TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………………….....i

DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATE.............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.............................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................2
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY USED........................................................................................4
3.1) HAMMER..............................................................................................................................5
3.1.1) Hand powered hammer.........................................................................................................7
3 .1.2) Mechanically powered hammer...........................................................................................8
3.2) TOOLS USED IN CONJUGTION WITH HAMMER............................................................8
3.3)PHYSICS OF HAMMERING..................................................................................................9
3.3.1) Effect of the head’s mass:.....................................................................................................9
3.3.2) Effect of the handle:.............................................................................................................9
3.3.3)Effect of gravity...................................................................................................................10
3.3.4) ERGONOMICS AND INJURY RISKS:...........................................................................10
3.4.) WAR HAMMER..................................................................................................................11
3.5) SYMBOLICS HAMMER.....................................................................................................11
3.6)BATTERY.............................................................................................................................14
3.6.1) History:...............................................................................................................................15
3.6.2) Types of battery :...............................................................................................................16
3.6.2.1)primary Batteries:.............................................................................................................16
3.6.2.2) secondary batteries:.........................................................................................................16
3.7) ELECTROCHEMISTRY......................................................................................................17
3.8) MOTOR-...............................................................................................................................18
3.8.1)Other uses............................................................................................................................19
3.9) THE PRINCIPLE..................................................................................................................21
3.10)CATEGORISATION OF ELECTRIC MOTOR..................................................................24
3.11) SERVOMOTOR.................................................................................................................26
3.12) INDUCTION MOTOR:......................................................................................................26
3.13) ELECTROSTATIC MOTOR..............................................................................................27
3.14) DC MOTORS......................................................................................................................27
3.14.1).Brush dc motor.................................................................................................................27

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3.14.2) Brushless dc motor...........................................................................................................29
3.14.3) Ironless dc motors:...........................................................................................................30
3.14.4) Pancake dc motors:...........................................................................................................31
3.15)UNIVERSAL DC MOTORS...............................................................................................32
3.16) AC MOTORS......................................................................................................................33
3.16.1) Components:.....................................................................................................................33
3.16.1.1)Torque motors................................................................................................................34
3.17) FEEDINGS AND WINDINGS ...................................................................................37
3.17.1) Doubly-fed electric motor.................................................................................................37
3.17.2) Singly-feed electric motor ...............................................................................................38
3.18) NANOTUBE NANOMETER ............................................................................................38
3.19) T0RQUE CAPABILITY OF MOTOR TYPES:..................................................................40
3.20) USES:..................................................................................................................................41
3.21) SWITCH.............................................................................................................................41
3.22) ACTUATOR :.....................................................................................................................42
3.23) VOLTAGEREGULATOR..................................................................................................43
3.23.1) FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATOR..................................................................................44
3.23.2) Features45.......................................................................................................................45
3.24) CAPACITOR46...............................................................................................................46
3.24.1) Theory of Operation :.......................................................................................................47
3.24.2) Types of capacitor ...........................................................................................................47
3.24.2.1) Ceramic capacitor -........................................................................................................48
3.24.2.2) Electrolyte capacitor......................................................................................................48
3.25) RESISTOR. ........................................................................................................................49
3.25.1) Fixed resistor....................................................................................................................49
3.25.1.1) Wire wound resistor ......................................................................................................50
3.25.1.2) Coding of resistor .........................................................................................................51
3.25.1.3) Resistor colour chart:.....................................................................................................51
3.25.2) Variable resistor...............................................................................................................53
3.26) TRANSISTORS..................................................................................................................54
3.26.1) Emitter:.............................................................................................................................55
3.26.2) Collector..........................................................................................................................55
3.26.3) Base .................................................................................................................................56
3.27) DIODE................................................................................................................................56
3.27.1) Active components..........................................................................................................56
3.27.2) Semiconductor diode :.....................................................................................................57

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3.27.3) Zener diode ......................................................................................................................58
3.28) RELAYS...........................................................................................................................59
3.28.1) Choosing a relay...............................................................................................................61
3.29) IR SENSOR........................................................................................................................63
3.29.1) Description.......................................................................................................................63
CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION AND RESULT...........................................................................67
CHAPTER 5 REFRENCES .........................................................................................................68

LIST OF FIGURES:

Figure 3.2 Ball –Peen hammer................................................................................................6

Figure 3.3 Bush hammer.......................................................................................................12
Figure 3.4 Claw hammer.......................................................................................................12
Figure 3.5 Cross-peen hammer...............................................................................................12
Figure 3.6 Dog head hammer................................................................................................12
Figure 3.7 Framing hammer...................................................................................................12
Figure 3.8 Long cross-face hammer.......................................................................................13
Figure 3.9 Rubber mallet........................................................................................................13
Figure 3.10 Sledge hammer....................................................................................................13
Figure 3.11 Twist hammer.....................................................................................................13
Figure 3.12 Wooden hammer.................................................................................................14
Figure 3.13 Wooden mallet....................................................................................................14
Figure 3.14 Symbol of battery................................................................................................15
Figure 3.15 Electric Motor.....................................................................................................16
Figure 3.16 Lightning magnetic self rotor..............................................................................21
Figure 3.17 Brush DC Motor..................................................................................................28
Figure 3.18 internal block diagram........................................................................................44
Figure 3.19 Fixed output regulator........................................................................................44
Figure 3.20 Series capacitance.............................................................................................46
Figure 3.21 parallel plate capacitor....................................................................................46
Figure 3.22 Tabular disc type ceremiccapacitor....................................................................48
Figure 3.23 electrolytic and tantalum capacitor......................................................................49
Figure 3.24 Circuit symbol for a relay....................................................................................59

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Comparison of motor types....................................................................………….25

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow (a sudden impact) to an
object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit
parts, forge metal, and break apart objects. Hammers vary in shape, size, and
structure depending on their purposes.
Hammers are basic tools in many trades. The usual features are a head (most
often made of steel) and a handle (also called a helve or haft). Although
most hammers are hand tools, powered versions exist; they are known
as powered hammers. Types of power hammer include steam
hammers and trip hammers, often for heavier uses, such as forging.

We use hammer in daily life mostly and operates manually. If hammer will
operate automatically, human life is very easy those human beings who are
physically weak, this project are very useful.
This project works automatically and makes by using motor. It is used DC
battery and DC motor used for operating projects.

iv
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

During literature survey we found various research papers in which we found

various methods which are been used to provide strong impact force to the work
piece and our aim is to take that review for using as a guidance to make “Advance
cam operated hammer”.

FORGING HAMMER (FLUID OPERATED) J.J. Kupta Et Al, United States

Patent office journals, Application – December 2, 1955, Serial no. 550718,
Patented Oct. 23, 1957, Published no. US2789540 Th is project found very useful
when finding out during the literature survey. This project is simp ly is an
improvement of forg ing hammers used for industrial purposes. As we aware that
in forging operation the temperature of the metal part is so high that manual
hammering operation is quite difficult for this purpose. So in this project they
provided control valves which directing the ram up or down by the steam power.
So that ram is moved up and down with attached hammer automatically. So we can
provide automatic control over hammer fo r the purpose of vital operation like forg
ing.

