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A Civil Engineer has often to face some problematic soil such as expansive
soils. Expansive soils of Central India, commonly known as Black Cotton
soils, cover approximately one-sixth of the total area of our country. Such
soils exhibit extreme stages of consistency from very hard to very soft when
saturated.
Soil Classification based on Color: The soil has four basic colors, white, red,
yellow or black. The site with black soil should be rejected for construction.
Classification based on Smell: The soil having smell of rotten fish should be
rejected for construction.
Classification based on Taste: The taste of soil can be sweet, sour, bitter.
The site with soil of sweet taste is most suitable.
1 Introduction 1
4 Construction Techniques 34
Bibliography 63
LIST OF TABLES
(Wadgaon)
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LIST OF FIGURES
In India the expansive soils cover approximately 20 percent of the total land
area. These expansive soils are known by various local names such as Black
cotton soils.
An attempt has been made to compile information from various text books,
technical papers, bulletins and codes of practices.
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INTRODUCTION
The definition of expansive soil may be stated as follows. “Expansive soils are
those soils which swell considerably on absorption of water and shrink on
removal of water. The expansive soil has considerable strength in dry state,
but the strength goes on reducing on absorption of water. The soil exerts
considerable pressure on foundations during swelling.
Expansive soils are found in some regions of India and many other countries.
These soils pose major foundation problems, causing damage to the super
structure if proper precautions have not been taken.
The expansive soils, with their expanding lattice structure and resulting
capacity for wide ranges in water contents, can be particularly troublesome.
Settlement due to shrinkage and heave due to swelling causes structural
instability. This problem is magnified in hydraulic structures.
Fig.1.3 shows a typical bank failure caused by deep shrinkage cracks at the
top of the slope and loss of the strength at the slope toe from expansion
under light loading with resulting increased water content.
Soils are originated from rock due physical and chemical disintegration
processes and deposited due to wind, ice, gravity and water.
The black cotton soils are grouped under tropical black earths of the great
soil group of the generic classification. The heavier black soils are called
black cotton soils because of their suitability to grow cotton. The black color
is variously assigned to the presence of humus, organic iron and aluminum
compounds etc. These soils cover the Deccan plateau covering entire
Maharashtra state, South Gujarat, central and western Madhya Pradesh,
Southern part of Andhra and Orissa states. In western half of the Deccan
plateau the black soils rests on trap or Basalt rock, while in the eastern part
these soils rest on granite of gneisses.
The Deccan Plateau is an undulating country with hills and dales. Accordingly
depending upon the situation along the slopes, the black soils are shallow,
medium or deep. They are brown chestnut and black in color, light, medium
or heavy in texture respectively. Along the slopes of Ghats, the soils are
coarse and gravelly. In the bases of hills and along the river valleys, the
black soils are often 20 ft deep.
The shallow black soils are light black in color, coarse in texture and often
eroded. These are usually of low fertility. The deep and heavy black soils are
highly clayey and unworkable during rainy season. The clayey soils in the
lower layer do not admit any drainage and hence the very deep black soils
are unfit for irrigation. They are workable during monsoon are therefore,
Mostly used for rabbi crops only. The medium black soils are only 1.5 to 3
feet deep and are rich in lime and lime nodules. The subsoil and partially
disintegrated rock below, allow easy drainage because these medium black
soils are highly retentive of moisture and swell during rainy season. In hot
weather these shrink heavily and develop numerous cracks which may be
several feet deep. With advent of rains, the loose top soil fills up these
cracks.
Black soils are usually deficient in nitrogen, organic matter and in many
places, of phosphoric acid also. These are rich in lime while potash content
varies widely. Their clay mineral consists of Montmorillonite type. In general
black soils are considered more fertile than any other Indian soils.
The expansivity or the capacity of a soil to swell depends upon the type,
amount of clay minerals and exchangeable bases. There are three major
mineral groups viz, Montmorillonite, Illite and Kaolinite. For the identification
of expansive soil different field and laboratory method are available. The
expansive soils in field can be identified by the cracking pattern of the soil in
summer. The laboratory identification tests can be grouped under
a) Simple tests and b) specialized tests.
b) The test procedures of these tests are explained below.
Sf = (Vf-Vi) x 100/Vi %
Where Vf and Vi are final and initial volumes respectively.
Sf = (Vw-Vk) x 100/Vk %
where Vw and Vk are final volumes of
Soil in water and kerosene respectively.
The degree of expansiveness of soil and consequent damage to the structure
with light loading may be qualitatively judged as described below.
However the above test cannot be considered realistic as drying may change
the soil characteristics considerably.
