Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Review

A 50 year review of basic and applied research in compound parabolic T

concentrating solar thermal collector for domestic and industrial
applications
V. Pranesh , R. Velraj, S. Christopher, V. Kumaresan
⁎

Institute for Energy Studies, CEG, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In the recent years, compound parabolic concentrating (CPC) collector draws the attention of researchers and
Non-imaging solar collector industrial developers towards meeting the downstream requirement of about 60–240 °C because of its unique
Concentrating solar collector features of capturing the solar rays including diffuse rays, no tracking mechanism at low to moderate con-
Compound parabolic concentrating collector centrations, minimal heat loss and higher collector efficiency. The objective of this review is to identify the
Simulation tool analysis
research drift towards CPC collectors for domestic and industrial applications. In this study, a comprehensive
Solar collector standards
review for the CPC solar collector was carried out for the past 50 years in terms of types, historical growth in
CPC applications
milestones, concept, design strategies, heat transfer fluids, experimental studies, theoretical studies (Numerical
studies and simulation studies), applications, standards, certifications, market players and recent developments.
The review, exhibited that the CPC solar collector has been continuously developed, modified and improved to
achieve better collector efficiency and there is a greater potential to increase its utilization in various applica-
tions in the near future.

1. Introduction
Presently, the foremost crises found in the major portion of the
developing nations are: i) a severe shortage in meeting the basic energy
demand and ii) perpetual rise in pollution levels. Hence there is an urge
to find an alternative and sustainable way to meet the energy demand
and to reduce the pollution levels mandatory worldwide. In India, the
total electricity consumption in building sector is about 33% with 8%
and 25% for the commercial and residential sectors respectively (ECBC,
2009) which reflects the contribution in pollution. This will further
increase in the future due to substantial growth in the country’s
economy and the improvement in life style of the people. Rogers et al.
(2008) presented preliminary results and methodology for the elec-
tricity utilization in residential sector in their study report on ‘India low
carbon growth’. The report highlights the distribution of power con-
sumed by appliances (Lightening, kitchen appliances etc.,) and heating/
cooling appliances as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively.
Indian government is also interested in reducing the impact caused
by the depletion of fossil fuels and environmental pollution. India has
moved to fifth position due to increase in policy support and an im-
proved investment on climate change aspects (Sen and Ganguly, 2017).
In India, during the last decade an annual growth rate of about 22% for
renewable energy has been observed. Among the various renewable
energy sources, solar energy complies both the requirements. Also,
because of its unique features like abundant energy availability and
eco-friendly, it draws the attention of the scientists as a suitable re-
placement.
In India, there is an average of 250–300 clear, sunny days in a year
with an average annual solar irradiation which varies between 4 and
7 kWh/m2/day in most regions of the country, thus it receives about
5000 trillion kWh of solar energy in a year, that shows the abundant
availability of solar energy (Bhaskar, 2013; Chennai Climate, 2018;
NASA, 2018; Radiation, 2016).
The two basic types of solar collectors are non-concentrating and
concentrating collectors. A non-concentrating collector has the same
area for intercepting and for absorbing solar radiation, whereas con-
centrating solar collector consists of reflecting surfaces to intercept and
focus the sun radiations to a smaller receiver or absorber area, resulting
in increase of radiation flux. The concentrating solar collectors can be
further categorized based on the tracking mechanism such as single
axis, dual axis and non-tracking (stationary). Movable collectors have
higher maintenance requirements (Kalogirou, 2003).
In non-concentrating collectors, for very high temperatures (above
1000 K) spectral selectivity become less beneficial because of material

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: praneshvsolar@gmail.com (V. Pranesh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.04.056
Received 6 April 2018; Received in revised form 17 December 2018; Accepted 17 April 2019
Available online 28 May 2019
0038-092X/ © 2019 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Nomenclature MaReCo Maximum Reflector Collector