HAMMER TOOL Howard Te, Cleveland, Ohio, United States Patent office
journals, Application – September 27, 1944, Serial no. 555977, Patented Oct. 28,
1947, Published no. US2429780 This invention relates to portable motor operated
and manually controlled machine tools or implements, and more specifically to an
improved hammer tool and operating mechanis ms of the reciprocating, rotary cam
actuated type, and designed for interchangeable use as a portable power operated
hammer, wood chisel, scaling chisel, piercing punch, rock drill, and other similar
power tools. The novel operating mechanism of the project is an attachment, is
adapted for combination with and receives power from a motor, as an electric
motor, which is manually controlled to supply rotary power and mot ion that is
translated, or converted by the operating mechanism into reciprocating motion and
power for a tool holder having selective interchangeable tools.

5
COMPOUND HAMMER Harold S. Sheldon, , Washington DC, United States
Patent office journals, Application – October 15, 1947, Serial no. 779931, Patented
– March 21, 1950, Published no. US2501542 The invention herein disclosed
relates to steam and air hammers of the pile driver type and in which, usually the
motive fluid is just admitted to lift and then released to drop the ram to achieve a
strong downward force to executing any hammering operations. The another
objective of this invention is also taking less time and reducing the breaking
probability of the load or other parts attached to the ram providing hammering
action down the line

CAM OPERATED, S INGLE S HOT, FALLING BLOCK FIRING

MECHANIS M FOR A RIFLE James , Lawrenceville, GA (US), United States
Patent office journals, Application filled – March 23, 2001, Serial no. 09/815,677,
Patented September. 26, 2002, Published no. US 2002/0133997 A1 This invention
relates to the field of firing mechanisms for single shot rifles, more particularly to a
cam operated, falling block firing mechanisms incorporating a pivoted breechblock
like. High power inside the machine is generated by using the cam by which strong
action is generated to the bullets whiles witching engaging the cam switch. So
from this review we decide to take the advantage of using the cam as a vital impact
factor of the hammering action by switching the hammer supported ram.

POWERED IMPACT WRENCH David A. William K. Wallace, Barneveld;

Joseph R. , Clinton, all of N.Y, United States Patent office journals, Application –
September 25, 1989, Patented Jan. 28, 1992, Patent no. 5083619 Published
no.US5083619 This invention relates to the art of rotary impact wrenches of a type
in which a rotating member is periodically reciprocated into and out of rotary
impacting relation with an anvil portion of a torque output shaft. The object of the
invention is to provide an improved power operated impact wrench including
arrangement which permits the use of light weight tool housing without the inertia
effect on the operator who is holding the tool. By reviewing various research
papers we have concluded that Advance cam operated hammer design is feasible
so we decide to make it work.

ROTARY HAMMER Ulrich Demuth, both of Germany, United States Patent

office journals, Application - November 20, 1996, Patented August 29, 2000,
Patent no. 6109364, Published no. US006109364A

6
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY USED
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

1. Wood structure
2. Connectors
3. Battery
4. Switch
5. Hammer
6. sensor

WORKING OF THE PROJECT

The first step in any mechanical project is to design the proper hardware. Now we
have designed the hammer with frame. There is using battery for power supply of
DC motor. When we turn ON the power supply of battery then motor will be
operated. This motor is connected with the hammer, when sensor senses any object
then send a signal to controller then controller takes decision for turn on relay. This
relay will be connected with the motor. As motor will be started so that hammering
process will be occur.

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3.1) HAMMER

A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow (a sudden impact) to an object.

Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, and break
apart objects. Hammers vary in shape, size, and structure depending on their
purposes.
Hammers are basic tools in many trades. The usual features are a head (most often
made of steel) and a handle (also called a helve or haft). Although most hammers
are hand tools, powered versions exist; they are known as powered hammers.
Types of power hammer include steam hammers and trip hammers, often for
heavier uses, such as forging.

Some specialized hammers have other names, such as sledgehammer, mallet,

and gavel. The term "hammer" also applies to devices that deliver blows, such
as the hammer of a firearm, or the hammer of a piano, or the hammer ice
scraper.

History

The use of simple hammers dates to around 3.3 million years ago [1][2] according to
the 2012 find made by Sonia Harmand and Jason Lewis of Stony Brook
University, who while excavating a site near Kenya's Lake Turkana discovered a
very large deposit of various shaped stones including those used to
strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones
attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as
hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic
Stone Age.

Construction and materials

A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a separate head and a handle, which
can be fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by
glue, or both. This two-piece design is often used to combine a dense metallic
striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle (to
reduce user fatigue from repeated strikes). If wood is used for the handle, it is
often hickory or ash, which are tough and long-lasting materials that can
dissipate shock waves from the hammer head. Rigid fiberglass resin may be used
for the handle; this material does not absorb water or decay but does not dissipate
shock as well as wood.

8
A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can literally "fly off the handle"
when in use, becoming a dangerous uncontrolled missile. Wooden handles can
often be replaced when worn or damaged; specialized kits are available covering a
range of handle sizes and designs, plus special wedges for attachment.
Some hammers are one-piece designs made mostly of a single material. A one-
piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a
resilient material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue.[4]
The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials
including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, or leather. Some hammers have
interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced
when worn out.

Designs and variations

The parts of a hammer are the face, head (includes the bell and neck, which are not
labeled), eye (where the handlefits into), peen (also spelled pein and pane). The
side of a hammer is the cheek and some hammers have strapsthat extend down the
handle for strength. Shown here are: A. Ball-peen hammer B. Straight-peen
hammer C. Cross-peen hammer

FIG.3.1
The claw of a carpenter's hammer is frequently used to remove nails.
A large hammer-like tool is a maul (sometimes called a "beetle"), a wood- or
rubber-headed hammer is a mallet, and a hammer-like tool with a cutting blade is
usually called a hatchet. The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact
solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself
deforming. The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded; the
opposite end of the impacting mass may have a ball shape, as in the ball-peen
hammer. Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks. In
the hatchet, the flat hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool.
The impact between steel hammer heads and the objects being hit can
create sparks, which may ignite flammable or explosive gases. These are a hazard
in some industries such as underground coal mining (due to the presence

9
of methane gas), or in other hazardous environments such as petroleum
refineries and chemical plants. In these environments, a variety of non-sparking
metal tools are used, primarily made of aluminium or beryllium copper. In recent
years, the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber, though wood is still
widely used because of its shock-absorbing qualities and repairability.
3.1.1) Hand-powered hammers

