping . Seismic Force on Concrete Walls .. Seismic Water Pressure Factor .....-..++s0++ Seismic Water Pressure on Flexible Walls .......+.+ Water Pressure Distribution Against a Wall ... Box Structure ..... LIST OF TABLES Coefficient of Earth Pressure At Rest ....-. 22 23 25, 26 34 eesresecne nena rio: CONTENTS (Coptinued) Table « 2 Influence on Total Pressure Coefficient of Vertical Earthquake Acceleration and the Acceleration of i Gravity ....seeee Bocce 3 Bearing Pressures for Foundation Materials ........ APPENDIX A CASE (a) Level Fills ... CASE (b) Sloping Fills . CASE (c) Sloping Wall with Level or Sloping Fills .......+ CASE (d) Level Fills with Uniform Surcharge .. CASE (e) Level Fills with Line Load Surcharge (concen- trated load) .. iii E 15, 28 AL AA? AS a4i DESIGN CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS GENERAL ‘The design of retaining walls to withstand the effects of static and dynamic fill and water loads consists essentially of two parts: 1, Solving for bearing pressures and for stability against overturning and sliding 2. Proportioning the various menbers and reinforcement to accommodate the stresses This report sets forth general procedures and criteria for the design of concrete retaining walls. It is intended as a guide to uniformly safe design. It does not preclude the use of other design methods provided they are desirable and the resulting structure is as safe and economical as if produced by the methods presented herein. It should be remembered that rigorous, complicated methods only serve to show whether the simple methods err on the side of safety. No attempt has been nade to provide the designer with either a textbook or a handbook for retaining wall design. STATIC LOADS Fill Pressures ‘The pressures exerted by fills upon a wall are dependent upon the physical characteristics of the fill particles, the degree of con- paction, the level of saturation, and the movements of the wall. Experience has shown that walls designed to resist fill pressures obtained by the following methods are safe and economical Fill pressures which must be considered are:[8] is}! Active pressure. - If a retaining wall yields away from the initial position of the fill so that the fill strains laterally, then the lateral pressure of the fill against the wall gradually decreases and approaches a. lower limiting value known as active pressure. 2. Passive pressure. - If the wall is forced into the fill, thus compressing the fill in a lateral direction, the resistance of the fill gradually increases until it assumes an upper limiting value known as passive pressure. 1 Numbers in brackets designate references.3, At-rest pressure. - If the deformation modulus of the wall 2 foundation is high and the wall itself is rigid so that there is little or no lateral extension of the fill, then the wall is : resisting lateral fill pressure known as at-rest pressure. S The sketches in Appendix A illustrate various configurations of fill and surcharge loadings. The lateral loads as shown are applicable to active, passive, and at-rest conditions. The sketches illustrate the more common loading conditions and are offered as aids to design. The relationship between the vertical pressure, wH, on a horizontal plane and the pressure, p, on any other plane, for conditions of uniform fill density and no submergence, may be expressed as: . p = wHK qQ) where: ws unit weight of fill H = depth of fill K = a proportionality factor which is dependent upon the inclination of the plane and the pressure conditions which may exist between the Limits of active and passive conditions. ‘The total force, P, acting upon the wall, may be expressed as: 2 p. we @ | 2 S The effect of cohesion, C, has been omitted in Equation (2), because its. contribution is uncertain and relatively unimportant for most sit- uations. The load distribution is assumed to be triangular, and the resultant acts at # above the base. [8] [17] [18] K may be