Max. Maximum
AFPC Advance flat plate collector Min. Minimum
AIDMO Arabian Industrial Development and Mining Organization MWCNT Multi-wall carbon nanotube
AMEC Arab Ministerial Council of Electricity NA Not available
ANOVA Analysis of variance N-S North south
ANSI American National Standards Institute NS AL CF N-S with counter-flow tube with Alanod reflectors
ASHAE American Society of Heating and Air-Conditioning NS AL UT N-S with U-tube with Alanod reflectors
Engineers NS RT UTN-S with U-tube with Reflectech reflectors
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- Nu Nusselt number (Dimensionless)
Conditioning Engineers NH3 Ammonia
ASRE American Society of Refrigerating Engineers ORC Organic Rankine cycle
BCCCT Black chrome-coated copper tube PDR Parabolic dish reflector
BS British Standard PHP Pulsating heat pipe
CEN European Committee for Standardization PTC Parabolic trough collector
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization PV Photovoltaic
CHIT Chitosan Pvt. Private
CNP Carbon nano particles RefleC Segmented booster reflector
COP Coefficient of performance RO Reverse osmosis
CPC Compound parabolic concentrating/concentrator SACH Solar absorption cooling and heating
CPC-TSS CPC-assisted tubular solar still SAI Surface areal irradiance
CPC-CTSS CPC-concentric tubular solar still SCPC Serpentine compound parabolic concentrator
CSA Canadian Standards Association SDHW Solar domestic hot-water
CTC Cylindrical trough collector SEIA Solar Energy Industries Association
COPcooling Coefficient of performance for cooling applications SHAMCI Solar Heating Arab Mark and Certification Initiative
COPheating Coefficient of performance for heating applications SI International System of Units
CO2 Carbon dioxide SRCC Solar Rating and Certification Corporation
CuO Copper oxide SSACPC Single-sided absorber CPC
DASC Direct absorption solar collector SWCNT Single wall carbon nanotube
DSACPC Double-sided absorber CPC SWH Solar water heater
EES Engineering Equation Solver TEWI Total equivalent warming impact
EST Evacuated solar tubes TLCC Total life cycle cost
ESTIF European Solar Thermal Industry Federation TRNSYS Transient Systems Simulation
ETC Evacuated tube collector TiNOx Titanium nitride oxide
exp. Experimental U.A.E. United Arab Emirates
E-W East west UEG Useful energy gain
EW AL CF E-W with counter-flow tube with Alanod reflectors U.S. United States of America
EW AL UT E-W with U-tube with Alanod reflectors VARS Vapor absorption refrigeration system
EW AL XT E-W with X-tube with Alanod reflectors VCC Vapor compression cycle
EW RT UT E-W with U-tube with Reflectech reflectors w.r.t. with respect to
FLC Fresnel lens collector XCPC External Compound parabolic concentrating/concentrator
FPC Flat plate collector 1D, 2D and 3D One dimensional, two dimentional and three di-
GSECL Gujarat state electricity corporation limited mentional respectively
Gr Grashof number (Dimensionless) Aap Aperture area of CPC solar collector (m2)
HC Hydrocarbon Aab Surface area of the absorber or receiver of CPC solar col-
HCF Hydrofluorocarbon lector (m2)
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Av Surface area of the virtual receiver enclosing the absorber
HFC Heliostat field collector and the gap
HTC Heat transfer coefficient C Simulation concentration ratio or flux concentration ratio
HTF Heat transfer fluid (Dimensionless)
HVAR Heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration CR Concentration ratio (Dimensionless)
HX Heat exchanger Cconc Comparative concentration ratio (Dimensionless)
H20 Water Ctrunc Concentration ratio for the two-dimensional, truncated
ICS Integrated collector storage CPC solar collector (Dimensionless)
IREC Interstate Renewable Energy Council Cfull Concentration ratio for the two-dimensional, full CPC
ISO International Organization for Standardization solar collector (Dimensionless)
IAM Incident angle modifier Iin(θT) Average total input heat flux (sum of the values of top and
IEA International Energy Agency bottom heat flux) at θT (W/m2)
INTEC Institute for Sustainable Technologies It Total energy flux (W/m2)
ISS In Situ scientific software Iirra Energy flux for the solar irradiance (W/m2)
LD Limiting diameter of the tubular receiver n Index of refraction of medium surrounding the absorber
lg. Length (Dimensionless)
LCS Life cycle saving Tsat Saturation temperature of the working fluid (°C)
LiBr Lithium bromide UL Overall heat transfer coefficient
Ltd. Limited θa Half acceptance angle of the CPC solar collector (degree)

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θT Transversal angle of the solar collector (degree) transmittance of CPC (Dimensionless)

φ Stream function (Dimensionless) ρ Reflectivity of reflector (Dimensionless)
ω Vorticity (Dimensionless) <n> Average number of reflections (Dimensionless)
τcpc Fraction of radiation transmitted or effective

Fig. 1. Distribution of power consumed by appliances.

Fig. 2. Distribution of power consumed by heating/cooling appliances.

degradation and spectral properties (Rabl, 1976b). Moreover, the ra- classified as non-imaging and imaging (Kalogirou, 2004; Pitz-Paal et al.,
diation losses play an important role in limiting its application. Hence 2010). In imaging concentrators, irrespective of the ray’s path through
the only option is to reduce the absorber area by concentrating the the system, the rays from the source enter the aperture zone get re-
collector (Duffie and Beckman, 2013). The concentrators can be flected at the reflector and imaged on one single point at the exit

Table 1
Selection of solar collector types based on the working temperatures.
Source: Goswami (2007) and POSHIP (2001).

Temperature range Process

40 °C Unglazed selective collectors or low cost standard flat plate collectors.

40–70 °C Highly selective flat plate collectors or CPC collectors.
70–100 °C CPC collectors, evacuated tubes or other high efficient stationary collectors; concentrating collectors for medium and large systems.
Above 100 °C Concentrating collectors; evacuated tubes with CPC collectors.

