�parts of speech�

The traditional term �parts of speech� was developed in Ancient Greek linguistics
and reflects the fact that at that time there was no distinction between language
as a system and speech, between the word as a part of an utterance and the word as
a part of lexis.
The term �parts of speech� is accepted by modern linguistics as a conventional, or
�non-explanatory� term (�name-term�) to denote the lexico-grammatical classes of
words correlating with each other in the general system of language on the basis of
their grammatically relevant properties.

Criteria for the classification of parts of speech. (V. V. Vinogradov, L. V.

Scherba, A. I. Smirnitsky, B. A. Ilyish)
The semantic criterion refers to the generalized semantic properties common to the
whole class of words, e.g.: the generalized (or, categorial) meaning of nouns is
�thingness�, of verbs process, of adjectives substantive property.
The functional criterion is based on the functions that the words of a particular
class fulfill in the sentence, e.g.: the most characteristic functions of the noun
are those of a subject and an object; the only function of the finite form of the
verb is that of a predicate;
The formal criterion embraces the formal features (word-building and word-changing)
that are characteristic for a particular part of speech, e.g.: the noun is
characterized by a specific set of word-building affixes, cf.: -ness, -er, etc.,
and is changed according to the categories of number, case and article
determination: boy-boys, boy � boy�s, boy � the boy � a boy, etc.
Criteria for the classification of parts of speech. (V. V. Vinogradov, L. V.
Scherba, A. I. Smirnitsky, B. A. Ilyish)
Classifications in general may be based either on one criterion (such
classifications are called homogeneous, or monodifferential), or on a combination
of several criteria (such classifications are called heterogeneous, or
polydifferential).
The traditional classification of parts of speech is heterogeneous; it is based on
the combination of all the three criteria mentioned above: �meaning � form �
function�.
Traditionally, all parts of speech are subdivided on the upper level of
classification into notional words and functional words.
Notional words, which traditionally include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
pronouns and numerals,
Functional words, which include conjunctions, prepositions, articles,
interjections, particles, and modal words
Main parts of the sentence
The subject is one of the 2 main parts of the sentence:
1)It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the
predicate.
2)It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence.
It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a
noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a demonstrative
pronoun occasionally, a substantivized adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, and a
gerund. It may also be expressed by a phrase.
The predicate is one of the 2 main parts of the sentence:
1)It denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject
2)It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence.
3)Ways of expressing the predicate are varied and their structure will better be
considered under the heading of types of predicate
The secondary parts
The Object is a secondary part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a noun, a
substantival pronoun, an adjective, a numeral, or an adverb, and denoting a thing
to which the action passes on, which is a result of the action, in reference to
which an action is committed or a property is manifested, or denoting an action as
object of another action.
Classification of object:
1.Prepositional and non-prepositional objects
2.Morphological types (noun, pronoun, substantivized adjective, infinitive, gerund)
3.Direct/indirect, is applied only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns. There
are sentences in which the predicate is expressed by the verbs send, show, lend,
give. These verbs usually take 2 different kinds of objects simultaneously: (1) an
object expressing the thing which is sent, shown, lent, given, etc. (2) the person
or persons to whom the thing is sent, shown, lent, given, etc.

The secondary parts

The Adverbial Modifier. The term �adverbial modifier� cannot be said to be a very
lucky one, as it is apt to convey incorrect ideas about the essence of this
secondary part. They have nothing to do with adverbs and they modify not only
verbs.
Adverbial modifier of: Time and frequency,Place and direction,Manner and attendant
circumstances, Cause,Purpose,Result,Condition,Concession,Degree
There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:
(1.)According to their meaning � not a grammatical classification.

(2).According to their morphological peculiarities � according to the parts of

speech and to the phrase patterns. It has also something to do with word order, and
stands in a certain relation to the classification according to
meaning,adverb,preposition + noun,a noun without a preposition,infinitive or an
infinitive phrase
(3.)According to the type of their head-word � is the syntactic classification
proper. The meaning of the word (phrase) acting as modifier should be compatible
with the meaning of the head-word.
The secondary parts
The problem of the attribute.
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence modifying a part of the sentence
expressed by a noun, a substantivized pronoun, a cardinal numeral, and any
substantivized word, and characterizing the thing named by these words as to its
quality or property.
The attribute can either precede or follow the noun it modifies. Accordingly we use
terms prepositive and postpositive attribute. The position of an attribute with
respect to its head-word depends partly on the morphological peculiarities of the
attribute itself, and partly on stylistic factors.

There are certain limitations and controversial points in the traditional

classification of parts of speech, which make some linguists doubt its scientific
credibility.
These, and a number of other problems, made linguists search for alternative ways
to classify lexical units.
The syntactic approach. Ch. Fries selected the most widely used grammatical
constructions and used them as substitution frames, and then Ch. Fries conducted a
series of substitution tests to find out what words can be used in each of the
positions.
Some of the frames were as follows: The concert was good (always). The clerk
remembered the tax (suddenly).
Besides these �positional words� (�form-words�), Ch. Fries distinguished 15 limited
groups of words, which cannot fill in the positions in the frames. These �function
words� are practically the same as the functional words in the traditional
classification.
Subdivision into two big supra-classes: notional and functional words.
The major formal grammatical feature of this subdivision is their open or closed
character.
The notional parts of speech are open classes of words, with established basic
semantic, formal and functional characteristics. There are only four notional
classes of words, which correlate with the four main syntactic positions in the
sentence: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are interconnected by the
four stages of the lexical paradigmatic series of derivation, e.g.: to decide �
decision � decisive � decisively.

The functional words are closed classes of words: they cannot be further enlarged
and are given by lists. The closed character of the functional words is determined
by their role in the structure of the sentence: the functional words expose various
constructional functions of syntactic units, and this makes them closer to
grammatical rather than to lexical means of the language.

functional approach
As for pronouns and the numerals, according to the functional approach they form a
separate supra-class of substitutional parts of speech, since they have no function
of their own in the sentence, but substitute for notional parts of speech and
perform their characteristic functions. The difference between the four notional
parts of speech and substitutional parts of speech is also supported by the fact
that the latter are closed groups of words like functional parts of speech.
The three supra-classes are further subdivided into classes (the parts of speech
proper) and sub-classes (groups inside the parts of speech). For example, nouns are
divided into personal and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable,
etc.; pronouns are subdivided into personal, possessive (conjoint and absolute),
objective pronouns, demonstrative, reflexive, relative, etc.; numerals are
subdivided into cardinal and ordinal, etc.