AMA COMPUTER COLLEGE – FAIRVIEW

Bristol St. cor Regalado Avenue, Fairview Q.C.

(02) 921-5781 ; 921-1115

Name: Kristine Joy R. Rapal Section: ABM-FVA1

Teacher: Ms. Rose Ann Calanday Date: 11/ 20/ 19

1. FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

According to National Museum of Natural History, our universe began with an explosion of space itself
- the Big Bang. Starting from extremely high density and temperature, space expanded, the universe cooled, and
the simplest elements formed. Gravity gradually drew matter together to form the first stars and the first
galaxies. Galaxies collected into groups, clusters, and super clusters. Some stars died in supernova explosions,
whose chemical remnants seeded new generations of stars and enabled the formation of rocky planets. On at
least one such planet, life evolved to consciousness. Our Milky Way Galaxy was once thought to comprise the
entire known universe. Today our universe encompasses many billions of galaxies, and its history can be
recounted back to its earliest moments.
According to the standard Big Bang model, the universe was born during a period of inflation that began
about 13.7 billion years ago. Like a rapidly expanding balloon, it swelled from a size smaller than an electron to
nearly its current size within a tiny fraction of a second.

 THE BIG BANG THEORY

o According to Physical Geography, the Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted
cosmological explanation of how the universe formed. If we start at the present and go back into
the past, the universe is contracting, getting smaller and smaller. According to the Big Bang
theory, the universe began about 13.7 billion years ago. Everything that is now in the universe
was squeezed into a very small volume. An enormous explosion—a big bang—caused the
universe to start expanding rapidly. All the matter and energy in the universe, and even space
itself, came out of this explosion.

o Base on Wikipedia, the Big Bang Theory is a cosmological model for the observable

universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The
model describes how the universe expanded from a very high-density and high-temperature
state, and offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of phenomena, including the
abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB), large-scale
structure and Hubble's law (the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from
Earth.

2. STAR FORMATION
According to Wikipedia, Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecula
clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "star-forming regions", collapse and
form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium (ISM)
and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study
of protostars and young stellar objects as its immediate products. It is closely related to planet formation,
another branch of astronomy. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star,
must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function. Most stars do not form in
isolation but as part of a group of stars referred as star clusters or stellar associations.
3. WHERE DID THE ALL THE ELEMENTS COME FROM?
According to Big Think, the elements of the universe all come from very diverse sources, each with
different conditions predisposing the production of, say, osmium over sodium. Just a few seconds after the Big
Bang, everything was too hot to be anything. So hot, in fact, that the four fundamental forces of the universe
were sort of "melted" into one force, and most elementary particles could not exist. As the universe continued to
cool, however, new reactions could occur. Quarks and gluons could exist and combine to form protons and
neutrons. Between the tenth second and twentieth minute after the Big Bang, the three lightest elements on the
periodic table were produced: hydrogen, helium, and a very small amount of lithium. Hydrogen is quite simple
— it only needs a proton and an electron to exist. But once it picks up another neutron or two, it can fuse with
itself or spare protons to become helium, releasing energy in the process.

 Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium (Z=1 to Z=3)

Hydrogen, helium and lithium were formed in the Big Bang, by a process called Big Bang
nucleosynthesis. Unstable radioactive isotopes of beryllium were also formed, but those would quickly
decay into other elements or fuse with other stable atoms.
Big Bang nucleosynthesis occurred from about one-tenth of a second to one thousand seconds after the
Big Bang and involved the creation of protons and neutrons from the quark-gluon plasma that existed
before it, and then the creation of hydrogen, helium and lithium from these protons and neutrons.

 Beryllium to Iron (Z=4 to Z=26)

A process called stellar nucleosynthesis, where lighter elements are fused into heavier ones with
the release of energy (i.e. an exothermic fusion reaction) is responsible for the creation of the elements
from beryllium to nickel. Some nickel-56 and zinc-60 is also produced, but these are unstable and decay
quickly to form iron-56 and copper-60. It is the decay of nickel-56 into iron-56 which is responsible for
the high amount of iron-56 found in meteorites and planetary cores

 Cobalt to Californium (Z=27 to Z=98)

There are three processes responsible for the creation of elements heavier than iron: the S-
process, the R-process and the Rp-process (sometimes called the P-process).

 Einsteinium to Ununoctium (Z=99 to Z=118)

Small amounts of the lightest of these elements may be produced as outlined above by the S-, R-
and Rp-processes, but the majority of them have only ever been produced artificially, in laboratories, by
humans. They are all extremely radioactive and have very short half-lives so only exist for tiny fractions
of a second when they are created (e.g. element 118, ununoctium has a half life of about 0.9
milliseconds). The remaining elements have all been created by smashing together two larger nuclei: for
example, ununoctium was first produced by colliding krypton-86 and lead-208.

4. REFERENCE
 Formation of the Universe
o https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/the-universe/the-universe/formation-and-evolution-of-
the-universe
 The Big Bang Theory
o https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/formation-of-the-universe/
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang
 Star Formation
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_formation
 Where did all the elements come from?
o https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/origin-elements?rebelltitem=3#rebelltitem3
o http://wordpress.mrreid.org/2013/09/04/where-did-all-the-elements-come-from/