 Ball-peen hammer, or mechanic's hammer

 Boiler scaling hammer
 Brass hammer, also known as non-sparking hammer or spark-proof hammer
and used mainly in flammable areas like oil fields
 Carpenter's hammer (used for nailing), such as the framing hammer and
the claw hammer, and pinhammers (ball-peen and cross-peen types)
 Cow hammer – sometimes used for livestock slaughter, a practice
now deprecated due to animal welfare objections
 Cross-peen hammer, having one round face and one wedge-peen face.
 Dead blow hammer delivers impact with very little recoil, often due to a
hollow head filled with sand, lead shot or pellets
 Drilling hammer – a short handled sledgehammer originally used for drilling
in rock with a chisel. The name usually refers to a hammer with a 2-to-4-pound
(0.91 to 1.81 kg) head and a 10-inch (250 mm) handle, also called a "single-
jack" hammer because it was used by one person drilling, holding the chisel in
one hand and the hammer in the other.[  In modern usage, the term is mostly
interchangeable with "engineer's hammer", although it can indicate a version
with a slightly shorter handle.
 Engineer's hammer, a short-handled hammer, was originally an essential
components of a railroad engineer's toolkit for working on steam
locomotives. Typical weight is 2–4 lbs (0.9–1.8 kg) with a 12–14 inch (30–
35 cm) handle. Originally these were often cross-peen hammers, with one
round face and one wedge-peen face, but in modern usage the term primarily
refers to hammers with two round faces.
 Gavel, used by judges and presiding authorities to draw attention
 Geologist's hammer or rock pick

10
 Joiner's hammer, or Warrington hammer
 Knife-edged hammer, its properties developed to aid a hammerer in the act
of slicing whilst bludgeoning
 Lathe hammer (also known as a lath hammer, lathing hammer, or lathing
hatchet), a tool used for cutting and nailing wood lath, which has a small
hatchet blade on one side (with a small, lateral nick for pulling nails) and a
hammer head on the other
 Lump hammer, or club hammer
 Mallets, including versions made with hard rubber or rolled sheets
of rawhide
 Railway track keying hammer
 Rock climbing hammer
 Rounding hammer Blacksmith or farrier hammer. Round face generally for
moving or drawing metal and flat for "planishing" or smoothing out the surface
marks.
 Sledgehammer
 Soft-faced hammer
 Splitting maul
 Stonemason's hammer
 Tinner's hammer
 Upholstery hammer
 Welder's chipping hammer


3.1.2) Mechanically-powered hammers

Mechanically-powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but
nevertheless, most of them work on the same principle. They include:

 Hammer drill, that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a drill

11
 High Frequency Impact Treatment hammer — for aftertreatment of weld
transitions
 Jackhammer
 Steam hammer
 Trip hammer

In professional framing carpentry, the manual hammer has almost been completely

replaced by the nail gun. In professional upholstery, its chief competitor is
the staple gun.

3.2) Tools used in conjunction with hammers

 Anvil
 Chisel
 Pipe drift (Blacksmithing - spreading a punched hole to proper size and/or
shape)
 Star drill
 Punch
 Woodsplitting maul – can be hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood.
 Woodsplitting wedge – hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood.

3.3) Physics of hammering

Hammer as a force amplifier
A hammer is basically a force amplifier that works by converting mechanical
work into kinetic energy and back.
In the swing that precedes each blow, the hammer head stores a certain amount of
kinetic energy—equal to the length D of the swing times the force f produced by
the muscles of the arm and by gravity. When the hammer strikes, the head is
stopped by an opposite force coming from the target, equal and opposite to the
force applied by the head to the target. If the target is a hard and heavy object, or if
it is resting on some sort of anvil, the head can travel only a very short
distance d before stopping. Since the stopping force F times that distance must be
equal to the head's kinetic energy, it follows that F is much greater than the

12
original driving force f—roughly, by a factor D/d. In this way, great strength is not
needed to produce a force strong enough to bend steel, or crack granite.
3.3.1) Effect of the head's mass
The amount of energy delivered to the target by the hammer-blow is equivalent to
one half the mass of the head times the square of the head's speed at the time of
impact ( ). While the energy delivered to the target increases linearly with
mass, it increases quadratically with the speed (see the effect of the handle, below).
High tech titanium heads are lighter and allow for longer handles, thus increasing
velocity and delivering the same energy with less arm fatigue than that of a heavier
steel head hammer.[10] A titanium head has about 3% recoil energy and can result in
greater efficiency and less fatigue when compared to a steel head with up to 30%
recoil. Dead blow hammers use special rubber or steel shot to absorb recoil energy,
rather than bouncing the hammer head after impact.
3.3.2) Effect of the handle
The handle of the hammer helps in several ways. It keeps the user's hands away
from the point of impact. It provides a broad area that is better-suited for gripping
by the hand. Most importantly, it allows the user to maximize the speed of the head
on each blow. The primary constraint on additional handle length is the lack of
space to swing the hammer. This is why sledgehammers, largely used in open
spaces, can have handles that are much longer than a standard carpenter's hammer.
The second most important constraint is more subtle. Even without considering the
effects of fatigue, the longer the handle, the harder it is to guide the head of the
hammer to its target at full speed.
Most designs are a compromise between practicality and energy efficiency. With
too long a handle, the hammer is inefficient because it delivers force to the wrong
place, off-target. With too short a handle, the hammer is inefficient because it
doesn't deliver enough force, requiring more blows to complete a given task.
Modifications have also been made with respect to the effect of the hammer on the
user. Handles made of shock-absorbing materials or varying angles attempt to
make it easier for the user to continue to wield this age-old device, even as nail
guns and other powered drivers encroach on its traditional field of use.
As hammers must be used in many circumstances, where the position of the person
using them cannot be taken for granted, trade-offs are made for the sake of
practicality. In areas where one has plenty of room, a long handle with a heavy
head (like a sledgehammer) can deliver the maximum amount of energy to the
target. It is not practical to use such a large hammer for all tasks, however, and thus

13
the overall design has been modified repeatedly to achieve the optimum utility in a
wide variety of situations.
3.3.3) Effect of gravity
Gravity exerts a force on the hammer head. If hammering downwards, gravity
increases the acceleration during the hammer stroke and increases the energy
delivered with each blow. If hammering upwards, gravity reduces the acceleration
during the hammer stroke and therefore reduces the energy delivered with each
blow. Some hammering methods, such as traditional mechanical pile drivers, rely
entirely on gravity for acceleration on the down stroke.

3.3.4) Ergonomics and injury risks

A hammer may cause significant injury if it strikes the body. Both manual and
powered hammers can cause peripheral neuropathy or a variety of other ailments
when used improperly. Awkward handles can cause repetitive stress injury (RSI)
to hand and arm joints, and uncontrolled shock waves from repeated impacts can
injure nerves and the skeleton. Additionally, striking metal objects with a hammer
may produce small metallic projectiles which can become lodged in the eye. It is
therefore recommended to wear safety glasses.

3.4) War hammers

Main article: War hammer

A war hammer is a late medieval weapon of war intended for close combat action.