Recent studies indicate that the plasticity index of a soil alone can be used to
have an assessment of the capability of the soil for swelling accurate enough
for practical purposes.
The purpose of this test is to measure total volume change from natural or
remolded condition to the air dried and saturated conditions respectively.
6. Dehydration Test
The test consists of recording the percentage loss in weight of clay upon
heating to higher and higher temperatures and plotting volume vs
temperature. Heating is continued till there is no loss in weight occurs. The
position of the flexural point in temperature vs loss of weight curve gives an
indication of the type of mineral percent.
Fig.2.2-Load expansion Curve
Specialized Tests
B. X -Ray Diffraction
Classification
In all 210 soil samples were investigated, out of which some were subjected
to chemical tests also. The chemical test results did not show any specific
tendency for classification purpose.
Out of the above six classification systems the U.S.P.R.A. was approved in
1952 by Indian Road Congress. Initially in this system all the different soils
were divided in eight groups, ranging from A1 (well graded gravels or sands)
to A8 (Peat).It was based on six properties.
This system was revised in 1955. The number of groups was reduced from
eight to seven, by considering only first three properties i.e. PSD, LL and PI.
All black cotton soils of India fall under A-7 group of USPRA classification
system. The subgroups are given by group index method.
Where
a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
35 and not exceeding 75 expressed as number (0<a<40).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
15 and not exceeding 55 expressed as number (0<b<40).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 60,
expressed as positive number (0<c<20)
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding
30, expressed as positive number (0<d<20).
The soils collected from various states of India were found to have a Group
Index of more than 20 which is the upper limit of A-7 group. So the
extension of GI is done by fixing higher values of the fraction passing ASTM
200 sieve, L.L. and P.I. This was done by raising the values of a, b, c and d
from the following expressions.
a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
35 and not exceeding 100 expressed as number (0<a<65).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
15 and not exceeding 80 expressed as number (0<b<65).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 85,
expressed as positive number (0<c<45)
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding
44, expressed as positive number (0<d<34).
“a”, “b”, “c”, “d” have the same meaning and thus the new maximum value
of GI is 50.The group A-7 was subdivided as below.
A= Swell activity
fraction.
A set of curves were given for computing S for different values of PI and c.
With the help of swell activity they finally found out the relationship between
swelling potential and Shrinkage Index, which is as follows,
Where
N = c3.44/(c-n) 2.67
n=Intercept on the curve (SI Vs Clay fraction) Ref. Fig.4) it varies from 4 to
22.
The authors have given another classification system as shown in Table 2.5
below.
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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS
Introduction: Experimental and theoretical studies on swelling soils have
been going on since last century, in different parts of the world as the
damages caused by these soils were catastrophic. In these studies it was
found that swelling pressure plays an important role. There are number of
properties of swelling soil which are responsible for swelling. A degree of
expansion is more or less related to shrinkage index, plasticity index colloid
content. The available literature on properties of expansive soils is presented
in brief.
There is further intake of moisture until the hydration of ions and soil
particles is complete and particles of soil have reoriented with respect to
forces which keep them together, viz the confining pressures and the
attraction between clay particles. Both these concepts viz the theory of
double layer depending entirely on physical chemical properties and suction
potential based on capillary only, do not take into consideration the effect of
elastic properties in relation to external forces.
It is thus evident that for any theory to explain swelling phenomenon in soils
completely, it should take into account the physic-chemical affects due
hydration of exchangeable ions and that of clay particles, the soil suction
and elastic behavior of soils in relation to external forces. Further research of
the subject should aim at combining the three concepts to obtain a more
rational theory of swelling phenomenon.
Katti, R.K. and others (ref.21) collected soil samples from 16 different
locations and conducted detailed laboratory investigations and have given
physical and engineering properties of Black cotton soils a tabular form. The
same table is reproduced here. The various locations are indicated in the soil
map.
The two commonly used methods for measurement of swelling pressure are,
Murthy, VNS and Chari R. (Ref. 22) studied these factors affecting the
swelling pressure of expansive soil.
3.1.2 Density of soil sample: For constant moisture content, the soil density
has a definite effect on swell pressure. This is mainly due to the grater scope
for building up of absorbed film around each of clay particles. Uppal and Palit
(ref 38) have shown that as dry density increases the swell pressure also
increases. The have found that at low density up to 15 kN/m 3 the swell
pressure is very small but as the degree of compaction increased beyond
this value there is abrupt rise in swelling pressure.
3.1.3 Time of saturation: The process of swelling is gradual because soil
takes time for the water to penetrate into soil layers and cause expansion
cumulatively. Therefore time allowed for expansion is an important factor.