obtained a from Rankine's theory, which, for the common case of a level fill and se a vertical wall is: a 4 Kas tan? (45° - 5 (Active) (3) Kp = tan? (45° + 4 (Passive) (4)where $ is the effective angle of internal friction obtained from lab- oratory tests of the fill material. Where no tests are performed for the specific case, values of ¢ may be obtained from past tests of sim- ilar material. The active pressure coefficient, Ka, may also be obtained from Fig- ure 1. These curves are for various values of $, wall slope, and backfill slope, and are based on Coulomb's equation. [17] The value of Kq obtained from these curves provides pressures normal back of the wall and is equal to: ahr Bina cos Where a = the angle between the back of the wall and the horizontal in front of the wall. Ka= GA) 8 = angle of friction between the fill and the wall. The curves were developed by assuming no friction between the wall and the fill, thus cos 6 = 1. Curves similar to Figure 1 were not developed for passive pres- sure coefficients. These coefficients may be found by Coulomb's equation: — ts e) (aay ' sing sin_(@ + 8) |? oe fp ~ Vsina sin tH + | ‘The nomenclature is the same as that on Figure 1 and the angle & is assumed to be zero. For pressures normal to the wall: Kp= x Sin a cos 6 Kp (48) At-rest pressure coefficients range between those of active and pas- sive pressures. The value for K, at rest, may be estimated by Jaky's equatic 12] Ky = l-sin (s) Where $ is unknown, Table 1 lists suggested values for K at rest which may be used:[16] [19]VALUES OF x | —-}+—Wall slopes in’ Wall slopes away from TS SAS 2ICtZSA4 SETS 17 18 19 20 COULOMB'S EQUATION = 20 Paz} wh? x Kg/sinercos8=$ wh? Kg Vortical wall : sin?(a +) cos 8 Kaz $ : . . =e. sinc: ste “ ° + =3:/ 2 Where: 304 2° c= Wall slope 3 = Wall friction angle e a B= Angle ofsiope ¢ = Internal friction angle ie: wo Z E 08 > 08 8 ‘04 ‘83 2 1 Woll slopes away from fill—el+— wall slopes into Wall slopes owoy from fil—>}«-Wall slopes into fil 002 20 20 ° | Vertical wall ‘9 4 on 1 : is 4 J o a PSE! “ _ ¥ f see: a 2 “2 east 2 = 8 S0 8 ° 2 W 10 3 20 8 DEFINITION SKETCH F968 € $2 S 8 Tang #100 + 33 23 ($= 45°00") — VALUES OF x a 02 Values of Ko=K,/sin axcos 8 2 Part whtsKg ‘ Ses E | 01 Gnit we. of fill (ibs /outt) ove ES SF ooe Wall friction assumed zero (320°) ° I Pq shown is for stem stress analysis re ses 2.01823 A567 8 8 10 TOES TOT eS 1a 15° y analysis use hy VALUES OF x ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALLS LMS Figure 1Table 1 COEFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE AT REST Fill type Ko drained K, undrained Dense sand, gravel 0.4 0.4 Loose sand, gravel 0.6 0.6 Silt 0.6 0.6 Soft clays 0.6 1.0 Hard clays 0.5 0.8 Wall movements. - The relative movement of the top of a wall with Tespect to the initial position of the fill determines the type of fill pressure to use in design. The movenent may be either into or away from the fill, and may be caused by lateral displacement of the wall, rotation, deflection of the member, or foundation yielding. Measurement points on spillway and outlet works structures which are closely associated with earth dams have shown wall displacements that may be related to movements of the dam. ‘The minimum movement of the wall top, in terms of wall height H, nec- essary to fully mobilize the various design pressures are:[16] [2] 1, “Active pressure Loose fill 0.002H Dense fill 0.000SH 2. Passive pressure Loose fill 0.006H Dense fill 0.002H 3, At-rest pressure Movements which are less than the above The movement of the top of the wall may be due to a combination of foundation deformation and wall deflection. Foundation deformation may be computed by: 1, A method commonly called the Gold method as shown on Figure 2. This method has been programed for computer (refer to PROGRAMS chapter).References: Discussion by Joseph Gold ond B.Le Americon Society of Civil Engineers Vol. 74, No.8, Oct, 1948, pp 1375 to 1383 