3.5) Symbolic hammers

The hammer, being one of the most used tools by Homo sapiens, has been used
very much in symbols such as flags and heraldry. In the Middle Ages, it was used
often in blacksmith guild logos, as well as in many family symbols. The hammer
and pick are used as a symbol of mining.
A well-known symbol with a hammer in it is the Hammer and Sickle, which was
the symbol of the former Soviet Union and is very interlinked
with communism and early socialism. The hammer in this symbol represents the
industrial working class (and the sickle represents the agricultural working class).
The hammer is used in some coat of arms in (former) socialist countries like East
Germany. Similarly, the Hammer and Sword symbolizes Strasserism, a strand
of National Socialismseeking to appeal to the working class.

14
The gavel, a small wooden mallet, is used to symbolize a mandate to preside over a
meeting or judicial proceeding, and a graphic image of one is used as a symbol of
legislative or judicial decision-making authority.
In Norse mythology, Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, wields a hammer
named Mjölnir. Many artifacts of decorative hammers have been found, leading
modern practitioners of this religion to often wear reproductions as a sign of their
faith.
Judah Maccabee was nicknamed "The Hammer", possibly in recognition of his
ferocity in battle. The name "Maccabee" may derive from the Aramaic maqqaba.
(see Judah Maccabee § Origin of Name "The Hammer").
In American folklore, the hammer of John Henry represents the strength and
endurance of a man.
The hammer in the song "If I Had a Hammer" represents a relentless message of
justice broadcast across the land. The song became a symbol of the civil rights
movement.

FIG.3.2 Ball-peen hammer

FIG.3.3 Bush hammer

 

15
FIG.3.4 Claw hammer

FIG.3.5 Cross-peen hammer

 

FIG.3.6 Dog-head hammer (blacksmithing)

 

FIG.3.7Framing hammer
 

16
FIG.3.8 Long cross-face hammer (blacksmithing)
 

FIG.3.9 Rubber mallet

 

FIG.3.10 Sledgehammers
 

FIG.3.11 Twist hammer (blacksmithing)

FIG.3.12 Wooden mallet

17
3.6) BATTERY:-

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert

stored chemical energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first
battery (or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the
technically improved Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power
source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005
estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each
year, with 6% annual growth.

There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries),

which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary
batteries(rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used
multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to
powerhearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide
standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Fig.3.13 various cells and batteries

18
3.6.1) HISTORY:-
In strict terms, a battery is a collection of multiple electrochemical cells,
but in popular usage batteryoften refers to a single cell.[1] For example, a 1.5-volt
AAA battery is a single 1.5-volt cell, and a 9-volt battery has six 1.5-volt cells
in series. The first electrochemical cell was developed by
the Italianphysicist Alessandro Volta in 1792, and in 1800 he invented the first
battery, a "pile" of many cells in series.

FIG.3.14 Symbol of battery

3.6.2) TYPES OF BATTERY:-

3.6.2.1) PRIMARY BATTERIES:-

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly.

Disposable batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most
commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only
intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently

19
available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to
recharge primary cells.

3.6.2.2) SECONDARY BATTERIES:-

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually

assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries
or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses
the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate
current are called chargers or rechargers.

3.7) ELECTROCHEMISTRY:-

The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion

battery are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte.

Both the anode and cathode are materials into which, and from which,
lithium can migrate. During insertion (or intercalation) lithium moves into the
electrode. During the reverse process, extraction (or deintercalation), lithium
moves back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the lithium is extracted
from the anode and inserted into the cathode. When the cell is charging, the reverse
occurs.

Useful work can only be extracted if electrons flow through a closed

external circuit. The following equations are in units of moles, making it possible
to use the coefficient  .

The positive electrode half-reaction (with charging being forwards) is: 

20
 The negative electrode half-reaction is:

The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium

cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide,[36]possibly by the
following irreversible reaction:

Overcharge up to 5.2 Volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as

evidenced by x-ray diffraction[37]

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the
cathode or anode, with the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in   being
oxidized from Co3+ to Co4+ during charging, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during
discharge.

3.8) MOTOR

Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers to either an electrical
motor or an internal combustion engine. It may also refer to:

 Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a mechanical motion

o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current

 Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor

distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at

21
 the same rate as the alternating current and resulting
magnetic field which drives it
 Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of
asynchronous alternating current motor where power is
supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic
induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity
 Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric
motor designed to be run from a direct current power source
 Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is
powered by direct current electricity and has an electronically
controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the attraction
and repulsion of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo, commonly
used in robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is self-
cooled by a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy density

3.8.1) Other uses:

 Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system
 Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of pressurized liquid
flow into mechanical motion
 Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
 Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of rotation
under energy input

22
 Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that was spoken
in the northern region of the Sayan Mountains in Siberia
 Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for physical
movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and synapse
with muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor system
effectively
 Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy into
movement
 Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of compressed air
into mechanical motion
 The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by Nick Garvey,
Andy McMaster, Ricky Slaughter and Rob Hendry, who was replaced by
Bram Tchaikovsky the same year.

FIG.3.15 ELECTRIC MOTOR

23
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through
the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or
dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. For example a
starter/generator for a gas turbine or Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both
tasks.

Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by
direct current (for example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by
alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found
in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest
electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such compressors, with ratings in
the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their
internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric

current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.

Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some
mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually termed
actuators and transducers, respectively.

3.9) The principle

The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped
into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was passed
through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a
circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics
classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the
simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's
Wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications due to their
primitive construction.

24
 FIG3.16 LIGHTING MAGNETIC SELF ROTOR

In 1827, Hungarian Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices he
called "lightning-magnetic self-rotors". He used them for instructive purposes in universities,
and in 1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main components of
practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. Both the stationary and the
revolving parts were electromagnetic, employing no permanent magnets.Again, the devices
had no practical application.

The first electric motors

The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning machinery was
invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.Following Sturgeon's work, a
commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was
built by Americans Emily and Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up
to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the high
cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery power, the motors were commercially
unsuccessful and the Davenports went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the
development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery
power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there
was no practical commercial market for these motors.

In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his electromagnetic self-
rotors that was capable of useful work. He built a model electric motor-propelled vehicle that
same year. There is no evidence that this experimentation was communicated to the wider
scientific world at that time, or that it influenced the development of electric motors in the
following decades.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme connected the
dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine
was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry. In 1886 Frank Julian Sprague
invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor capable of constant speed under
variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric
distribution [prior work done while employed by Edison], allowed power from electric motors
to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead
wires and the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric operations. This allowed

25
Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley system in 1887-88 in Richmond
VA, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the electric subway with
independently powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed in 1892 in Chicago by
the South Side Elevated Railway where it became popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor
and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry,
while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing its primary competitor,
which would become much more widespread.