The affinity for absorption being great in soils with low moisture content,
initial rate increases the swell pressure in those soils is greater than those
soils with higher water content. It can thus be anticipated that soils with
lower moisture will have a very percentage of swell even during initial
contact with water. Initial rate of increase of swell pressure is lesser in soils
with higher densities. This may be the effect of lower permeability of the soil
and is also of great significance in practice.
Two identical samples were tested using proving rings of different stiffness.
A proving ring with lesser stiffness undergoes large deformation. A soil has
thus a definite free expansion before developing the full swell pressure.
The swell pressure under any building foundation will be equal to the
foundation pressure. The difference between the possible maximum swell
pressure and foundation pressure results in an expansion and consequent
vertical movement of the structure.
3.1.5 Sample height: Some tests were conducted by Uppal and Palit
(Ref.32) to study the effect of height of sample on swelling pressure. The
process of swelling is result of building absorbed water films. Given sufficient
time such action will take place over the entire depth of clay stratum. The
quantitative swell and swelling pressure should be a cumulative effect. The
swelling pressure is observed to vary directly with the height and inversely
with the diameter of the specimen. However if the skin friction is eliminated
the swelling pressure is found to be independent of the size of the test
specimen.
3.2.1 Swelling pressure determination in field: The general soil profile in the
chosen area consists of 2.2 to 2.5 m. of B.C. soil as top layer underlain by
2.5 m brownish yellow sticky clay resting on soft morrum which extend
below to a fairly great depth.
Field Set-up for swelling pressure measurement: At test site bore holes 15
cm diameter and 5 to 6 m depths were sunk with the help of power augers.
In each bore hole a reinforcement cage was lowered and concreting was
done. The concrete piles protruded 1 m above ground level. The threaded
portion of reinforcement was 15 cm above the pile head. A steel plate was
attached to the pile for uniform load distribution. Steel I section was fixed to
a pair of piles which were free from vertical movements due to swelling of
soil. Plates 75 cm to 25 cm diameter were placed at a depth 30 cm to
measure swelling force exerted by soil, using proving ring attached to I
section.
3.6. Lateral swelling pressure: The phenomenon of lateral swelling of
expansive soil is well known. Many structures crack due to lateral swelling
pressures.
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4 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
4.1 Expansive soils always pose various problems to foundation engineers.
Almost all cohesive soils have expansive property from insignificant to highly
significant. Expansive soils are found in various parts of the world such as
USA, South Africa, Australia, Spain, Israel, Myanmar and India. In India
these expansive soils are known by local names such as Black Cotton soils
(BC) in central India, Bentonite in Rajasthan and Kashmir, Mar or Kabar in
Uttar Pradesh. These soils occupy about 30 to 40 % of the land area of
India.
4.2.1 Deep excavation for foundation: BC soils are residual soils resulting
from weathering of Igneous rock (Basalt). The thickness of soil stratum can
be high as 3 to 10 m. laying the foundation on a firm non-swelling stratum
involves deep excavation in stiff clay and increases the cost of construction.
4.3.1 Removal of entire expansive soil: The first and very simple method is
to remove the entire layer of expansive soil up to firm and non-expansive
stratum.
4.3.8 The pier and belled footing cast in a drilled and under-remed hole is in
reality a cast in place pile with an enlarged base. If the clay is dry or below
the shrinkage limit when the pier is cast, it will subsequently swell both
laterally and vertically and exert pressure against the sides of the pier and
uplift along the pier. This uplift force along the surface of the pier is limited
by friction along the pier surface, by the shear strength of the clay, and by
the expansive force of the clay. Without precautions for reducing the friction
between clay and concrete of the pier, it is probable that the shear strength
of the clay will be the governing factor. The uplift pressure is greatest near
the top of the pier where the clay expands most. In some cases, uplift has
been sufficient to pull the pier in two at the top of bell. Ref. Fig.4.1
It is believed that the following criteria can be used for the design of
successful foundations of cast in place pier and belled footing units.
4.3.9 The grade beams or plinth beams cast in contact with desiccated clay
are sometimes broken be uplift pressure of expanding clay. Even if the grade
beams were reinforced to resist this pressure, the uplift on the supports may
cause as much damage as if the beam were allowed to break Provision
should be made for a void under grade beams into witch the clay can expand
without exerting uplift pressure.
The use of collapsible card board beam boxes is much more practical and
sure method of preventing uplift under grade beams. These cardboard boxes
are shipped flat and are folded to form a hollow box of the proper
dimensions for the purpose. The cardboard is treated to prevent immediate
disintegration and to remain strong enough to support runways for concrete
buggies long enough, for concrete to be placed and harden. These cardboard
beam boxes are produced commercially in Kansas and Texas.
