Table of Content

S.No. Page No.

1 Introduction 1

Circuit Diagram 2

Functions of Starter and choke 6

System model 8

Components Used 11

Working 21

Conclusion 24

References 24

1
Introduction

The circuit illustrated below can RE use your thrown tube light. which usually
blinks in normal circuit. A high DC voltage has advantage to glow a a weak
florescent tube light. A weak florescent tube gets black at one edge. At black end
Positive voltage should be applied and can be marked as anode and other clear end
cathode can be marked for Negative voltage or electron will be supplied.

For converting AC to DC we have used a Rectifier Circuit. Choke Should be used

in series with rectifier circuit for limiting current. Rectified voltage(DC) is applied
to both end of the tube.

2
Circuit Diagram

Fluorescent lamp is basically a glass tube with two electrodes; one at each end. It
produces light in aspects of two main physical principles: i) Electric discharge in
mercury vapour -here electrical energy converts into radiant energy in fluorescent
lamp which relies on inelastic scattering of electrons. An incident electron collides
with an atom in the gas. If the free electron has enough kinetic energy, it transfers
energy to the atom's outer electron, causing that electron to temporarily jump up to
a higher energy level. The collision is 'inelastic' because a loss of energy occurs.
This higher energy state is unstable, and the atom will emit an ultraviolet photon as
the atom's electron reverts to a lower, more stable, energy level. Most of the

3
photons that are released from the mercury atoms have wavelengths in the
ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum predominantly at wavelengths of 253.7 nm
and 185 nm. These are not visible to the human eye, so they must be converted into
visible light. ii) The second is fluorescence phenomenon by which ultraviolet
photons are absorbed by electrons in the atoms of the lamp's interior fluorescent
coating, causing a similar energy jump, then drop, with emission of a further
photon. The photon that is emitted from this second interaction has a lower energy
than the one that caused it. The chemicals that make up the phosphor are chosen so
that these emitted photons are at wavelengths visible to the human eye. The
difference in energy between the absorbed ultraviolet photon and the emitted
visible light photon goes toward heating up the phosphor coating.

There are two processes:

Impact ionization is the process in a material by which one energetic charge carrier
charge can lose energy by the creation of other charge carriers[4]- [6]. This process
is a relatively harsh form of ionization producing a wide range of molecular

4
fragments. The electron impact source consists of a heated filament that produces
electrons which are accelerated to another electrode called the ion trap. Sample
vapor diffuses into the electron beam and become ionized and fragmented the size
depending on the electron energy which is controlled by the accelerating potential
on the ion trap electrode. Low energy electrons produce molecular ions and larger
fragments, whereas high energy electrons produce many smaller fragments and
possibly no molecular ions. After the ions are produced, they are driven by a
potential difference.

ii) An electron avalanche is a process in which a number of free electrons a

medium (usually a gas) are subjected to strong acceleration by an electric field
,ionization the medium's atoms by collision (called impact ionization), thereby
forming "new" electrons to undergo the same process in successive cycles.
Electron avalanches are essential to the dielectric breakdown process within gases.
The process can culminate in corona discharges, streamers, leaders or in a spark or
continuous arc that completely bridges the gap. The process extends to huge sparks
— streamers in lightning discharges propagate by formation of electron avalanches
created in the high potential gradient ahead of the streamers' advancing tips. Once
begun, avalanches are often intensified by the creation of photoelectrons as a result
of ultraviolet radiation emitted by the excited medium's atoms in the aft-tip region.
Plasma begins with a rare natural 'background' ionization event of a neutral air
molecule, perhaps as the result of photo excitation or background. If this event
occurs within an area that has a high potential gradient, the positively charged ion
will be strongly attracted toward, or repelled away from, an electrode depending on
its polarity, whereas the electron will be accelerated in the opposite direction.
Because of the huge mass difference, electrons are accelerated to a much higher