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aperture, whereas in non-imaging systems, all rays entering the en- Table 2
trance aperture leaves the exit aperture somewhere. Non-imaging Temperature ranges (35–260 °C) for different applications.
concentrators do not provide defined images of the sun on the absorber Source: Kalogirou (2003), Pouyfaucon and García-Rodríguez (2018),
instead radiation is distributed from entire parts of the reflectors onto Quaschning (2005) and Wang and Ge (2016).
entire absorber surface.
Sl. No. Sector Process Temperature range (o C)
Based on the studies, the heat demand in the industrial sector has
been confirmed with more than 50% of industrial heat demand, which A. Industrial Sectors
can be categorized as low (< 60 °C), medium (60–150 °C) and medium- 1 Dairy Pressurization 60–80
Sterilization 100–120
high (150–250 °C) (Goswami, 2007), especially in high demand in the
Drying 120–180
food industry, pulp and paper industry and textile industry. The heat Concentrates 60–80
demand for a large number of industries in Spain and Portugal were Boiler feed water 60–90
analyzed under POSHIP project (European research project, funded by 2 Tinned food Sterilization 110–120
the European Commission within the 5th Framework Program). Based Pasteurization 60–80
Cooking 60–90
on POSHIP (2001) data, the selection of solar collector types w.r.t. the Bleaching 60–90
working temperatures are represented in Table 1. 3 Textile Bleaching, dyeing 60–90
For industrial process heating, the two major types of collectors are Drying, degreasing 100–130
non-tracking (stationary) collectors and single-axis tracking parabolic Dyeing 70–90
Fixing 160–180
trough collectors (Kalogirou, 2003). Kalogirou (2003) discussed about
Pressing 80–100
the solar industrial process heat application requirements based on 4 Paper Cooking, drying 60–80
temperature range from 60 °C to 260 °C. He also presented an overview Boiler feed water 60–90
of efficiency, cost of existing technologies and characteristics of Bleaching 130–150
medium to medium-high temperature solar collectors. The author 5 Chemical Soaps 200–260
Synthetic rubber 150–200
suggested that the stationary CPC solar collector of tubular/flat ab- Processing heat 120–180
sorber type with a concentration ratio (CR) ranging from 1 to 5 is Pre-heating water 60–90
capable of producing a temperature range of 60–240 °C, which can be 6 Meat Washing, 60–90
utilized for various process heat applications. Table 2 shows different sterilization
Cooking 90–100
fields of solar thermal energy applications (Industrial sectors, domestic
7 Beverages Washing, 60–80
heating applications and sorption systems) based on different tem- sterilization
perature levels from medium to low-high temperatures. Pasteurization 60–70
The solar operated absorption cycle air conditioning system (Single 8 Flours and by- Sterilization 60–80
effect, H20 – LiBr pair) needs a minimum useful temperature range of products
9 Timber by-products Thermo diffusion 80–100
75–80 °C, as the driving potential for operation of vapor absorption beams
refrigeration system (VARS) and the energy below the mentioned range Drying 60–100
may not be helpful (Duffie and Beckman, 2013; Hsieh, 1986; Wang and Pre-heating water 60–90
Ge, 2016). A summary of the typical heating medium temperature re- Preparation pulp 120–170
10 Bricks and blocks Curing 60–140
quired for the operation of sorption cycles for a heat rejection tem-
11 Plastics Preparation 120–140
perature of 30 °C and 50 °C for cooling and heating applications re- Distillation 140–150
spectively, with an evaporating temperature of 2 °C is shown in Table 2 Separation 200–220
(Wang and Ge, 2016). Also, the sorption cooling/heating sectors given Extension 140–160
in Table 2 inferred that the cooling applications require a heating Drying 180–200
Blending 120–140
medium in the temperature range of 70–140 °C, whereas the heating
applications require higher temperature of 110–140 °C. Therefore, the B. Domestic hot water Temperature (°C)
applications /Consumption (l)/
thermal storage of high temperature requires storage in the range from
Useful heat (Wh)
70 °C to 145 °C. 1 Dishwashing (per 50/12–15/550–700
Rabl et al. (1980) stated that the performance of lower concentra- day per person)
tion of 3X (CPC solar collector) was significantly better than double 2 Hand washing (per 37/3–5/95–160
day per person)
glazed flat plate collector of ≥∼70 °C and competitive below, with a
3 Bath tub (per day 40/150/5,200
requirement of only semi-annual adjustment for its annual operation. per person)
Carvalho et al. (1995) computed the average yearly performance for the 4 Shower (per day per 37/30–45/940–1400
developed CPC solar collector with an inverted “V” shaped receiver and person)
compared it with other collector types (FPC, ETC) and found that up to 5 Hair wash (per day 37/10–15/310–470
per person)
100 °C, the proposed collector outperformed the others and also the cost
6 Desalination 60 to 90 °C/- /-
was comparable.
C. Sorption cooling/ Temperature (°C)
Kalogirou (2003) analyzed five collector types such as simple sta-
heating (Cooling/Heating) and
tionary FPC with a slope of 40°, advanced flat plate collector, stationary applications (COPcooling/COPheating)
CPC collector orientated with its long axis in the East-West (E-W) di- 1 Half effect H2O-LiBr 67/108 and 0.35/1.33
rection tilted at 35° (local latitude), ETC sloped at 40° and PTC with E- 2 Single effect H2O- 92/- and 0.72/-
W tracking. FPC can obtain up to 100 °C with good efficiencies. In ad- LiBr
3 Double effect H2O- 142/- and 1.29/-
vance flat plate collector (AFPC), the heat conduction gets improved by
LiBr
using ultrasonic-welding machines. ETC efficiencies are higher at low 4 Single effect NH3- 86/140 and 0.6/1.52
incidence angles that make ETC advantageous over FPC in day-long H2O
performance. PTC can effectively generate heat between 50 °C and 5 Adsorption H2O- 90/120 and 0.41/1.26
silica gel
400 °C. No more energy can be collected by FPC for the demand tem-
perature of about 90 °C and above. However, the author concluded that
FPC is more suitable for low temperature applications and the con-
centrating collectors for the higher ones.