4.3.10 Several methods have been devised for casting the structural floor
system on forms that lie directly on the clay and disintegrate after a short
period leaving a space for expansion of the clay.
One method for forming the slab which has been sued experimentally is to
loosen the clay to a depth of 30 to 50 cm. and to form the loose soil in
windrows to make a form for Joists. In order for this method to be
successful, the depth of the loosened clay must be adjusted to existing
conditions. The volume decrease of the loosened soil must be equal to or
greater that the volume increase of the undisturbed clay below the loosened
material. This method cannot be considered reliable, as during construction
of the loose fill, the soil may be compacted unfit is will itself swell as much
as or more than, the undisturbed soil.
This method consists of excavation deeply enough to form the area solid
with baled hay or straw laid end to end and side by side. These bales are
covered with roofing felt or sisal craft. The depressions between the bales
are forms for joists. The hay or straw is sprayed with ammonium nitrate to
accelerate disintegration of the straw. But the hay increases the fire hazard
and makes the construction site look like a feed lot. The aesthetic value of
rotting hay under the floor is questionable.
An effective method of providing void spaces under slab and beams into
which the clay can expand without producing uplift pressure is by the use of
water proof cardboard forms of sufficient strength to support the fresh
concrete and which later disintegrates. The cardboard forms are shipped flat
and are folder into shape during installation. But when the basement floor is
formed and cast before the basement walls are erected, the collapsible
forms are exposed to the weather during construction of floor, and the banks
of the excavation are susceptible to sloughing or sliding into the excavation,
which weakens the exposed cardboard forms during rainy season and
collapse. Sometimes a card board form is placed under the basement wall.
Under a heavy load, this method is ineffective because the beam box may be
crushed by the weight of fresh concrete.
4.3.11 The most common and best suited of all is the under-reamed pile
foundation. This method is discussed in detail in the next chapter.
4.4.1 There are problems posed to the old buildings which are standing.
The techniques or the remedial measures used for the prevention and
further developments of cracks are discussed below.
4.4.2 A. K. (9) and Subash Chandra suggests a simple method for the
prevention recurrent in small buildings founded on Black Cotton Soil,
directed at keeping the moisture content in soil immediately under and
around the building as constant as possible so as to minimize the ground
movement. Vertical sand drains connected by channels are placed about 2m.
on centers all around the effected building. Waste water from the building
was allowed to flow into them. A line concrete apron laid on polythene
membrane may be added between the walls of the building and the sand
drains to retard loss of moisture by evaporation as much as possible.
4.4.3 Ward, W.H. (40) studied the effect of fast growing trees and shrubs on
shallow foundation. According to him, in summer the trees absorb large
quantities of water from the clay under footing which then shrinks
appreciably and lets down the structure which is incapable of resisting the
settlement. The shrinkage one reaches as far as the most remote root which
generally extends distance greater than the height of the tree.
(1) So the fast growing trees should not be planted near the foundation.
(2) The footing is placed sufficiently deep in a zone not affected by soil
moisture movements and
(3) The structure may have shallow foundation but be made strong
enough to resist cracking.
***.***
5-UNDER-REAMED PILE FOUNDATIONS
5.1 Introduction: The best method of foundations in expansive soils is
foundation which is anchored in the stable zone of the ground, in which the
moisture variations are negligible. This was observed from the performance
of cast-in-situ piles with enlarged bases. Such piles were successfully
installed in South Africa and Israel. CBRI Roorkee realized the importance of
such piles and undertook a research project to develop a simple procedure
for manually operated hand augured piles. More than 5000 piles were
constructed and tested in various parts of India and based on the practical
experience CBRI Roorkee published and published a manual on under-
reamed piles and gave design tables for various diameters of augured piles.
5.3 The different design and construction steps are illustrated through
Fig. 5,1 to 5.7 below
***.***
6 STABILISATION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS
With this in mind studies were conducted by Katti (21) and others to evaluate the
effect of inorganic chemical on various properties of black cotton soils.
For this study they selected soils S-2, S-4, S-5, S-6, S-9, S-9, S-10 and S-11 i.e.
from Poona, Nasik, Nagpur, Sholapur, Baroda, Bezawada, Wadagaon sites. The
chemicals used for treating some or all the soils were hydroxides of Na, K, Ca, Mg,
Ba and Fe, carbonates of Na, Mg and Ba; cement, sodium silicate, Di-ammonium
phosphate, suplhates of Na and Cu, phosphates of Mg and Ca and potassium
dichromate. The percentage of chemicals used varied between 0 to 10 percent
based on the over dry weight of the soil.