5
velocity than ions [8]-[9].High-velocity electrons often collide with neutral atoms
inelastically, sometimes ionizing them. In a chainreaction — or an 'electron
avalanche' — additional electrons recently separated from their positive ions by the
strong potential gradient, cause a large cloud of electrons and positive ions to be
momentarily generated by just a single initial electron. However, free electrons are
easily captured by neutral oxygen or water vapor molecules (socalled
electronegative gases), forming negative ions. In air at STP, free electrons exist for
only about 11nanoseconds before being captured. Captured electrons are
effectively removed from play — they can no longer contribute to the avalanche
process. If electrons are being created at a rate greater than they are being lost to
capture, their number rapidly multiplies, a process characterized by exponential
growth [10]. Therefore, when the light is turned on, the electric power heats up the
cathode enough for electrons emission. These electrons collide with and ionize
noble gas atoms inside the bulb surrounding the filament to form plasma by a
process of impact ionization. As a result of avalanche ionization the conductivity of
the ionized gas rapidly rises, allowing higher currents to flow through the lamp.
Fluorescent lamps are negative differential resistance devices, so as more current
flows through them, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops,
allowing even more current to flow. Connected directly to a constant-voltage
power supply, a fluorescent lamp would rapidly selfdestruct due to the
uncontrolled current flow. To prevent this, fluorescent lamps must use an auxiliary
device, a ballast, to regulate the current flow through the lamp.

6
Functions of Starter and Choke:

Starter consist of a bimetallic plate in a glass bulb filled with argon gas .When
supply is ON, current passes through this and discharged argon gas .Due to this
,bimetallic strip bends and closes contact. At this stage, the choke, the filament of
the tube and the starter become connected in series across the supply. A current
flows through filaments and hits them. Meanwhile the argon discharge in the
starter tube disappears and after a cooling time, the strip causes a sudden break in
the circuit [12]. This causes a high value of induced emf in the choke. The induced
emf in the choke is applied across both of the filaments of the fluorescent lamp and
is responsible for initiating a gaseous discharge because initial heating has already
created good no of free electron in the vicinity of filaments. Thus, the fluorescent
lamp starts giving light output. Once the discharge through the tube is established,
a much lower voltage than the supply voltage is required to maintain it [13]. A
reduction in voltage available across the tube during running condition is achieved
by having a voltage drop across the choke. In this way, different elements maintain
their role and circuit of fluorescent lamp provide visible light.

Different causes of ends of life of Lamp:

Emission Mix:

The emission mix is responsible for electrons pass through the gas when the
cathode is heated. And it goes into plasma state. During course of operation of
fluorescent lamp many gaseous atoms, electrons, molecules strike the filament and
reduces the emission mix. When all the emission mix is gone, the cathode can not
passes sufficient electrons into the gas field to maintain the discharge at the
designed operating voltage of tube. Burned Filament: After the lifetime of lamp’s
7
the filament can burn and loose the capability of heat up. In normal condition both
filament works in series. When starter breaks the circuit, then both filaments come
into series inside the lamp. When it burnt out, can’t make the circuit complete and
it is called fused. Ballast Electronics: It is integral part of the fluorescent lamp. If it
burnt out, the circuit is not completed. So that it must be changed. Loss of
mercury: Because of excessive heating of mercury, it’s molecules are slowly
absorbed by the phosphor. And at one point mercury is completely absorbed by the
phosphor inside the tube. Hence, loss of mercury is causes initially an extended
run-up time to full light output; and at a point it causes the lamp to glow a dim pink
when the mercury runs out and the argon base gas takes over as the mercury on the
discharge [15]. Darkening of the fluorescent lamp occurs because of:

a) Effect of mercury on the fluorescent coating and

b) Material given off by the electrodes. The letter specially contributes to the
darkening at the ends of the fluorescent lamp, which occurs late in life. The rate of
depreciation in light output diminishes throughout life, the first hundred hours
produces as much or more darkening as the following thousand hours. The percent
lumens at thousands hours life may on the average the expected to be as good or
better than for vacuum filament lamps of the same.

8
SYSTEM MODEL:

Here, a mechanism is presented by which fused fluorescent lamp can be enlighted:

In this model, only healthy filament of fused fluorescent lamp can emit the
sufficient electrons and collected by other one to glow up. In the circuit a DC
voltage is provided across two filaments with fixed polarity through a Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier. In which one port inputs are two different tube-end-pins
connection. And other’s port inputs are Supply Line and Choke input point
connection. Choke is connected between supply line and bridge rectifier input
terminal to control the current flow through back emf process. Starter is also
connected across the tube to develop striking voltage. Here Starter and Choke
functions same as in a healthy fluorescent lamp.

9
Different Models for making this type of Circuit:

a) When both end pins of fused filament are shorted and connected through bridge
rectifier output.

b) When either one pin of fused filament is connected through bridge rectifier
output and starter input.