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At low operating temperatures, the storage tank size for superior
collector (PTC) requires less storage, whereas, at higher operating
temperatures, PTC requires more storage. Comparatively, poor perfor-
mance collectors (FPC and AFPC) are insensitive to storage volume.
Based on the solar contribution at low temperatures, AFP provides best
result, whereas at higher temperatures, it is PTC and CPC is found su-
perior to ETC at all temperature levels. Based on life cycle savings
(LCSs) for non-subsidized fuel price, the following conclusions were
obtained: PTC cannot be used effectively for low temperature applica-
tions, ETC is very expensive, CPC shows a much better behavior, AFPC
offers good performance compared to their cost and FPC obtains max-
imum LCS at an operating temperature of 90 °C and no more extra
benefit at higher temperatures. The cheaper the collector, lower the
heat price value obtained. When the subsidized and non-subsidized
values of fuel (fight fuel oil – LFO) are considered for the solar heat
price analysis, the following results were observed: in the first case,
only FPC and AFPC collector at 60 °C demand temperature provide heat
price lower than that of the fuel, whereas in the second case, all col-
lectors provide lower heat prices than that of the fuel. The initial cost of
the solar system and fuel cost play an important role in deciding the
economic feasibility of each system.
Pei et al. (2012) concluded that for the low temperature applica-
tions such as residential hot water and floor heating, evacuated tube
solar water heater (SWH) system without a mini-CPC reflector is sui-
table because of its higher thermal and exergy efficiencies, whereas for
the high temperature applications such as air conditioning, refrigera-
tion, sea water desalination, and industrial heating, solar low-tem-
perature heat power generation, evacuated tube SWH system with a
Fig. 3. Types of CPC solar thermal collector.
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
mini-CPC reflector is suitable because of its higher thermal and exergy
efficiencies. Kim et al. (2013) showed that the test results for the pro-
posed model of CPC solar collector (Counter-flow type) outperformed
other non-tracking solar thermal systems in both simulation and in
experiment (Configurations were counter-flow evacuated tube CPC,
evacuated tube CPC with heat pipe and evacuated tube heat pipe
without concentrator). The proposed system of above 100 °C with high
performance was superior to other non-tracking thermal collector sys-
tems. Widyolar et al. (2014) and Winston et al. (2014) experimentally
proved that the XCPC solar collector is capable of providing thermal
power for space cooling applications.
It is inferred from the above information concerning the various
temperature requirements in different sectors, such as solar cooling,
domestic heating and industrial process heating applications can be
achieved by using stationary CPC solar collector. Moreover, the ad-
vantages of CPC are listed below:
(a) It can attain extensive achievable view area for a given geometric
concentration, thereby, obtaining a useful concentration without
tracking mechanism for low to moderate concentration CPC col-
lectors (O’Gallagher, 2008).
(b) A significant fraction of diffuse insolation gets collected by CPC
collector, whereas in conventional focusing concentrators there will
be ample losses. The efficiency of CPC collectors in accepting dif-
fuse light is much larger than focusing collectors (Winston, 1974).
(c) Concentrating the diffuse radiation is possible in CPC collector,
whereas in an imaging collector it is impossible (Wang et al., 2014).
(d) There is no observable loss in performance due to truncation of
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

CPC. Truncation can be significant when it is viewed from optical

gains, explicitly based on following criteria: (i) Acceptance of both
beam and diffuse radiations get increased and (ii) Average number
of reflections gets reduced (Carvalho et al., 1985; Ustaoglu et al.,
2016).
(e) Among FPC, ETC and XCPC solar collector, the XCPC solar collector
requires a lesser area for the generation of the same amount of
useful energy gain (UEG) (Sobhansarbandi and Atikol, 2015).
(f) A combination approach with the CPC as secondary stage or
terminal concentrator for conventional parabolic or Fresnel mirrors
results in the requirement of an ideal concentrator with smaller
reflector and also offers considerable benefit in high temperature
solar systems (Rabl, 1976b).
(g) Several intermediate angle CPCs are combined to form a “fly eye”
Fig. 5. Cross section of ICS solar heater with CPC reflectors (Kessentini and
second stage or terminal concentrator which helps to meet the re-
Bouden, 2016).
quirement of a tower with a central receiver without sacrificing
concentration (Rabl, 1976b).
(h) It is capable to collect diffuse light even during cloudy or hazy days, 2.1. Based on construction
which is especially important in regions with high diffuse percen-
tage (Widyolar et al., 2014; Winston et al., 2014). 2.1.1. Serpentine compound parabolic concentrator (SCPC) solar collector
(i) The CPC solar collector may be cheaper than PTC for achieving Fig. 4 shows the schematic of the SCPC solar collector which com-
temperature up to 300 °C, due to non-requirement of tracking bines the structure of a flat plate collector with the CPC solar collector.
system and also collects a part of diffuse radiation (Karwa et al., This solar collector combines the advantages of concentrating collector
2015). and flat plate collector. This combination improved its thermal effi-
(j) Compared to traditional solar collector, CPC solar collector has ciency, reduced the heat loss and achieved high freezing resistance
higher efficiency (Lu et al., 2013). (Zheng et al., 2016).
(k) XCPC solar collectors can accommodate installation misalignment
(Widyolar et al., 2018). 2.1.2. Integrated CPC solar collector
Fig. 5 shows the integrated CPC solar collector with inbuilt storage
Based on the above technical information, a comprehensive review tanks, T1 and T2, which are used to store the hot water generated
for the CPC solar collector is carried out in terms of types, historical during the sunny hours of the day and utilize it when there is a demand.
growth in milestones, concept, design strategies, heat transfer fluids,
studies performed with major parameters of CPC solar collector 2.1.3. Number of stages in CPC solar collector
(Experimental studies, Theoretical studies – Numerical and Simulation Based on the stages, CPC is categorized into one stage and two
studies), applications, standards and certifications for solar collector, stages. In one stage CPC, there is only one stage, whereas in two stages,
research publication status, market players, cost analysis, recent de- there are two portions as shown in Fig. 6 and it is suitable for photo-
velopment and installation. The review article is mainly focused on the voltaic (PV) applications (Rabl, 1976c). A two stage CPC trough is
study of two-dimensional (2D) CPC solar thermal collector. preferred over single stage system for concentrations above ten, as it
can reach closer to an ideal limit without excessive reflector/aperture
ratio and transmission loss (Rabl, 1976b).
2. Types of CPC solar collectors
2.1.4. Dimension (shape) of CPC solar collector
Based on the literature survey, the authors classified the CPC solar Based on the dimension (shape), CPC is categorized as two-dimen-
thermal collectors (mainly focusing the 2D (trough type)) as illustrated sional (2D) concentrator (Trough) and three-dimensional (3D) con-
in Fig. 3 and their descriptions are described below. centrator (3D crossed CPC) as shown in Fig. 7. Based on the truncation
of the concentrators (reflectors), the collectors are further classified as
truncated and full CPC solar collectors, which are discussed in the