6.2.1 Hydroxides :The variation in the consistency properties of the soils treated
with hydroxides, of potassium, sodium and calcium is represented in fig. In case of
all soils other than S-4, the addition of KOH varying from 1.5 to 7 percent has
made the soil non-plastic. S-4 shows disruptive effect. KOH goes on reducing the
liquid limit and plasticity index. 0.75 to 3 percent, the shrinkage limit value
significantly increased indication that volume change tendency has been
considerably decreased. The shrinkage limits go as high as 40 in some cases from
initial value of around 8 to 10. The increase in Plasticity Index at small percentage
may be due to the dispersion effect.
The dispersive action of NaOH with small addition is evident. The L.L. of nearly all
the soils increases up to about 1 to 1.5% and in the same range the P.L. decrease
and P.I. increases. Larger addition invariably causes lowering of L.L., increase in
P.L. and decrease in P.I. At small percentage of NaOH decrease in S.L. is observed.
However beyond about 0.75% the S.L. value nearly always increase with increasing
additive. These results indicate that while at low percentages of NaOH these is a
tendency for dispersion to take place, further addition results in less of plasticity
and increase in S.L.
The addition of Ca(OH)2 beyond about 1% distinctly goes on reducing the L.L. and
P.I. and increasing P.L. These results indicate that all the soils become non-plastic
beyond 1.5%, except S-10 soil. The shrinkage limit value continuously increase
with the addition Ca(OH)2.
Mg(OH)2 does not seem to have appreciable effect on the consistency properties of
any of the soils.
6.2.2 Chlorides: CaCl2, BaCL2 and MgCl2, do not have much effect on the
P.L. and S. L. of the soil. However, there is decrease in L.L. values and decrease in
P.L. value. It may be noted that while in case of Ca(OH)2 there is an increase in
P.L. and S. L. with the additive, these values more or less remains constant in ease
of calcium chlorides. This effect may be due to the fact that the chlorides are more
alkaline than the corresponding hydroxides.
With the addition FeCl3, the L.L. value show a tendency to decrease and P.L. values
more or less constant. It was possible to determine S.L. only in case of S-9, S-10,
S-11 soils and these did not show significant change. In other soils, it was not
possible to determine S.L. values. It was observed that the addition of FeCl3
beyond L percent makes the soil mass porous like bread. This may be due to the
formation of HCL which on reaction with the carbonates present on the soil evolves
CO2. the escape of the gas gives rise to the porous structure. Chemical test
confirmed that CO2 was liberated during the processes. It may be noted that S-9,
S-10, and S-11 soils contain less than 0.5% carbonates which the other contain
even up to 6.65%.
KCI and NaCL were tried only on S-2 soil, These chemicals increase the S.L. values
to a great extent while L.L. and P. L. values decrease. KCI seems to be more
effective than NaCL.
6.2.3 Carbonates :MgCo3 increases the L.L. and P.L. values while BaCo3
does not show any marked effect. The S. L. values tend to increase. Na2Co3 was
used with S-2,S-4,S-5, and S-6 soils. All carbonates may be said to produce
dispersion and cause increase in plasticity.
6.2.4 Cement :It can be noted that cement has a similar effect as Ca(OH)2
but to a lesser degree. This may be due to the lesser amount of free lime available
from cement. It may be noted that even with 10 per cent of cement, the soils do
not become non-plastic. The S.L. values however, considerably increase with the
addition of cement.
6.2.5 Na2Sio3 :Sodium silicate increase the L.L. and P.I. for all the soils and
make them highly plastic. This may be attributed to the disperse effect. The S.L.
values seem to increase with the additive.
6.2.6 Di-ammonium Phosphate: This chemical was tried on soils S-2, S-4, S-
5 and S-6 and its effect is found to be similar to that of FeCl3. the S.L. Values could
not be determined since the soil turned porous due to the evolution of NH3.
6.3.1 Hydroxides: Plasticity characteristics of the soil are arranged by the addition
of hydroxides at zero aging period. The L.L. value of the chemically treated soil
show an increasing trend upto 3% of NaOH, 0.5% of KOH, 0.1% of Ca(OH)2. The
L.L. values at the above percentages fro NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2. are 147,84.8, and
87.7% compared to the value of 81% for raw soil. The initial increase is more
predominant in case of NaOH, due to its highly dispersive nature. These effects are
also reflected in the variation of P.I. NaOH increases the P.I. from 35% to 85% at
3% additive and decreases to 15.5 percent at 7 per cent additive. The hydroxides in
general improve the shrinkage properties of soils at zero aging period.