Concrete Pavement Dé Portland Cement Ass'n. 1946 pp 47 to 66 SYMBOL DEFINITION vatue W Applied Lood E Modulus of Elosticity Pounds per sq, inch 3,000,000 Kips per sq. ‘432,000 I Moment of Iner ® Conventional S in Kips per sq. ft. k jus of Subgrade Recction */0"/* k of Foundation Material-Kips /0'/* TYPE OF SOIL ‘ « Grovel-sond mixtures 500 a00116 Gravel-sand- clay mixtures 400 0.00145 Sond- clay mixtures 300 0.00193 Fine sand 200 0.00280 Silt ond Cloy 100 0.00579 BASIC THEORY Beom deflections = m= er SY ax? Elastic foundotion deflection y= Kp Then M= KET Pod for a beam i¢ foundation DEFLECTION DIAGRAM 16.1 ELASTIC FOUNDATIONS ANALYZED BY THE THEORY OF RECUNDANT REACTIONS n ponels @ AxtL y PANEL SOLUTION Fig. 2 If the beom, Fig.2, is subdivided into n equal ponels of length Ax, ond if se is replaced by its finite difference x operator A) = pist—2pi + pict Bethy 0) Ae ‘then ot n-I intermediote points, Eq.3 yields Mat KEE (piet= 2p1e pled ( for which condition i = 2,3)... ,.9 and Mxi is the moment at the point x; of the external loads and of the resulting unknown pressures p. There ore +I unknown pressures to be determined for n parels. ‘Two of the simultoneous equations ore found from equilibrium of vertical forces and of moments. Thus 141 equotions con be written, EXAMPLE 3 1 a 3 75Ki 100 Kips 100 Ki opie 7120 ft hips. y KEL, (0.0101432,000)18.33) 169 at” ee Use Eq. at points 2 ond 3 ond also set sum of vertical For Fig 3, forces equal to ze At point 2, Mp = 75 (4)-120-6p, (8)-Gpp (4) Me#160 (Ps~2pe +1) 2+ 100+ 76 212EF x2 EPR y6) cation gives BP - 296p2 + 160p3= 180 soapy ey = 1280 espe’ apy 880 Conver 7, a 5.791, ps*6.890 Positive valves sion, oll in kips /° Substuting the Keown pressures, M +142", My+116'k A dimensionless parameter governs problems of 4 this type where A= L j/—T ‘aKET Recommended number of panels for accuracy of t 10% Ronge of \ values ItolS LSto2 2403 31045 45405 2 3 4 5 6 This sclution is not dependent on symmetrical loading. LMS. Figure 22, A method using Vogt's constants for foundation deformation as given in Reference 3, pages 63 through 75. Wall deflection with respect to its base may be found by: 1, Using standard deflection equations. 2, Vogt's constants for walls, Reference 3, pages 108 through 125. Water Pressure ‘The total hydrostatic force.Py, acting upon a vertical wall is: 2 rae ee © where: wy = 62.4, the unit weight of water Hy = depth of water ‘The load distribution is triangular, and the resultant acts at * above the base. Saturated Fill Pressure ‘The total force acting upon a wall with a portion of the backfill saturated is computed in three parts: 1, ‘The drained weight of the soil above the water level 2. The buoyant weight of the soil below the water level 3. The hydrostatic pressure of the water The method of computation is illustrated in Figure 3. Construction Loads Construction loads are temporary in character and should be treated as surcharge loads by the methods shown in Appendix A. These loads may be caused by construction equipment moving along the wall fill - or by storage of construction materials on the fill. The designer \ should satisfy himself as to the type and location of loads of this nature to be used in his design. The November issue of “Construc- ‘tion Methods and Equipment" has in the past given loads for con- struction machinery. aLWater Level SQM H LLL pW) Kk Py = My Ho Ch evr nak W= drained weight of fill, Ibs/cf; (fill above water level) W, = buoyant weight of fill, Ibs/cf; (fi11 below water Tevel) Wy = unit weight of water, Ibs/cf = 62.4 Ibs/cf Wy = Wy - Wy, where We is the unit weight of 100 percent saturated fill and can be determined from the relationsh Wg = (oven-dry unit weight) + (62.4 x volume of voids) K = Kgs Kp» or Ky (Rankine, Coulomb, or Jaky) P Hy? Pp = Wy > OK 2 Hg’ Pa = Wo Py = WH) K Ho Figure 3. - Calculation of saturated fill pressure. 