Fig. 4. Schematic of the SCPC solar collector (Zheng et al., 2016).

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V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 6. Two stage CPC solar collector (Rabl, 1976c).
‘concept and design strategies’ section. 3D crossed CPC type collectors
are used in PV applications (Mammo et al., 2013).
2.1.5. Absorber surface
The CPC (2D type) is sub-classified based on the absorber surface
types: such as (i) external type CPC solar collector (Tube type absorber),
(ii) flat, one-sided and two-sided absorber types, (iii) inverted vee
shaped (wedge type) and fin type absorber and (iv) heat extraction by
the flat sheet (roll bond) and individual pipes.
2.1.5.1. External type CPC solar collector (Tube type absorber). Fig. 8
shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the different types of CPC
solar collector based on the number of envelopes which are provided
over the absorber for reducing the convective heat loss. For the
evacuated tube CPC solar collector, the portion between the envelope
and absorber is made vacuum to reduce the heat loss and to increase the
UEG. As the tube is placed above the CPC with a gap between the
reflector and tube, it is called as external type CPC (XCPC) solar
collector. Lambert (2007) categorized the evacuated tube based on the
vacuum levels as soft vacuum (down to ∼10−3 atm) and hard vacuum
(down to < 10−6 atm) tubes. The soft vacuum eliminates convection,
but not conduction which requires hard vacuum. Rabl et al. (1980)
stated that the design problems among the non-evacuated and
evacuated receiver CPC solar collectors are entirely different, such as
the heat loss through the reflector, which plays a vital role. Gu et al.
(2014) experimentally showed that the achieved stagnation
temperature for the proposed CPC collector was 118 °C at 1000 W/m2
without vacuum and under vacuum the temperature was increased to
338 °C.
2.1.5.2. Flat one-sided and two-sided absorber type. Tchinda (2008) used
Fig. 7. (a) Trough shaped concentrator (Winston, 1974) and (b) 3D Crossed CPC collector (Mammo et al., 2013).
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
flat, one-sided absorber CPC solar collector for computing the thermal
performance of an air heater (Fig. 9), whereas Gu et al. (2014)
conducted experiments for non-tracking CPC solar collector with flat
two-sided, horizontal position absorber (Fig. 10). The flat, one-sided
absorber configuration of CPC solar collector is of first generation
collector (Allen et al., 1975; Giugler et al., 1975; Rabl et al., 1975; Rabl
et al., 1980) and a cavity is used as the absorber. Due to high
absorptance of the absorber, it is supposed to outweigh the heat
losses. After analysis of this configuration, the industry preferred the
absorber of this configuration should have a selective coating because
of high heat losses from the cavity and becomes undesirable.
2.1.5.3. Inverted vee shaped (wedge type) and fin type absorber. Rabl
et al. (1979) discussed about various types of CPC solar collector based
on the absorber surface such as flat, fin, inverted vee shaped (wedge)
and tube absorber surface. Inverted vee shaped and fin absorber surface
with CPC are represented in the Fig. 11 (a) and (b) respectively. Rabl
et al. (1980) stated that heat losses through the back of flat, one-sided
absorber, wedge like absorber and through the reflector could be
serious. Hence, they suggested that for “backless” configurations,
such as flat two-sided absorber and tubular absorber as shown in
Fig. 11 (b) and 8 respectively, conduction heat transfer through the
back is minimal. The heat loss reduction more than compensates for the
circumstance that the average number of reflections is ∼50% higher
than for flat one-sided absorber, CPC configuration. “Backless”
configurations are preferable due to the following economic reasons:
i) They require only half of the relatively expensive absorber material,
ii) They are less deep and iii) They have less reflector surface.
Fig. 12 shows the cross-sectional view of the CPC solar collector
with inverted “V” shaped absorber of the CPC solar collector which was
described and tested by Carvalho et al. (1995). This type differs from
the previously explained wedge type absorber (Fig. 11 (a)), although
the names are similar (for differentiation this type is named with letter
“V” instead of “Vee”). In this type, the absorbers are not in contact with
the concentrator (reflector) and the copper tube located at the center
has two wings (absorber) of thin aluminum plates through which HTF
passes.
2.1.5.4. Heat extraction by flat sheet (Roll bond) and individual
pipes. Fig. 13 (a) shows several CPC troughs combined in a single
collector panel with the heat extraction by flat sheet such as roll bond
(Rabl, 1976c). This type is desired for heat extraction rather than
individual pipes as shown in Fig. 13(b). With CR above five, individual
absorbers will probably provide better performance. The CPC with
absorber on all sides (such as XCPC) has practically no back losses
because it has no back. It is attractive because they require only half the
absorber material needed for the ordinary CPC, thereby, it reduces the
cost and thermal inertia.
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Fig. 8. Schematic cross section of the CPC solar collector with (a) Two envelopes (b) Single envelope and (c) no envelope (Non-evacuated tube) (Prapas et al., 1987).