With aging L.L. tend to decrease with all hydroxides while the P.L. remains constant
or show a tendency to decrease. For instance it may be noted that from fig. that
L.L. values with 0.5 percent of NaOH at 0, 48 and 96 hours aging are 101.5, 85.0,
and 80.3 per cent respectively while the P.L. values at the same percentages at the
corresponding curing period are 56.7, 47.0 and 47.0 This decrease in L.L. may be
due to the formation of complex cementing gel produced due to the reaction
between chemical and the soil constituents. The amount of this cementing gel
formed depends upon the amount of chemical added and time allowed for the
reaction and pH of the system. With more chemical and more time, more quantity
of the gel like cementation material would be formed.
The S.L. values increase with aging beyond 1.5% of NaOH, while the values reduce
with aging when Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are added.
6.3.2 Chlorides: S-8 soil i.e. the soil from Amravati shows the same behavior with
chlorides at the aging period as other soils described earlier, showing decrease in
L.L. with the addition of chemicals and a negligible effect on P.I. and S.L. values.
With aging chlorides decrease the L.L. and the P.I. The P.L. values show a slightly
decreasing trend although in the case of CaCl2, there seems to be an increasing
value beyond 72 hours. This may be due to the gel formation.
Fig. shows the effect of aging of CaCl 2 on consistency properties. It may be noted
that at 1% additive the L.L. values at 0, 48 and 96 hours are 76.8,72.6 and 71.0
respectively and the corresponding P.L. values are 34.7, 31.7, 31.7 and 34.9.
6.3.3 Carbonates: The zero hour L.L. and P.I. values of the soil sample
increase with the addition fo carbonates , the effect being more pronounced with
Na2Co3 , S.L. is unaffected by carbonates.
With aging there is a definite decreasing trend in L.L. and P.I., the change being
predominant at higher percentages. This may be attributed to the formation of gel
like cementing.
The values of L.L. at 0.5 percent Na2Co3 at 0,48 and 72 hours are 89.2, 79.0 and
77.0 percent and P.I. values are 48.9, 37.6 and 35.3 at the corresponding curing
period respectively.
With aging all consistency limits shows a tendency to decrease. At 0.5% additive
the L.L. reduces from 85 to 77.7% and P.I. from 50.4% to 41/8 when cured for 96
hours. This behavior is the same as for the other chemicals.
Cement: - The addition of cement brings about changes similar to those of Ca(OH) 2,
both with aging and amount.
6.3. Bearing Characteristics: A study was conducted on S-2 soil i.e. from Poona
treated with KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2, cement and Na 2Co3, to get an idea about the
bearing characteristics used for this study was 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 3.0, and
7.0 percent of the oven dry weight of the soil. C.B.R. test at standard proctor
density with surcharge on soaked samples were conducted. The No. of days soaking
was 4 days.
The test results are presented in table. From the data it may be noted that beyond
1 percent KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 and cement appreciably increase the C.B.R. values.
The increase in C.B.R. values is an indication that the complex cementations gel
which are formed have cementing property even under highly wet condition. This is
an important factor with respect to the stability of the soil-chemical system under
field condition. Further studies on expansive soils subjected to drying and rewetting
is needed, because it is expected after drying the gel may attain a condition of
insolubility. Na2CO3 does not seem to have much effect on C.B. R. Values.
The data collected in the case of soils S-4 and S-12 is presented in tables.
6.4.1 Hydroxides: NaOH when added up to about 2-3 percent in all the
three soils bring down the permeability values to less than that obtained for the
bank soil. Beyond this percentages, the permeability values increase continuously
up to about 10 percent, the increase being very rapid beyond 5 percent. The values
in units of 10-7 cm/sec. for S-2 soil at 0.1.3 and 10 percent additives at 3.2, 0.5,
1.4, 869.4 respectively while corresponding values for S-4 and S-12 soils are 9.6
and 4.8, 1.6 and 2.6,8.0 and 36.1 and 3140 and 1685 respectively. The decrease in
permeability at the lower percentages may be due to the dispersion effect of NaOH.
At higher percentages, aggregation effect seems to set in, leading the higher value
of permeability.
KOH shows the similar trend to that of NaOH. However, the dispersive action is
noticed over a much smaller range (0.1 to 0.25 percent ) ain this care and the rate
of increase is much higher at larger percentages. The values show a decreasing
trend beyond 7 percent, in all the soils. This trend can be observed from the tables.