12indload Walls in some localities may be subjected to high winds during con- struction and prior to backfilling. Windloads in this case are considered to be temporary in the design. Windloads may be part of the normal static design if the wall, as completed, receives no back- fill or only partial backfill. In either case, a uniform horizontal load of 30 psf on the exposed area, corresponding to an 86-mph wind, should be used. Ice-load ‘The Bureau has experienced little difficulty with ice-loads on struc- tures. Where ice pressure is used in the design, Figure 4 indicates the unit pressures to be applied to walls from ice thrust. In this country, the ice thickness will normally not exceed 2 feet. DYNAMIC LOADS Seismic Fill Pressure The total active fill force, P,;, during an earthquake is obtained by adding a dynamic force component, AP,,, to the active static force, P, described under Static Loads. [15] Pur = P+ AP m” ‘The components of P,, are computed separately, since P acts at one- third the height of the fill above the base and AP, acts at two- thirds the height of the fill above the base.[9] [20] The force com- ponents are: then: Pye ME ae ak) = ME ky (8) where: AK,_ = dynamic increment of active earth pressure coefficient Ky, = total active pressure coefficient 13Estimated curve from data in ‘St. Lawrence Waterway Report, 927 Bosed on reports by E.Brown and 6.C.Clarke The Engineetng Jour, Jonwory, 1932 Tests conducted with no lateral ‘restraint. 7000 7,000 ‘Soa ‘000 000 PRESSURE INCREASE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT PER HOUR A-PRESSURE CHANGE GAUSED BY TEMPERATURE RISE OF ICE. AB AB - MT RATE OF TEMPERATURE RISE PER HOUR (DEGREES F.) Rate of ir temperature rise ‘A. 5 degrees F per hour B 10 degrees F per hour G 5 degrees F per hour ‘nti oir tempercture ‘ossumed ~40 degrees. Iniiol lee temperature varies Tineary from-40 degrees F. car surface Yo 49 degre F. at lower surface. Solar energy neglected. | | No lateral restraint Complete loteral restraint (p= 0.365) | | 008 16,000 15,000 20,000 000 THRUST 1M POUNDS PER LINEAR FOOT B-ICE THRUST FOR VARIABLES OF IGE THICKNESS, AIR-TEMPERATURE RISE, AND RESTRAINT. ntitled "Thrust Exerted by Expanding y Edwin Rose, Trons. Am. Soc. GE. VOL. 112, 1947 P B71) 3 5 Ice THICKNE FORGES EXERTED BY EXPANDING ICE SHEET [APRIL 1948-EML-ER. FORMERLY x-0-3609. 103- Figure 4 14Values of AK, for various ratios, ay, of horizontal earthquake acceleration to the acceleration of gravity may be obtained from the curves on Figure 5. Curves on this drawing indicate that fill slope nay become a critical factor under earthquake loadings. With a fill slope of 20° and a horizontal ground acceleration of 0.25g, the horizontal force is about 75 percent greater than for a level fill. The values of AK,, have been verified approximately by model tests. The influence of the ratio, ay, of vertical earthquake acceleration to the acceleration of gravity on the total pressure coefficient, Kus, depends upon the corresponding component of the horizontal acceleration ratio, ay, as shown in Table 2. [15] Table 2 ay an Percent increase (cere of (azt,ef) or decrease ravity, gravity, in Kye 0.2 + otoo1t 415 to + 20 0.2 + 0.2 5 +10 0.2 03 5 peas) For most earthquakes, the horizontal acceleration components are considerably greater than the vertical acceleration components. For this reason, the vertical components are usually ignored in design practice. Passive lateral pressures under seismic conditions may be determined by the sane general approach as for the active condition. The total passive pressure coefficient may be computed by: [10] 2 +i- kop 2 oe et i 8) ________ a +B 2 cos @ cos’ cos (6-it0) [! - {sin Ge-Qein (eres Ay where: = slope angle of ground surface behind wall slope angle of back of wall to vertical © angle of wall frictior 15Pua My Y, ia (®y) 4N310143309 aunssaud H1dv3 3A1L9¥ 40 NOLLVINBVL 2 = vo aa |eror ze ae ve |e | 02 ee |e of we | 0 $2 of a 0 waeeé | oad [sees [0e-% |, oF-8 OreReference 10 describes a graphical procedure for both the passive