Fig. 11. Schematic cross section of the CPC solar collector with (a) inverted vee
shaped (wedge) and (b) Fin absorbers (absorber perimeter ‘a’ and acceptance
half angle θa) (Rabl et al., 1979).

Fig. 9. Schematic cross section of CPC solar collector with flat, one-sided ab- Fig. 12. Schematic cross section of the CPC solar collector with inverted “V”
sorber (Tchinda, 2008). shaped (Carvalho et al., 1995).

2.1.6. Reflector (Asymmetric and Symmetric CPC solar collector)

Fig. 10. Schematic cross section of CPC solar collector with flat, two-sided,
horizontal position absorber (Gu et al., 2014).
In an asymmetric CPC solar collector, the reflectors are not sym-
metric to the axis of CPC ie., each parabolic profile varies from other.
Harmim et al. (2012) used asymmetric CPC for the study of solar cooker
(as shown in Fig. 14), whereas in the symmetric CPC solar collector, the
reflectors are symmetric to the axis of CPC ie., each parabolic profile is
identical (as shown in Fig. 12).
Adsten et al. (2005) stated that the annual solar radiation at high
latitudes will be asymmetric over the year, thereby suggesting the
collector should be asymmetrically truncated for maximizing the yield.
This leads to the development of a design concept consisting of an
asymmetric truncated CPC collector with a bi-facial absorber and
without any tracking mechanism. As the main objective of their work
was to maximize the reflector to the absorber area for a given ground

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Fig. 13. CPC solar collector panel with heat extraction by (a) flat sheet (Roll bond) and (b) individual pipes (Rabl, 1976c).

area, this collector is called as a Maximum Reflector Collector

(MaReCo). Knowledge about the angular distribution of the annual
solar radiation is required for designing the solar concentrator. The
advantage of an asymmetric CPC solar thermal collector is due to a
narrow acceptance half angle covering the summer solstice peak, which
results in a high concentration ratio, thereby accepting a high fraction Fig. 15. Evacuated tube collectors using heat pipe (Kim et al., 2013).
of the available radiation.

difference between inlet and outlet, highest outlet temperature of the

2.2. Based on the flow path of HTF
Based on the flow path of HTF, the CPC solar collector can be sub-
categorized as below and these types can also be considered under
construction sub-classification.
2.2.1. Evacuated tube collectors using heat pipe
Heat pipe connected to the cylindrical shaped metal absorber fin
coated with a selective material (low emittance of < 0.1 and high ab-
sorptivity of > 0.9) is depicted in Fig. 15 (Kim et al., 2013). Fig. 16 also
shows the evacuated tube collector using heat pipe. The main ad-
vantage is the plumbing connection between the absorber and the
manifold is not required. Due to its simplicity, it is widely used for low
temperature applications. The two factors that govern the heat pipe
performance are its size and effectiveness of the condenser.
2.2.2. Evacuated tube collector with coaxial pipe
Fig. 17 corresponds to a counter-flow tube which consists of a
coaxial pipe attached to the absorber fin which makes the directions of
the working fluids opposite. The counter-flow tubes have several ad-
vantages over heat pipes such as it minimizes the thermal stresses
throughout the tubes by maintaining the constant temperature
fluid can be obtained for the inlet fluid temperature and heat transfer
rate throughout the heat exchanger is more uniform because of uni-
formity in temperature difference in the tube (Kim et al., 2013). Duong
and Diaz (2014) used coaxial copper pipe in the numerical simulation
study of XCPC solar collector and the cross- sectional view of the
evacuated tube collector portion is shown in Fig. 18.
2.2.3. Number of passes and flow through evacuated glass tube
Fig. 19 represents two passes CPC solar collector with evacuated
tube and U-shaped pipe. Usually, copper pipe is used, which is held by
the conducting strip and HTF passes inside the pipe. Kim et al., (2008)
carried out numerical and experimental studies using CPC solar col-
lector with evacuated tube and single pass absorber tube (as shown in
Fig. 20). Also, Fig. 21 shows the evacuated tube with single pass ab-
sorber tube where one end of the inner tube has a spiral coil portion and
the other end is plain. The spiral coil portion takes care of the thermal
stress, which occurs during heating of the glass tubes. The outer surface
of the inner tube is selectively coated with copper oxide for the effective
rise in temperature of the absorbing surface.

Fig. 14. Asymmetric CPC solar collector integrated to the box type solar cooker (Harmim et al., 2012).