The permeability values increase as high as 15, 450 x 10-7, 21275 x 10-7 and
17,300 x 10-7 cm/sec at 7 percent in soils S-2 S-4 and S-12 which are about 2000
to 5000 times their original values.
The dispersion and aggregation effect due to K ion are similar to Na ion. It has
already been noted while discussion the consistency properties of the soils, that
KOH is more effective in causing aggregation effect due to the proper co-ordination
number and ionic radius of the K ion. Moreover KOH is stronger alkali than NaOH
and therefore the permeability values obtained much higher than NaOH. When the
percentage, however, is increased more than 7 percent, the mineral breaks up into
their constituents in the highly alkaline environment and complex compound that
are formed block the horse, thus causing decrease in the values of the
permeability.
Ca(OH)2 was used with soils S-2 and S-4 Even at 0.1 percent level, there is
significant increase in the coefficient of permeability. The coefficient of permeability
goes on increasing with the addition of chemical and reaches a value of 304.6 x 10-
7 cm.sec. in case of soil S-2 at 7 percent and 711.5 x 10-7 cm/sec. in case of S-4
soil at 5 percent. Beyond these percentages the permeability values tend to
decrease.
6.4.2 Chlorides: NaCL and KCL are not much effective on account of their
lower alkalinity, as the corresponding hydroxides in changing the permeability
characteristics. The values obtained up to 1.5 percent addition are erratic, beyond
which aggregation occurs and permeability increases. However, even at as high
percentage as 10, there is no evidence of the formation and subsequent removal of
the humates, possibly due to the pH not rising adequately to initiate the reaction
with the humus of the soil. With 10 percent of NaCL, the permeability value of the
S-2, S-4, and S-12 soils are 14.8, 45.2 and 30.1 x 10-7cm/sem., while with the
same amount of KCL, the values are 68.1, 1775.0 and 988 x 10-7cm/sec.
respectively.
CaCL2 behaves in a very much similar way as Ca(OH) 2 increasing the permeability
values at all percentage, permeability as high as 65.0 x 10-7cm/sec. at 7 percent in
the case of S-2 Soil, 1150 x 10-7 cm/sec Percent in the case of S-4 Soil, 988 x 10-
7 cm/sec. at 10 percent in the case of S-12 Soil are obtained.
MgCl2 was tried on S-2 and S-4 soils and was found to be not much effective; the
permeability values obtained being less than those for blank soils. At higher
percentage, however, the values increase.
K2Co3 and CaCo3 were tried on S-2 and S-4 soils. K2Co3 being a comparatively
stronger alkali than Na2 Co3, permeability value decreases initially up to about 2 to
3 percent, due to the dispersion and beyond this the values increase due to the
removal of humus. The values obtained at higher percentage are in between those
of KCL and KOH.
CaCo3 reduces the permeability up to 1.5 percent, where after the values
continuously increase up to 10 percent. For instance in the case of S-4 soil, the
permeability at 1.5 per cent is 2.6 x 10-7cm/sec. which rises to 34.8 x 10-7cm/sec.
at 10 percent. The chemical has low order of solubility and dissociation and hence
at low percentages, the fine particle of the un-dissociated chemicals, plug the pores
into the soil sample, thereby lowering the permeability values. At higher
percentages enough calcium ion released to cause not effect of aggregation
resulting in higher values of permeability, inspire of the unassociated chemicals
continuing to plug the pores. BaCo3 and MgCo3 did not show any consistent trend
with the soils probably to the simultaneous action of both aggregation and plugging
the pores process.
It is evident from the previous investigation that certain inorganic chemical are
effective in significantly changing the textural and permeability of black cotton soils.
Some of these chemicals are soluble and some are insoluble.
Lime used is this investigation was a calcium hydroxide of technical grade and the
cement was a normal Portland cement.
6.5.1 The studies conducted by Katti on lime alone on soils. S-1 to S-12 i.e.
from Sholapur, Poona, Sidheswar, Nasik, Nagpur, Sholapur, Veldhari, Amravati,
Baroda, Wadagaon, sites. It may be seen that 7 day compressive strength in all
cases, are less than 300 psi. However in most soils, 28 days compressive strength
of over 300 psi can be obtained. These large increases in strength with time may be
attributed to the long term pozzolanic reaction taking place in the soil mixes.
6.5.3 The soil samples used for the investigation of bearing characteristic are
S-2 and S-8 i.e. from Poona and Amravati.