and active condition based on the Mononobe-Okabe method discussed above. Earthquake engineering, currently (1971), is in a fluid state. Pro- fessors Seed and Martin, [14] point out that the conventional empir- ical method of selecting a seismic coefficient has little logical basis; it is based on past precedent rather than rational analysis. Several reasons frequently given to rationalize the use of a seismic coefficient of 0.10g for design purposes are listed in the report. “However, the authors show that none appear to be based on a logical premise. It appears that repeated use of this coefficient has given it some semblance of authoritative procedure, but no reason for its initial adoption could be found. Values for accelerations should be carefully selected. The most important consideration is the proximity of the structure to known ‘earthquakes and their effect on the area in which the structure will be located. [13] The possibility of earthquake ground motion causing ‘a weakening of the foundation, with subsequent wall movements, should be considered. Geologic conditions at the site may greatly influence ‘the response of the wall foundation to an earthquake shock. A general idea of the magnitudes of earthquakes which may be antici- pated in various sections of the United States can be obtained from Figure 6 (also in the latest edition of the Uniform Building Code, 1970). Approximate relationships of earthquake intensity, acclera- ‘tion, and magnitude are shown on Figure 7.[13] The designer should continue to use methods indicated herein with a minimum horizontal ‘acceleration of 0.10g in seismic areas. The state-of-the-art should be continually reviewed and design methods updated if the need for improved criteria is indicated. Seismic Effects on Concrete Wall Alone During an earthquake, the vibrations of the ground are transmitted to the base of the structure. The nature of the vibration is suf- ficiently close to a simple harmonic vibration to justify the assump- tion that the vibrations are harmonic. [11] The mathematics of har- monic vibration provide the means to determine Ts, the natural period of vibration of the structure. The natural period may be defined as the period in which the structure will vibrate if subjected to a single shock and allowed to vibrate freely until the vibrations cease by damping. ‘The ratio of the natural period of vibration of the structure to the forced vibration which is applied to the foundation, T./T, is impor- ‘tant.{1] [20] When this ratio is unity, the condition of resonance 17t * Figure 6 (Sheet 1 ofKODIAK PACIFIC OCEAN . 4° SEISMIC ZONE MAP P ALASKA ‘fare mee woLoKar oan #* Carter aigarmianen, 4°* world K SEISMIC ZONE MAP HAWAII Figure 6 (Sheet 2 of 2)RoSS!— FORE. INTENSITY SCALE MooIFiEO MERCALL wrensity scace T The seock (ele by ow Sipertenced sheerwer. Felt by parvooe or kevorably Pls ‘est tnated, Fels totcors._tangine ieee ovina Vibeetton like peasng of Ligre trees, TE Gaoglag pets sving. Vibration Tike feings "shatters, pletarer ‘Tecka atop, aueves change Faves SBTC Ty GIT Raay Tetahtened tad fom wit ‘tanen, doors rattle. FE overtime of novel eee ma tigin of image fovbeilatags. eae cater co fait Pall of shimeyes THE Ravin oe egal ater ton fa bievicale to Stand, Noticed by eclvers a or eave Suns, tage alle = ee Sa ps APPROXIMATE RELATIONSHIPS : PEAK ACCELERATION (FRACTION OF GRAVITY) macniTuoe Seae EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY, ACCELERATION, AND MAGNITUDE 20 Figure 7 A Iexists. Under this condition, in general, the maximum stress effects are produced in the structure. The relation which the displacement, acceleration, etc., of the top of the structure have to the same quantities at the base of the structure may be expressed by using a magnification factor, MF. Figure 8 shows magnification curves developed by Housner (1959). [21] The shapes of these curves are consistent with the ground motions recorded in El Centro and