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V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 16. Schematic sketch of Evacuated tube collectors (Kalogirou, 2004; Suman et al., 2015).
Fig. 17. Evacuated tube collector with counter flow absorber tube (Kim et al.,
2013).
2.3. Based on the concentration ratio
Kothdiwala et al. (1995) concluded their study by the following
statements: Under conditions of high beam component insolation, the
highest CR will be the most efficient CPC whereas with low beam in-
solation and high diffuse insolation, the most efficient CPC will be the
lowest CR. Also, the authors suggested that a moderate to high in-
solation intensity (> 800 W/m2) would be having high beam insolation
and therefore, in general higher CR CPC would be used. Concentration
ratio is further classified based on collector outlet temperature and tilt
Fig. 18. Evacuated tube collector with coaxial pipe (Duong and Diaz, 2014).
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angle adjustment, which are discussed below.
2.3.1. Collector outlet temperature
Srivastva et al. (2015) described different types of collector based
on the operating temperature as follows: (i) Low temperature collectors
(Operating range from above ambient to about 80 °C, used in solar
water heating application, solar based space heating and cooling ap-
plications, solar ice making etc.,); (ii) Medium temperature collectors
(Operating temperature range of 85–270 °C, used for process heating
applications such as power, textiles, processing of raw materials etc.,);
(iii) High temperature collectors (Operating temperature exceeding
300 °C, used for industrial process heat and electricity generation).
Prapas et al. (1987) presented the achievable absorber temperature for
various CPC solar collector configurations.
2.3.2. Tilt angle adjustment
Rabl (1976b) arrived the collector tilt angle adjustment based on the
collector normal pointing at an angle θa above the solar noon elevation
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 19. Two passes CPC Solar collector with evacuated tube and U-shaped pipe (Pei et al., 2012).
Fig. 20. CPC solar collector with evacuated tube and single pass absorber tube
(Kim et al., 2008).
of 23o27′ during the summer solstice and their details are represented
in the Table 3.
Rabl et al. (1980) stated that the required frequency of tilt adjust-
ments for CPC concentrations of 6X and 3X are 12–20 times per year
and semi-annual adjustments per year respectively. Gudekar et al.
(2013) proposed CPC with an acceptance angle of 6°, requiring once a
day tilt adjustment for a daily operation of 6 h was designed to achieve
steam temperature up to 150 °C.
Also, Kalogirou (2013) and Wang and Ge (2016) provided the
general guidelines for the required frequency of collector tilt adjust-
ment based on its CR, which are listed below:
Fig. 21. Evacuated tube collector where the HTF passes through a glass tube with one end spiral coils and the other end is plain.
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CR ≤ 2 (Adjustment not required)
CR = 3 (Biannual adjustment is required)
CR ≈ 10 (Daily adjustment is required) and these systems are also
called as quasi-static.
2.4. Based on operating pressure
In pressurized system, the flow in the pipe is occurred by an external
source (pump) or maintaining sufficient static height. In this type, the
solar collector is generally designed to withstand a maximum pressure
of 10 bar (LR, 2018; Taylormade, 2018). In non- pressurized system,
flow in the pipe occurs through thermosyphon effect (Okoronkwo et al.,
2014; Liu et al., 2013).
2.5. Based on tracking system
Based on the concentration ratio, the requirement of tracking
system will be decided for CPC solar collector. The collector with
tracking mechanism (Kim et al., 2008) tracked the movement of the sun
that cause the incident solar radiations always to fall perpendicular to
the collector, whereas the non-tracking (Hu et al., 2011; Pei et al.,
2012; Sagade et al., 2014; Umair et al., 2014; Ustaoglu et al., 2016)
collector had fixed position and also called as stationary collector.
3. Historical growth in milestones
The evolution of CPC collector started during 1960’s and only very
recently, this technology attained the stage of commercialization for
various applications. The various milestones occurred during the evo-
lution period are briefly presented in this section.
Tabor (1958) explained the method of using an E-W cylindrical
V. Pranesh, et al.
Table 3
Collector tilt adjustments. Require minimum collection time 7 h/day (except for θa = 5.5° min. collection time = 6.78 h/day).
Source: Rabl (1976b).
Acceptance half angle (θa – Concentration of full CPC Collection Time average over year
degree) (hour/day)
19.5 3.00 9.22
14 4.13 8.76
11 5.24 8.60
9 6.39 8.38
8 7.19 8.22
7 8.21 8.04
6.5 8.83 7.96
6 9.57 7.78
5.5 10.43 7.60
parabolic mirror (concentrator) without diurnal movement and its tilt
was adjusted at certain periods of the year. Tabor (1966) presented
various configurations of boosting the radiation with the help of side
mirrors. The fundamental concept of the CPC was initially developed by
Roland Winston during 1966 for the Cherenkov radiation study while
working at Argonne National Laboratory (Hinterberger and Winston,
1966; Welford and Winston, 1989; Winston, 2016). Almost simulta-
neously described 3D CPC as ‘FOCON’ and suggested its utilization for
solar energy collection (Baranov, 1965; Baranov and Melnikov, 1966;
Welford and Winston, 1989).
Certain illumination properties of 2D CPC were described. ‘FOCLIN’
term was used to define 2D CPC. For several CPC configurations
Baranov obtained Soviet patents (Baranov 1967; Welford and Winston,
1989). In 1967, Ploke (Ploke, 1967; Ploke, 1969; Welford and Winston,
1989) explained the axially symmetric CPC with generalization to de-
sign incorporating refracting elements in addition to the light guiding
reflecting wall and in 1969, he obtained a German patent for various
photometric applications. Winston (1970) derived an appropriate gen-
eralization of Abbe’s sine law (sine inequality) from phase space con-
siderations. The constructed 2D and 3D non-imaging systems reduced
the f number (ratio of focal length/aperture diameter) to minimum
allowable value by the sine inequality. Winston (1974) discussed the 2D
CPC configurations such as trough shaped concentrator with energy
receiver and concentrating flat plate configurations. The use of CPC for
solar energy collection for various applications like central power,
cooling and heating of buildings was recognized. The fraction of total
sky light (isotropic radiation) collected when compared to an FPC is