Either of the above configurations can be used for this type of the making circuit.
When power supply is ON, unhealthy filament is bypassed and healthy filament is
connected through starter, bridge rectifiers output and choke in series with power
supply. In this process healthy filament is heated and emits electrons. When starter
breaks up it’s contact, a high voltage is induced in the choke. This voltage is
converted into DC voltage by the bridge rectifier and applied across the fluorescent
lamp. Here the healthy filament must get negative polarity and the unhealthy
filament must get positive polarity. Due to this reason, only healthy filament acts as
electrons emitter and unhealthy filament acts as electrons collector. This makes
both filaments in series with other circuit elements. This circuit arrangement
eliminates fused due to:

Unhealthy Filament due to material loss

Only one Broken Filament iii) Low gaseous volume in the tube iv) Low amount of
mercury (Hg) in the tube. Here bridge rectifier is used because of similarity of its
configuration to that of Wheatstone bridge, does not required a centre trapped
transformer, easy to implement. The peak inverse (PIV=Vm across one diode)
rating of the diode in bridge rectifier circuit is less than the used diodes in centre
trapped transformer. It has 82.1% efficiency and value of ripple factor is 0.482.
And here half wave rectifier circuit can not be implemented because it does not
pass current in the circuit in one half cycle of supply input. Here if choke is not
10
used, then a lot of current is passed through the circuit which can damage our
healthy filament also; even if an equivalent resistance is connected in place of
choke. As any element is not present in the circuit to control the current which is
directly flowing from supply to healthy filament. So, this circuit model provides a
controlled current flow to glow the fused fluorescent lamp continuously

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS:

Parameters: Normal Fluorescent lamp; striking voltage is 172 volt and

extinguishing voltage is 136 volt in case of AC supply. Fused Fluorescent lamp;
Striking voltage is 180 volt and extinguishing voltage is 112 volt in case of DC
supply through bridge rectifier circuit.

11
Using Fuse Tube Light

The circuit illustrated below can RE use your thrown tube light. A high DC voltage
can glow a a weak florescent tube light. An used florescent tube gets black at one
edge. Which indicates weakness. At such end Positive voltage should be applied
and can be marked as anode and other clear end cathode can be marked for
Negative voltage or electron will be supplied.

Principle 

This circuit uses a popular timer I.C 555. I.C 555 is connected as comparator with
pin-6 connected with positive rail, the output goes high(1) when the trigger pin 2 is
at lower then 1/3rd level of the supply voltage. Conversely the output goes low (0)
when it is above 1/3rd level. So small change in the voltage of pin-2 is enough to
change the level of output (pin-3) from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The output has only two
states high and low and can not remain in any intermediate stage. It is powered by
a 6V battery for portable use. The circuit is economic in power consumption. Pin 4,
6 and 8 is connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is grounded. To detect the
present of an object we have used LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special type
of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of the light which is falling on
it. It has resistance of about 1 mega ohm when in total darkness, but a resistance of
only about 5k ohms when brightness illuminated. It responds to a large part of light
spectrum. We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and 100K variable
resistance connected in series. We know that voltage is directly proportional to
conductance so more voltage we will get from this divider when LDR is getting
light and low voltage in darkness. This divided voltage is given to pin 2 of IC 555.
Variable resistance is so adjusted that it crosses potential of 1/3rd in brightness and

12
fall below 1/3rd in darkness.
Sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. As soon as LDR gets dark
the voltage of pin 2 drops1/3rd of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets high and LED
or buzzer which is connected to the output gets activated.

Component used

9v Battery with strip

Switch

L.D.R (Light Depending Resistance)

I.C NE555 with Base

L.E.D (Light Emitting Diode) 3 to 6 pieces.

Variable Resistance of 47 Kilo ohms

P.C.B (Printed Circuit Board of 555 or Vero board.

13
9V Battery with strip

The nine-volt battery in its most common form was introduced for the
early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a
polarized snap connector at the top. This type is commonly used in pocket radios,
paintball guns, and small electronic devices. They are also used as backup power to
keep the time in certain electronic clocks. This format is commonly available in
primary carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and
in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion.
Mercury oxide batteries in this form have not been manufactured in many years
due to their mercury content. This type is designated NEDA 1604, IEC 6F22 and
"Ever Ready" type PP3 (zinc-carbon) or MN1604[1] 6LR61 (alkaline).

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5V LR61 cells
enclosed in a wrapper.[2]These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA
cells and can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm
shorter. Carbon-zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a
moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying.

14
Switch

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break

an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another.[1][2] The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a human
operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may
be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may be operated
by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A relay is a switch that
is operated by electricity. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages
and currents; very large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in
electrical substations.