Taft, California, and in Olympia, Washington. The shapes would not be consistent with ground motions recorded in other parts of the world nor for earthquakes of small magnitude. The designer should use these curves for design in this country, with a damping factor of 2 percent for the concrete wall alone. [21] ‘The natural period of vibration for either a gravity or a fixed-free cantilever wall may be found by:[11] 2 Tee P ao) H = height of wall in feet B= base width of a gravity wall or thickness of a cantilever wall in feet F = factor which is function of geometry. For gravity walls up to 100 feet in height, F = 0.000425 may be used. For fixed-free cantilever walls up to 100 feet in height and with B/H not exceeding 0.5, F = 0.000643 may be used. Ts for walls exceeding these limitations may be calculated by the methods in Reference 11. ‘The magnification factor, MF, is used in the following ways: 1, Determine the natural period of vibration Ts, of the struc- ‘ture from Equation 10 2. Determine MF with 2 percent damping from Figure 8 3. Assume that the magnification factor, MF, varies linearly as shown in Figure 9. Determine the total force, Pr,, and the distance, d', to the centroid of FLK or of FGLK' (Figure 9). 21or 13931M AG (ONINDINIONS 3AVNOHLYV, JOG YILdVHO-HANSNOH Y3L4V B1VOS AUVULIGUY SONIDNVG ONY GOIN3d dO NOILONAY V SV YOLOVS NOILVOIZINDVW ONIAIS WNYLIIdS NOISSC (93S) golmad S21 oz or Figure 8 Sulduiog %S0 SW ‘YOLIVS NOILVOI4INOUN 22ro K 150Bah GRAVITY WALL I 150BapyMF L K f soem FIXED-FREE CANTILEVER WALL Figure 9, - Seismic force on concrete walls. 23Seismic Water Pressure on Rigid Walls The hydrodynamic force acting against a rigid wall was defined by Westergaard[6] [22] and is shown on Figure 10. The pressure distri- bution is parabolic. The pressure at the base is: Po = Count a1) Total additional water pressure, Pew = 3 Coane? qa2) w= $e Coant? as) ‘ “In these equations: ay = ratio of horizontal earthquake acceleration to the accelera- tion of gravity, RB H = height of water Ce = a factor depending upon the depth of water, H, in feet, and the earthquake foundation vibration period, T, in seconds. Westergaard's approximate equation for Ce in pound-second- foot units is: SL H 1 - 0.72 as) Values of Ce for ratios of H/T may be obtained from Figure 10. The forces computed above must be added algebraically to the static water pressure and the earthquake forces of the wall itself. For sloping walls, refer to the Bureau's Monograph No. 11. [4] Co aa) Seismic Water Pressure on Flexible Walls For the case of a flexible wall with water on one or both sides of the wall, the following method shall be used: 24OLOV4 aUNSSAYd YILVM SINSISS (998/43) “2/4 1 006 00% oot 008 1 Figure 10 os ov of 02 9 a as 22 souadajay 22S 40001) 374 a | . (2298) 2204, ° (09) potsad d¥onbys09-1 = f/uo1403918900 punoub joyuoz!soy =" g Hit 29 =w > ste aH 90 §HEd + Hum 85200 es} + + 09 1 LL| 1, Determine the natural period of the system, i.e., of the struc- ture and the mass of the water acting as part of the system by: 3/2 T, = 0.000053 (®) Viet tw as) where Wo = weight of the wall Mw = weight of water = 2/3CoH®, from Westergaard as previously defined. 2. From Equation 15 and Figure 8, 5 percent damping, [5] deter- mines whether a magnification factor, MF, need be applied. If MF does not apply, use Westergaard's parabola, the same as though the walls were rigid. 3. I£ magnification is required, the variation is assumed to be Linear as shown’ by Line DE, Figure 11.