In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power
transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the
Westinghouse company.[citation needed]

The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by
failure to recognize the extreme importance of a relatively-small air gap between rotor and
stator. Early motors, for some rotor positions, had comparatively huge air gaps which
constituted a very high reluctance magnetic circuit. They produced far-lower torque than an
equivalent amount of power would produce with efficient designs. The cause of the lack of
understanding seems to be that early designs were based on familiarity of distant attraction
between a magnet and a piece of ferromagnetic material, or between two electromagnets.
Efficient designs, as this article describes, are based on a rotor with a comparatively small air
gap, and flux patterns that create torque.

Note that the armature bars are at some distance (unknown) from the field pole pieces when
power is fed to one of the field magnets; the air gap is likely to be considerable. The text tells of
the inefficiency of the design. (Electricity was created, as a practical matter, by consuming zinc
in wet primary cells!)

In his workshops Froment had an electromotive engine of one-horse power. But, though an
interesting application of the transformation of energy, these machines will never be practically
applied on the large scale in manufactures, for the expense of the acids and the zinc which they
use very far exceeds that of the coal in steam-engines of the same force. [...] motors worked by
electricity, independently of any question as to the cost of construction, or of the cost of the
acids, are at least sixty times as dear to work as steam-engines.

Although Gramme's design was comparatively much more efficient, apparently the Froment
motor was still considered illustrative, years later. It is of some interest that the St. Louis motor,
long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the same
reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor. Photo of a traditional form of the
motor: [3] Note the prominent bar magnets, and the huge air gap at the ends opposite the
rotor. Even modern versions still have big air gaps if the rotor poles are not aligned.

Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer

limited by power transmission using shaft, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead
every machine could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control at the

26
point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture
eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping
water. Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher
standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more
than half of all electric energy produced.

3.10) Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types vs Direct
Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For
example, many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being referred to as universal
motors.

Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for
example, are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old
imperial measurement.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers
have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits
are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation thereof. The
two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being poly-phase
AC motors requiring external electronic control, although historically, stepping motors (such as
for maritime and naval gyrocompass repeaters) were driven from DC switched by contacts.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving
magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer
distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor
requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the
winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC
induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or
slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g. permanent magnet motors,
synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).

27
 TABLE.3.1) Comparison of motor types

Comparison of motor types[15]

Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical Application Typical Drive

Least expensive Rotation slips from

AC Induction Uni/Poly-
Long life frequency Fans
(Shaded Pole) phase AC
high power Low starting torque

AC Induction High power

Rotation slips from Uni/Poly-
(split-phase high starting Appliances
frequency phase AC
capacitor) torque

Rotation in-sync Industrial motors

with freq Clocks Uni/Poly-
AC Synchronous More expensive
long-life Audio turntables phase AC
(alternator) tape drives

Precision
positioning Positioning in printers
Stepper DC Requires a controller DC
High holding and floppy drives
torque

Long lifespan Hard drives

High initial cost
Brushless DC low maintenance CD/DVD players DC
Requires a controller
High efficiency electric vehicles

Low initial cost High maintenance

Treadmill exercisers Direct DC or
Brushed DC Simple speed (brushes)
automotive starters PWM
control Low lifespan

Compact design
Medium cost Office Equip Direct DC or
DCPancake Simple speed
Medium lifespan Fans/Pumps PWM
control

3.11) Servo motor

A servomechanism,or servo Is an automatic device that uses error-sensing

feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies
only to systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help control

28
mechanical position or other parameters. For example, an automotive power
window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback which
controls position—the operator does this by observation. By contrast the car's
cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.

Synchronous electric motor

Main article: Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning

with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting
magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip
under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which
must slip to produce torque. A synchronous motor is like an induction motor
except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct
current to rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed
hence the name synchronous motor.

3.12) Induction motor

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is

supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another
commonly used name is squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars with short
circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). An electric motor converts
electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several
ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to the
armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is
induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating
transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the
transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are
widely used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently used in
industrial drives.

3.13) Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the

attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the
dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage
power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional
electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high

29
current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed
by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds
frequent use in micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are
below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than
coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often
based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.

3.14) DC Motors

A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC

designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the
ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor
types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external
commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source
—so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

3.14.1) Brushed DC motors

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or

armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet
stator. A rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a core on a
shaft; an electrical power source is connected to the rotor coil through the
commutator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing
electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as
the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning
with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a
compass needle does) but rather keeps rotating indefinitely (as long as power is
applied and is sufficient for the motor to overcome the shaft torque load and
internal losses due to friction, etc.)

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need
for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,
brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off
the irre crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the
voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the
brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid
sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density
per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output
of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical
noise, and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and

30
require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance
(on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on
a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts.
On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor,
so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output,
but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the
motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable
to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are
also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make
brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction
losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore,
DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and
efficiency/wear.

FIG.3.17 BRUSHED DC MOTOR

A: shunt
B: series
C: compound
f = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

A. DC shunt wound motor

B. DC series wound motor

C. DC compound motor (two configurations):

 Cumulative compound
 Differentially compounded

D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor (not shown)

31
E. Separately-excited (sepex) (not shown).

3.14.2) Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless
design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear
assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's
position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient or more (higher
efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by
researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009), [16] whereas DC motors with
brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the
brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often
use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more
Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive
electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive
electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back
EMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase
synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A
specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through
the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and
velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles.
When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by
modellers as outrunner motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary,
as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD,
CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser
printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient,

running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation
leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be
significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a
commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and
RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used
in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.

32
  The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide
a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"
signal.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock,
leading to precise speed control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors,
making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels.
Also, sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated
buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and
are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many

kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric
vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

3.14.3) Coreless or ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron
(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings
of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC
motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core.
The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting
structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can
fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor
provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the
rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits
inside a magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and
likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor
formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much

33
more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is
especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But
because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless
motors must often be cooled by forced air.

Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the
poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for
rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.

3.14.4) Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors

A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has the windings
shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets, arranged in a circle,
facing the rotor and forming an axial air gap. This design is commonly known the
pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile, although the technology has
had many brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc.

The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed

armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together
using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a
unique construction, in the brushed motor world, in that is does not have a separate
ring commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the
whole design very compact.

An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a
central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are
typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems.
These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time.
They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL
1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180°C (Class H) (UL File
No. E 210549).

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration

caused by attraction between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents
cannot form in the rotor as it is totally ironless. This can greatly improve
efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate
(>40 kHz) or direct current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape
drives, in the burgeoning computer industry. Pancake motors are still widely used
in high-performance servo-controlled systems, humanoid robotic systems,

34
industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now
available the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to
low cost pump and basic servo applications.

3.15) Universal motors

A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been

designed to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to operate on AC is
because the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant
magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the
resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very rarely larger
than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal motors also form the basis of
the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, to
keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency
AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they
are universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable
of operating from a third rail powered by DC.

An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors

which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high
starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The
negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the
commutator. As a result, such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food
mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high
starting-torque demands. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on
AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while (imprecise) stepped speed
control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household
blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several
taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to
run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances
such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is
desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,
circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum
cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other
similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.