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device

with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external
circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning
the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open",
meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The
mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can

15
be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary"
(push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,

such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as
a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions
of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open
position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece.
Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow,
current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically
control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used
to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit
is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive
mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system,
providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent
accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no
limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time andfall time during
state changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off
positions.

Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current
and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often
used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved,
but this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of
non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for
example used in telephone exchanges.

16
L.D.R (Light Depending Resistance)

A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled

variableresistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing
incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A
photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-
activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a

photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the
light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If
incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certainfrequency, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor
can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors
may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic

semiconductor has its owncharge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for

17
example, silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence
band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across
the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also calleddopants, added
whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do
not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has
some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra
electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic
semiconductor.

I.C NE555 with Base

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse

generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays,
as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing
circuits in one package.

Introduced in 1971 by American company Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread

use due to its ease of use, low price, and stability. It is now made by many
companies in the originalbipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003,
it was estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.

18
L.E.D (Light Emitting Diode) 3 to 6 pieces.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n

junction diode, which emits light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltage is
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the
device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components
may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[6] the earliest LEDs emitted

low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide
variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low
intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

19
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing
small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the
form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task

lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as
diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general
lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for
room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and
heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while
their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Variable Resistance of 47 Kilo ohms

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the
same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors

20
are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, biasactive elements,
terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or
operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity,
force, or chemical activity.

P.C.B (Printed Circuit Board of 555 or Vero board.

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminatedonto a non-conductive substrate.
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers)
or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher
component density. Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-
through holes calledvias. Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors,
resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate.

21
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products.
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs
require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and
assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and
faster than with other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with
one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.

When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components, it is
more correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board.
Although more accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A
PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA).
The IPC preferred term for assembled boards iscircuit card assembly (CCA), and
for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used
informally both for bare and assembled boards.

WORKING

When light falls on the LDR then its resistance decreases which results in increase
of the voltage at pin 2 of the IC 555. IC 555 has got comparator inbuilt, which
compares between the input voltage from pin2 and 1/3rd of the power supply
voltage. When input falls below 1/3rd then output is set high otherwise it is set low.
Since in
brightness, input voltage rises so we 
obtain no positive voltage at output of pin 3 to drive relay or LED, besides in poor
light condition we get output to energize.

22
Precautions:

a) LDR used should be sensitive.

Before using in the circuit it should be tested with multimeter.

b) I.C should not be heated too much while soldering, can destroy the I.C. For
safety and easy to replace, use of I.C base is suggested. While placing the I.C pin
no 1 should be made sure at right hole.

c) Opposite polarity of battery can destroy I.C so please check the polarity before
switching ON the circuit. One should use diode in series with switch for safety
since diode allows flowing current in one direction only.

d) L.E.D glows in forward bias only so incorrect polarity of L.E.D will not glow.
Out put voltage of our project is 7.3 volt therefore 4 LED in series can be easily
used with out resistance.

e) Each component should be soldered neat and clean. We should check for any dry
soldered.

f) LDR should be so adjusted that it should not get light from streetlight itself.

Part List:

Resistors

R1=15KΩ, R5,R6=1.5KΩ

R2,R11,R12=2.2MΩ, R13=2.2KΩ

R3=270KΩ, R4=3.3KΩ

R7,R8=10KΩ, R9,R10=27KΩ

23
Capacitors

C1=1000µf/16v

C2=.01µf,C3,C4=.047µf

Semiconductor

Q1,Q2,Q3= BC548

D2,D3,D4= IN 4148

D1,D5=IN 4007, Q4=BC368

Misc

T1=12v/500mA Transformer

Mic= Condenser Microphone

K1= 12V Relay, B1= Bulb or Load

24
CONCLUSION

A prototype system model is developed and operational in the laboratory on

lighting with fused fluorescent lamp. Authors provide a mechanism by which fused
fluorescent lamp can be re-utilized through a fixed polarity of DC supply with
choke in series. In the circumstances, this model help to overcome the problem due
to suddenly fused fluorescent lamp at instant and is very useful in all domestic
purposes.

References

1. Levine, M.A., Solid State Cooling with Thermoelectrics, Electronic Packaging

& Production, Nov. 1989.
2. Melcor Corporation, Thermoelectric Handbook, Sept., 1995.
3. Rowe, D. M., CRC Handbook of Thermoelectric, CRC Press, Inc., 1995.
4. Smythe, Robert, Thermoelectric coolers take the heat out of today's hot chips,
Electronic Products,

25