[11] The curve AKC repre- sents Westergaard's parabola as modified by magnification. The curve is produced by assuming values of Y and solving for X. ME Westergaard's standard parabola for hydrodynamic loading x= Ca, “HY [ - (« When Y = H, the total hydrodynamic load is: H2 (0.4 MF + 0.6) ayPew acts at a distance, d, above the base: 4 MF + 3 a-oan[ Hess | qs) When Y is less than H: 2 y Powy = 5 Celtt/2y3/2 [ MP (1 - 0.6 f) + 0.6 ] a, (19) Powy acts at: : BY x 1-0), 3 wea - By. * a= 04 ¥ | (20) MF (1 - 0.6 5) + 0.6 F A ‘The forces as computed above must be added algebraically to the static ' water pressure and the earthquake forces of the wall itself. Water . loads may be on one or both sides of the wall. The force Pew may act in either direction and increase or decrease the static water load, ” Ee depending upon direction. a Westergaard's parabola is not used with saturated fills. Fill mate- 3 . rials commonly used have a percentage of voids, such that a rapid ; interchange of water does not occur. A magnification factor is not =. used with walls supporting fill, because the high damping effect of the backfill precludes resonance. [14] [21] SAFETY FACTORS FOR STABILITY . A retaining wall may fail in two different ways: (1) its individual . nenbers may not be strong enough to resist the applied loads, and i (2) the wall as a whole may be displaced bodily. Assuming that the 2 oS proper loads have been determined and item (1) has been adequately 5 A Eonsidered in the design, failure under item (2) can occur by over- 3 turning, exceeding the allowable bearing pressure of a particular a foundation material, or by sliding. a Static Factors . 1. Failure mode by overturning. - For this to occur the wall must : rotate sbout its toe, i.e., the sum of the overturning moments about Be the toe exceeds the sum of the stabilizing moments. If, as is usually the case, the resultant of all forces on the wall falls within the ao 27middle third of the base width, adequate safety against overturning exists and no further check is required. If the resultant is located outside the middle third, a factor of safety of at least 1.5 should be maintained. [8] 2. Failure mode by exceeding the bearing capacity. - The maximun bearing pressure which an earth or rock foundation material will sustain without exceeding the shearing strength of the material is defined as the ultimate be: acity. The bearing capacity which will result in a suitable es safety can be designated the lallowable bearing pressure. The minimum factor of safety, i.e., the yatio of the ultimate to the allowable bearing pressure, should be 2 for earth and 4 for rock founiations. [Te] The nore “stringent require- ment for rock is required since most rock fabrics incorporate shears ‘and joint systems that contribute to the nonhomogeneity of the mate- rial. Where laboratory tests defining the compressive and shear strength of a material are not available, the designer may apply the values in Table 3.(7] Tab! BEARING PRESSURES FOR FOUNDATION MATERIALS Maximum allowable bearing Materi pressure, tons/ft” 1, Hard sound rock 60 2. Medium hard rock 40 3. Hardpan overlying rock 2 4, Compact gravel and boulder- gravel formations; very compact sandy gravel 10 S. Soft rock 8 6, Loose gravel and sandy gravel; compact sand and gravelly sand; very compact sand ~ inorganic silt 6 7. Hard dry consolidated clay 5 8. Loose coarse to medium sand; medium compact fine sand 4 9. Compact sand - clay soils 3 10. Loose fine sand; medium com- ‘pact sand - inorganic silt soils 2 11, Firm or stiff clay 1S 12. Loose saturated sand - clay soils medium soft clay 1 283. Failure mode by sliding. - Failure can occur along the contact of the base of the wall with the foundation or within the founda- tion material itself. Resistance to sliding is developed through the shearing strength of the foundation material or the contact between the wall base and foundation and may be determined by: Sg = CA +N tang (21) where S = shearing strength C = apparent cohesion of the foundation material or wall ‘base foundation contact; unit cohesive strength ‘A. = area of the wall base or potential sliding area within foundation material N = summation of forces acting normal to sliding plane, including uplift = effective angle of internal friction of foundation material The factor of safety against sliding is defined as the ratio of the resisting forces to the driving forces and should have a minimum value of 1.5.