35
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of
design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors,
sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is
incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes. In some smaller
applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit
the motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over
the armature and field windings.

3.16) AC motors

In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered the use
of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a
unique two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently
researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and
the device could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher,
stated that would be akin to building a perpetual motion machine.[17] Tesla would
later attain U.S. Patent 0,416,194, Electric Motor (December 1889), which
resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current
electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor.

Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor"

in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial
applications.

3.16.1) Components

A typical AC motor consists of two parts:

 An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to

produce a rotating magnetic field, and;
 An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the
rotating field.

3.16.1.1) Torque motors

A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of

induction motor which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is,

36
with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of
operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel
motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the
characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-constant light tension to be
applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads.
Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque
motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world,
torque motors are used in force feedback steering wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion

engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works
against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with the output of the
governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the
ignition system or from a magnetic pickup [18] and, depending on the speed, makes
small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts
to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor
will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle.
Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied
to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

3.16.1.2) Slip ring

The slip ring is a component of the wound rotor motor as an induction machine
(best evidenced by the construction of the common automotive alternator), where
the rotor comprises a set of coils that are electrically terminated in slip rings. These
are metal rings rigidly mounted on the rotor, and combined with brushes (as used
with commutators), provide continuous unswitched connection to the rotor
windings.

In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances can be

connected to the brushes. The stator is excited similarly to the standard squirrel
cage motor. By changing the impedance connected to the rotor circuit, the
speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered.

(Slip rings are most-commonly used in automotive alternators as well as in synchro

angular data-transmission devices, among other applications.)

37
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that
requires a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly
selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the
motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current from
zero speed to full speed. This type of motor also offers controllable speed.

Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively
modified by the amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the
value of resistance will move the speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance
connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque
occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.

When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor
will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the
load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the
load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal.
Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors
and can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also very
poor.

3.16.1.3) Stepper motors

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper

motors, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically-
soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are
switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between
a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the
rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding.
Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotate
continuously; instead, it "steps" — starts and then quickly stops again — from one
position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence.
Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may
change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.

Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field
windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more
sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings,
allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely
smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping. Computer

38
controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning
systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and
hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy
diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer
disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered was adequate for the
correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density
increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made them
obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the
speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice
coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is
historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This
structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted
coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade of a rotating fan.
Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire)
move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners,
and digital photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head
carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen. Likewise, many
computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-
format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen
movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper motors or
servomotors with complex closed-loop control systems.

So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping

motors; they have one coil, draw very little power, and have a permanent-magnet
rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these
watches, such as chronographs, contain more than one stepping motor.

Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM
(Switched Reluctance Motor).

3.16.1.4) Linear motor

A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that,
instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its
length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic field.

39
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can
find a linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the
ground, and in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar
is controlled by the rail. On a smaller scale, at least one letter-size (8.5" x 11")
computer graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-Packard (in the late 1970s to
mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the two
orthogonal axes.

3.17) Feeding and windings

3.17.1) Doubly-fed electric motor

Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that

actively participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the
winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two is the most
active multiphase winding sets possible without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-
fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed electric motors are
machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous
speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed
range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.

A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the
rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics
components. Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speed limit
applications.

3.17.2) Singly-fed electric motor

Singly-fed electric motors incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is

connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction
or synchronous. The active winding set can be electronically controlled. Induction
machines develop starting torque at zero speed and can operate as standalone
machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means for startup, such as a
starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed

40
electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous
speed for a given excitation frequency.

The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor),
synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors,
reluctance motors, etc.), which are discussed on this page, are examples of singly-
fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the predominantly installed type of
motors.

3.18) Nanotube nanomotor

Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed rotational

bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with
dimensions of the order of 100 nm) to the outer shell of a suspended multiwall
carbon nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically
rotate the outer shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust;
devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of wear. These
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization and
may find their way into commercial applications in the future.

See also:

 Molecular motors
 Electrostatic motor

[edit] Efficiency

To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the

electrical input power:

where η is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power, and Pm is

mechanical output power.

In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = Tω, where V is input voltage, I is input current,
T is output torque, and ω is output angular velocity. It is possible to derive
analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less than 1/2 the
stall torque. Implications

41
Because a DC motor operates most efficiently at less than 1/2 its stall torque, an
"oversized" motor runs with the highest efficiency. IE: using a bigger motor than is
necessary enables the motor to operate closest to no load, or peak operating
conditions.

3.19) Torque capability of motor types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage,
pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux
density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the
same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given
physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque
beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate
an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or
safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond
the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric
motors or generators.

Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening
capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet
(PM) electric machine are excluded). Field Weakening, which is not readily
available with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond
the designed frequency of excitation without electrical damage.

Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound

(i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines
cannot realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without
saturating the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current as useless.
Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric
machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum
operating torque rating are attempted.

Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e.,

asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and
Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines,
exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-
Force or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes
nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would
otherwise lead to core saturation.

42
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit
one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the
transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude
of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher
than the maximum design torque are realizable.

The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly
dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited
with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is
known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to
propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were
available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous
operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless
power to the rotor winding set (see Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric
machine), the active current of the Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be
independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of
torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the
practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable.
Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

3.20) Uses

Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious uses
would be in rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric
cars, locomotives and conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating
machines, an electric motor spins an irregular figure with more area on one side of
the axle than the other, causing it to appear to be moving up and down.

Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels of
vehicular robots, and servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in humanoid
robots. In flying robots, along with helicopters, a motor causes a propeller or wide,
flat blades to spin and create lift force, allowing vertical motion.

Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and military

equipment.

In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used to turn saws
and blades in cutting and slicing processes, and to spin gears and mixers (the latter
very common in food manufacturing). Linear motors are often used to push
products into containers horizontally.

43
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish various jobs. Food
processors and grinders spin blades to chop and break up foods. Blenders use
electric motors to mix liquids, and microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray
food sits on. Toaster ovens also use electric motors to turn a conveyor to move
food over heating elements.

These are the motors which we are using in our project. This motor does not
oscillate back and forth, it rotates continuously in one direction like most other
motors.

This type of motor is called a"gearhead" or "gear motor" and has the advantage of
having lots of torque. My unscientific test (using one wiper motor and a torque
wrench) found that at 12 volts, on high speed, the motor has 13.5 pound-feet and
on low speed, has 17.5 pound-feet of torque.

3.21) SWITCH

In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical

circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The
most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with
one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two
states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and nonconducting.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,

such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a
light switch. Automatically-operated switches can be used to control the motions
of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open
position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece.
Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature,
flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is an automatically-
operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by
another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated

44
by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power
from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if
necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to
prevent electric shock.