6.5.5 Effect of lime and cement on flexural characteristics of soils : The soil sample
use in the investigation was S-2 soil. The raw soil did not have any flexural
strength, the addition of lime and of cement enhanced Mr and Est value, where Mr
is the modulus of rupture and Est is the modulus of elasticity of rupture. The
addition of 4 to 6 per cent of lime, the Mr and Est value have increased to 71 and
128000 psi respectively. Further addition of lime have not been useful Effect of
cement are however smaller combination of lime and cement have given Mr values
of up to even 100 psi. In general with increasing amounts of cement for constant
lime contents, there is increase in strength and the strengths of combinations of
admixtures are not a superposition of the strengths of two components added
separately.
6.5.7 Both increasing moisture content and aging period cause reduction in
density and increase in O.M.C. However with increasing amount oaf lime for zero
aging period, there is increase in density upto certain amount of lime added and
decrease thereafter. For other aging period with the addition of lime up to a certain
amount the density rapidly decrease. Further addition of lime would not bring about
any greater reduction in density.
6.5.8 Field Test on Soils with Lime and Cement: It can be observed from the
laboratory investigation that combination of lime and cement were promising in
improving the plasticity, unconfined compressive strength, shearing strength and
flexural properties. It was there-fore decided to try a few of these mixes in the field
as a base coarse material under the various weather and sugared moisture
condition to evaluate the performance of soil-lime- cement mix, and to compare the
strength obtained with similar mixes under laboratory controlled condition.
CaCl2
KOH
CaCo3
MgCl2
K2CO3
MgCO3
NaOH
Na2CO3
Ca(OH)2
BaCO3
Chemical
1.1 5 2.5 3.3 5.1 3.4 18.3 14.2 12.9 19.7 6.3 6.1 0.1
7.5 5.2 2.8 2.2 5.8 3.4 25.2 10.4 15.6 21.7 8.4 9.7 0.25
6.9 7.8 5.0 1.6 2.7 5.4 34.7 14.0 16.1 30.8 12.5 3.1 0.5
6.9 7.2 2.5 1.2 1.7 4.5 40.3 17.3 13.7 75.0 8.3 1.7 0.75
7.6 8.5 2.9 1.8 1.7 4.8 4.845.5 29.7 9.8 119.5 22.4 1.6 1.0
7.5 13.9 2.6 2.3 1.8 5.7 63.4 63.7 5.6 272 27.6 3.3 1.5
7.4 36.3 6.7 8.9 1.4 10.3 308.0 89.3 15.8 306.5 66.5 7.7 2.0
10.0 22.3 7.5 51.5 1.6 42.6 322.0 151.0 41.3 343.0 2380. 8.0 3.0
22.8 20.5 11.1 666.5 1.7 79.2 304. 297.0 34.6 711.5 12520 50.9 5
11.4 11.5 21.9 973.0 1.9 0398.0 890.0 628.0 41.7 489.5 21725 328 7
5.7 6.1 34.8 0 2179. 1.9 761.5 1150.0 1775.0 45.2 589.5 15167 0 314 10
various inorganicChemicals expressed in units of 10-7cm/Sec.
Table No. 6.2-Variation of Permeability of S-4 Soil with the addition of
Table No 6.3-C .B. R. Test Value @ 5 mm Penetration
Chemical Percent
Chemical
0.0 0.1 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 3.0 7.0
KOH 3.84 3.72 4.66 4.22 5.19 3.90 16.46 26.18
NaOH 3.84 4.50 3.99 3.87 3.86 4.28 21.44 23.59
Ca(OH)2 3.84 4.54 3.84 4.86 5.90 8.38 47.20 83.18
Cement 3.84 4.23 4.13 4.59 4.67 5.64 11.39 42.33
Na2CO3 3.84 4.78 3.33 3.27 4.07 4.11 5.16 6.31
***.***
.
7-CONCLUSIONS
An attempt has been made to review and edit the vast literature available on the
subject of expansive soils, so as to elucidate the present status of knowledge on the
subject.
The literature on engineering properties is scanty and gives properties of some local
soils only. A systematic soil survey of expansive soils should be undertaken. The
procedure for measurement of swelling pressure needs standardization taking into
consideration of various factors affecting it. There is much scope for effect of
swelling on retaining structures.
Each of the construction technique described in the chapter 4, has its own
limitations. Under-reamed pile foundations described in detail in chapter 5 but the
other foundation techniques are becoming important. There is a scope to develop
some simple techniques for low cost houses.
Stabilization methods using inorganic and organic additives are described in chapter
6, but more practical methods need to be developed.
Our sincere efforts to include maximum available information had certain limitations
such as non-availability of references and time limit to complete the project work.
***.***
8-BIBLIOGRAPHY