[8] [15] [18] F.S. (sliding) = A* Rt $2 1.5 (22) IH = summation of driving forces Where the foundation is of cohesionless material or rock stratified horizontally or near horizontally, such as shale, and the cohesion is zero, shearing strength is developed only through mechanical friction. Ss = Ntan¢ F.S. (sliding) = Neamt LS (23) This may also be expressed in terms of an allowable sliding coeffi- cient by rearranging the above equation. Sliding coefficient = Cs = gg thy iE (2a) 29Cg represents the maximm allowable ratio of driving forces to resist- ing forces, i.e. =| SCs For example, assume a shale foundation has been tested in direct shear and found to have a tan $ value of 0.45. With a desired safety factor of 1.5, the allowable sliding coefficient will be: 5 = 0.30 ana 5H < 0.30 Dynamic Factors When either an earthquake or a temporary construction loading con- dition is being considered, the safety factors may be reduced as follows: (2) Failure mode by overturning. - Minimum safety factor = 1.15. (2) Failure mode by exceeding the bearing capacity. - Increase the allowable bearing pressure by one-third. (3) Failure mode by sliding. - Minimum safety factor = 1.15. [15] Allowable Stresses - Working Stress Design In the structural analysis and proportioning of members for the design of a retaining wall, the applicable portions of Chapter 10, Sections 1000 through 1004, ACI Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-63, shall apply. General Strength and Serviceability Requirements - Ultimate Strength Design In the structural analysis and proportioning of members for the design of a retaining wall, the applicable portions of Chapter 15, Sections 1500 through 1508, ACI Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-63, shall apply except where super- seded by the memorandum and enclosure from the Acting Chief Design- ing Engineer dated August 14, 1968. MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS ‘There are many considerations other than those previously discussed herein which may affect the final design of a retaining wall. Some of the more obvious ones are discussed in this section.Selection of Backfill Material Expansive soils should not be used for backfill behind retaining walls. Backfill material immediately adjacent to walls of canal structures is usually obtained from material moved in excavating for the structure and compacted to obtain a relatively low permea- bility, thereby reducing seepage losses. Whenever possible, however, free-draining material should be used because: 1. The higher angle of internal friction of the free-draining material will result in lower lateral earth pressures. 2. Saturation pressures can be reduced or eliminated by ade- quately draining the backfill. 3. For sites in freezing climates, formation of ice lenses is less probable. Draining Backfill Backfill should be maintained in a drained condition. There are many techniques available to achieve this goal, ranging from preventing surface water from entering the backfill to installing subsurface drainage systems. Each site will require individual consideration to select a best solution. Pile Foundations for Retaining Walls Extremely poor foundation bearing capacity or degradation and erosion considerations may require a pile foundation. Design of the pile foundation is beyond the scope of this report. Foundation Keys Foundation keys are commonly used to increase the stability against sliding of a retaining wall. ‘The key is assumed to lower the level Of the failure surface for purposes of stability analysis. The weight of the material ahead of the key multiplied by tan ¢, plus Cohesion on the assumed failure surface, is used for purposes of structural design of the key. Rock Anchors It may be advantageous to minimize rock excavation by anchoring the base or buttresses of retaining wall with rock anchors. This does not alter the design criteria presented herein. 31