In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces of metal called contacts that touch to
make a circuit, and separate to break the circuit. The contact material is chosen for
its resistance to corrosion, because most metals form insulating oxides that would
prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of
electrical conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical strength,
low cost and low toxicity.

Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to
wipe against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors,
such as conductive plastic, are sometimes used.

3.22) Actuator

The moving part that applies the operating force to the contacts is called the
actuator, and may be a toggle or dolly, a rocker, a push-button or any type of
mechanical linkage.

A pair of contacts is said to be "closed" when current can flow from one to the
other. When the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, an air space, they
are said to be "open", and no current can flow at typical voltages.

Switches are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts in

electronics. Electricians installing building wiring use different nomenclature, such
as "one-way", "two-way", "three-way" and "four-way" switches, which have
different meanings in North American and British cultural regions as described in
the table below.

In a push-button type switch, in which the contacts remain in one state unless
actuated, the contacts can either be normally open (abbreviated "n.o." or "no")
until closed by operation of the switch, or normally closed ("n.c. or "nc") and
opened by the switch action.

45
A switch with both types of contact is called a changeover switch. These may be
"make-before-break" which momentarily connect both circuits, or may be "break-
before-make" which interrupts one circuit before closing the other.

The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The
number of "poles" is the number of separate circuits which are switched by a
switch. The number of "throws" is the number of separate positions that the switch
can adopt. A single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be closed
or open. A double-throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of
two other contacts, a triple-throw has a contact which can be connected to one of
three other contacts, etc.

3.23) Voltage Regulators

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate
one or more AC or DC voltages. With the exception of shunt regulators, all voltage
regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed
reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation
element. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop. If the output voltage is
too low, the regulation element is commanded to produce a higher voltage. For
some regulators if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element is
commanded to produce a lower voltage; however, many just stop sourcing current
and depend on the current draw of whatever it is driving to pull the voltage back
down. In this way, the output voltage is held roughly constant. The control loop
must be carefully designed to produce the desired tradeoff between stability and
speed of response.

3.23.1) LM7805 (3-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulator)

The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators

are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output
voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs
internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection,
making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can

46
deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.

Figure 3.18: Internal block Diagram

Figure 3.19 : Fixed Output Regulator

3.23.2) Features

• Output Current up to 1A

47
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

3.24) CAPACITOR

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference
(voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric.
This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors.
The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which

is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to
the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an
equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the
output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant
circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal
with many frequencies.

48
3.24.1) Theory of operation

Main article: Capacitance

FIG 3.20 SERIES CAPACITOR

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A

dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

FIG.3.21 Parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.The

non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also
mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net
electric charge and no influence from an external electric field. The conductors
thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric

49
contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric
fields within electric circuits.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as

the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental
changes:

3.24.2) TYPES OF CAPACITORS :

Depends upon the basis of dielectric used:

 Air insulated & vaccum capacitors
 Paper insulated capacitors
 Mica capacitors
 Plastic film capacitors
 Ceramic capacitors
 Electrolytic & tantalum capacitors

3.24.2.1)CERAMIC CAPACITOR :

In this project, 0.01 microfarad capacitor is a ceramic capacitor. The basis of the
ceramic material is mainly barium titanate or a similar material, but other ceramic
substance including hydrous silicate of magnesia or talc are also used. The
electrodes are applied in the form of silver which is either spread or plated on to
the opposite faces of a thin tube, wafer or disc made. from the ceramic material.

50
Connecting wires are then soldered to this deposit and the whole capacitor dipped
in for a suitable coating.

Fig.3.22 Tabular and disc type ceramic capacitors

3.24.2.2) ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR :-

In this project, 10f capacitor is an electrolytic capacitor. In this type of capacitors,
the dielectric consists of an extremely thin film of aluminum oxide formed on one
of its aluminum foil plates. Intimate contact with the other plate is achieved by
impregnating the paper between the foils with an electrolyte in the form of viscous
substance, such as ammonium borate. The sandwich is then rolled into a
cylindrical element and housed in either metallic cardboard, plastic or ceramic
protective tube.

51
Fig.3.23 Electrolytic and Tantalum capacitor

3.25) RESISTOR

Resistors are used to limit the value of current in a circuit. Resistors offer
opposition to the flow of current. They are expressed in ohms for which the symbol
is ‘’. Resistors are broadly classified as

(1) Fixed Resistors

(2) Variable Resistors

3.25.1) Fixed Resistors :

The most common of low wattage, fixed type resistors is the molded-carbon
composition resistor. The resistive material is of carbon clay composition. The
leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily available in
value ranging from few ohms to about 20M, having a tolerance range of 5 to
20%. They are quite inexpensive. The relative size of all fixed resistors changes
with the wattage rating.

52
 Another variety of carbon composition resistors is the metalized type.
It is made by deposition a homogeneous film of pure carbon over a glass, ceramic
or other insulating core. This type of film-resistor is sometimes called the precision
type, since it can be obtained with an accuracy of 1%.

Lead Tinned Copper Material

Colour Coding Molded Carbon Clay Composition

Fixed Resistor

3.25.1.1) A Wire Wound Resistor :

It uses a length of resistance wire, such as nichrome. This wire is wounded on to a

round hollow porcelain core. The ends of the winding are attached to these metal
pieces inserted in the core. Tinned copper wire leads are attached to these metal
pieces. This assembly is coated with an enamel coating powdered glass. This
coating is very smooth and gives mechanical protection to winding. Commonly
available wire wound resistors have resistance values ranging from 1 to 100K,
and wattage rating up to about 200W.

3.25.1.2) Coding Of Resistor :

Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance printed on the
body. However there are some resistors that are too small in size to have numbers
printed on them. Therefore, a system of colour coding is used to indicate their
values. For fixed, moulded composition resistor four colour bands are printed on
one end of the outer casing. The colour bands are always read left to right from the
end that has the bands closest to it. The first and second band represents the first
and second significant digits, of the resistance value. The third band is for the
number of zeros that follow the second digit. In case the third band is gold or

53
 silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1to 0.01. The fourth band represents
the manufacture’s tolerance.

3.25.1.3) RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

0 black 0 black 0 black 0 black

1 brown 1 brown 1 brown 1 brown

2 red 2 red 2 red 2 red
3 orange 3 orange 3 orange 3 orange

4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow 4 yellow

5 green
5 green 5 green 5 green
6 blue 6 blue 6 blue 6 blue

7 purple 7 purple 7 purple 7 purple

8 silver 8 silver 8 silver 8 silver

9 white 9 white 9 white

For example, if a resistor has a colour band sequence: yellow, violet,9 white
orange and
gold

Then its range will be—

Yellow=4, violet=7, orange=10³, gold=±5% =47KΏ ±5% =2.35KΏ

Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.

54
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .

The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these
small values two special colours are used for the third band: gold, which means
× 0.1 and silver which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the
digits as normal.

For example:

red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7 

blue, green, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56 

The fourth band of the colour code shows the tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is
the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390
resistor with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between
390 - 39 = 351 and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).

A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:

silver ±10%,   gold ±5%,   red ±2%,   brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.

3.25.2) VARIABLE RESISTOR:

In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of

currents and voltages. For n example it is often desired to change the volume of
sound, the brightness of a television picture etc. Such adjustments can be done by
using variable resistors.

55
 3.26) TRANSISTORS

A transistor is an active device. It consists of two PN junctions formed by

sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite
types.

There are two types of transistor:

1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a

thin section of p-type. However a p-n-p type semiconductor is formed by two p-
sections separated by a thin section of n-type.

Transistor has two pn junctions one junction is forward biased and other is
reversed biased. The forward junction has a low resistance path whereas a reverse
biased junction has a high resistance path.

The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and output is
taken from the high resistance circuit. Therefore a transistor transfers a signal from
a low resistance to high resistance.

Transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on one

side is emitter and section on the opposite side is collector. The middle section is
base.

56
3.26.1)Emitter : The section on one side that supplies charge carriers is called
emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base.

3.26.2) Collector : The section on the other side that collects the charge is called
collector. The collector is always reversed biased.

3.26.3) Base : The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector is called base.

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier.
The weak signal is applied between emitter-base junction and output is taken
across the load Rc connected in the collector circuit. The collector current flowing
through a high load resistance Rc produces a large voltage across it. Thus a weak
signal applied in the input appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit.

57
3.27) DIODE

3.27.1) ACTIVE COMPONENT-

Active component are those component for not any other component are
used its operation. I used in this project only function diode, these component
description are described as bellow.

3.27.2) SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A crystal diode

has two terminal when it is connected in a circuit one thing is decide is weather a
diode is forward or reversed biased. There is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the
external CKT is trying to push the conventional current in the direction of error,
the diode is forward biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying
is trying to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased putting in
simple words.

1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the symbol, the

diode is forward biased.

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 2.The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the diode is the
reverse bias.

When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that which end is
arrowhead and which end is bar. So following method are available.
1.Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the diode e. g
By127 by 11 4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal diode. Red
mark do not arrow where’s blue mark indicates bar e .g oa80 crystal
diode.

3.27.3) ZENER DIODE-

It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on a crystal diode is
increased a critical voltage, called break down voltage. The break down or zener
voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped
depletion layer will be thin and consequently the break down of he junction will
occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a
higher break down voltage, it is called zener diode

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A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down voltage, is known
as a zenor diode.

3.28) RELAYS

FIG.3.24circuit symbol for a

relay

Relays

Photographs © Rapid
Electronics

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 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a magnetic field, which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and
they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit that can be completely separate
from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a
230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between
the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these
devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of
switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily
available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to
the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs
in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the
relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You
can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched
on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in
the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
 COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is on.
 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.

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 3.28.1) Choosing a relay

You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:

1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in
the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the
relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays
are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage
which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can
use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
   Supply voltage 
Relay coil current   =
  Coil resistance
For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current
of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it
is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.

4. Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You
will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is
usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
5. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO).

Advantages of relays:
 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
 Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:

62
  Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch
many times per second.

 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

3.29) IR SENSOR:

3.29.1) DESCRIPTION:

The LTM-97 series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems.
It is a single unit type module which incorporates a PIN diode and a receiving
preamplifier IC. The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a
microprocessor. It has excellent sensitivity and reliable function even in disturbed
working environment.

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64
65
INFRARED UNIT

Infrared remote controls will be using a 32-56 kHz modulated square wave for
communication. These circuits will be used to transmit a 1-4 kHz digital signal
(OOK modulation) through infra light (this is the maximum attainable speed,
1000-4000 bits per sec). The transmitter oscillator will run with adjustable
frequency in the 32-56 kHz range, and will be being turned ON/OFF with the
modulating signal, a TTL voltage on the MOD input. On the receiver side a
photodiode takes up the signal. The integrated circuit inside the chip is sensitive
for specified frequency in the 32-56 kHz range. The output is the demodulated
digital input (but usually inverted used to drive the transmitter. When the carrier is
present, this output is usually low. When no carrier is detected, the output is
usually high.

In order to use the remote for different gadgets 555 transmitter

and the IC receivers are employed with them. Other then PIC programming we can
consider the MC145026-8 IC-s to suit our needs. The transmitters & receivers are
building with unique ID-s, so that we can match them to each other.

IR TRANSMITTER:

INFRA RED transmitter is used to transmit the Infrared. This infrared transmitter
sends various frequencies under the control of micro controller. Micro controller
can turn the infrared transmission on and off. Infrared carrier at around 68 KHz
carrier frequencies is widely used in T.V. remote controlling and receiver for these
signal are quite easily available. Various frequencies would be generated through
controller.

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IR Receiver:

This is also called “EYE”. This EYE is widely used in T.V. receiver. It is used to
detect the IR transmission. This receiver thus receives the signal and the various
frequencies are divided and thus the decision would be taken accordingly. As each
frequency is given to the characters and could be divided by controller.

67
 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION & RESULT

We have successfully completed the project; this project eliminates the manual
effort and hence shows the advancement in technology. This project shows the
combination of mechanical and electronic circuitry and hence accomplishes the
task of automatic hammering of the Hammer.

4.1) FUTURE SCOPE

The concept of an automatic hammering machine in this paper has been shown to
have a place in the actual market and to fill a need demanded by potential
customer. IN this paper, the concept of automatic hammering machine prototype
will have to fulfill the basic design requirement, let us add the proposed concept
will a few more lines about our impression project work. Help in production line
where many workers are used for the material handling purpose it also reduce the
cost and threshing time requirement of more number of worker will completely
eliminated as only two workers can carried out the be complete operation. The
project objective originally is to reduce human efforts in manufacturing industries.
The in future the complete stress analysis of the project model could be done. This
analysis could be done by us. Moreover, for the automatic hammering machine to
achieve fully success in the future, many collateral improvement must be done in
terms of systems (autopilot technology, for instant) and time delay management
(pedal operated control will be required) and some modification can will be done
in this project.

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 CHAPTER 5

REFERENCES

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Kate Wong (April 15, 2015). "Archaeologists Take Wrong

Turn, Find World's Oldest Stone Tools". Scientific American.
Retrieved April 18, 2015.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Sonia Harmand, Jason E. Lewis, Craig S. Feibel,
Christopher J. Lepre, Sandrine Prat, Arnaud Lenoble, Xavier Boës, Rhonda
L. Quinn, Michel Brenet, Adrian Arroyo, Nicholas Taylor, Sophie Clément,
Guillaume Daver, Jean-Philip Brugal, Louise Leakey, Richard A. Mortlock,
James D. Wright, Sammy Lokorodi, Christopher Kirwa, Dennis V. Kent &
Hélène Roche. "3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 2015".
Retrieved April 18, 2015.
3. Jump up^ "What are some suitable woods to use for tool
handles?". woodworking.stackexchange.com.

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