precisely the reciprocal of the concentration factor.
Rabl (1976b), Rabl (1976c), Winston (1970) and Winston and
Hinterberger (1975) proved that highest concentration factor (Ideal
case) achievable for 2D CPC is n/Sin θa and 3D CPC is n2/Sin2 θa. The
2D CPC design principles are provided in United States of America
(U.S.) patents (Winston, 1976; Winston, 1977a; Winston, 1977b). Rabl
(1976b) proposed the use of CPC as second stage concentrators for
conventional parabolic or Fresnel mirrors. Rabl (1976c) presented the
formulas for evaluating the performance of solar collectors based on
CPC principle. Rabl (1976a) derived the differential equation which
describes the reflector of an ideal 2D radiation concentrator with an
absorber of arbitrary convex shape. He also presented the formulas for
determining the attenuation of radiation from aperture to absorber by
considering the effect of absorption at the reflector. Rabl (1977) dis-
cussed the relationship between the fraction of radiation transmitted
(τcpc), reflectivity of reflector (ρ) and average number of reflections
(〈n〉) is expressed as τcpc ≈ ρ〈n〉. He developed a new technique for
approximating exchange factors for specular radiation passages which
shows the computation of average number of reflections that can be
found by a simple analytic formula without ray tracing. McIntire (1979)
presented the reflector shapes for truncated non-imaging cusp con-
centrators with cylindrical absorber having various acceptance angles.
Similarly, curves for height/aperture and mirror arc length/aperture
ratios versus CR were presented and these curves have special
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No. of Adjustment/annum Average collection time if tilt adjusted every
day (hour/day)
2 10.72
4 10.04
6 9.52
10 9.08
14 8.82
20 8.54
26 8.36
80 8.18
84 8.00
significance for thermoformed plastic reflector substrates.
McIntire (1980a) developed a reflector that removes the loss of solar
radiation through the gap between the tubular absorber and the re-
flector by considering a reflector of ‘W’ faceted shape at the bottom.
Higher optical efficiencies were obtained for the new design by the
elimination of gap losses and enhancement of net absorptance of the
receiver tubes. McIntire (1980b) carried out the detailed study opti-
mization of stationary non-imaging reflectors for tubular evacuated
receivers aligned in N-S direction by considering the effects of reflection
losses, reflector-receiver alignment errors, variation of selective surface
absorptance with incidence angle on the receiver and gap losses be-
tween receiver and reflector. Rabl et al. (1980) designed and discussed
about four different absorber configurations such as flat one-sided, fin
(flat, two-sided), wedge (inverted-vee) like and tubular types CPC,
which leads to the development of a range of different reflector design.
Winston (1980) designed V-grooved cavity of the lower (facet) portion
of the reflector for augmentation of absorption by the receiver with a
gap between them.
McIntire (1984) presented the design parameters for faceted con-
centrator such as largest gaps allowed for given numbers of facets.
Carvalho et al. (1985) derived analytical expressions for the average
number of reflections and angular acceptance function of 2D CPC solar
collectors with the tubular absorber of arbitrary degree of truncation
and represented graphically for various acceptance angles and different
truncations. The authors suggested that for optimal orientation at large
acceptance angles of CPC, N-S orientation is preferable rather than E-W
orientation. Chakraverty et al. (1987) developed an analysis in order to
study the performance of a CPC collector for time source input func-
tions such as solar intensity and ambient temperature. Fasulo et al.
(1987) developed a CPC collector with low thermal losses by analyzing
cases with different tilt angle w.r.t. thermal losses and efficiency.
Prapas et al. (1987) carried out theoretical and experimental studies on
CPC solar collector with different absorber configurations.
El-Assy (1988) studied CPCs in two-phase flows and their thermal
performance were analyzed. Chew et al. (1988) performed the free
convective heat transfer analysis between cylindrical absorber and flat
aperture surface of CPC for various configurations (absorber tempera-
tures and truncations). Chew et al. (1989) analyzed the numerical and
experimental results of laminar free convective heat transfer between
tubular absorber and flat aperture surface of the CPC solar collector.
Eames and Norton (1991) analyzed numerically the effects of ambient
temperature and radiation level on the efficiency of the CPC solar
collector. Norton et al. (1994) and Kothdiwala et al. (1995) developed
the theoretical (numerical) model of thermal transfer in a line-axis, E-W
oriented, symmetric, CPC solar collector, which described its steady
state thermal behavior. Also, they investigated the effect of the tilt
angle of CPC system ie., the latitudinal and tracking configuration on
performance. Khonkar and Sayigh (1994) applied AutoCAD as one of
accurate ray tracing techniques for the investigation of hot spots loca-
tion on the tubular absorber of CPC solar collector. They calculated the
profile of CPC and absorber, analyzed the intensity distribution around
V. Pranesh, et al.
the circumference of the absorber and analyzed the phenomena of rays
inside CPC at different incidence angles.
Kothdiwala et al. (1995) suggested the validity of the model is only
for low concentration CPCs of CR less than 5, although the model can
predict the CPC performance of high concentration. Eames and Norton
(1995) investigated theoretically and experimentally the introduction
of a transparent baffle into the cavity of non-evacuated CPC solar col-
lector on the basics of modifications in optical and thermal perfor-
mance. Carvalho et al. (1995) developed a novel CPC solar collector
with an inverted “V” shaped receiver, which was described and tested
optically and thermally in different configurations.
Ronnelid and Karlsson (1996) performed heat loss measurements on
a V-trough collector model. They also discussed about the conversion of
experimentally measured heat losses into heat losses for actual collector
and also the practical material considerations. Tchinda et al. (1998)
presented the analysis of heat transfers in the CPC solar collector, in-
cluding axial heat transfer in the receiver. They also studied the dy-
namic behavior of collector on the basis of the influence of different
parameters like inlet HTF temperature and mass flow rate. Two new
technologies of integrated CPC reflector evacuated solar collector and
the solar operated double effect absorption chiller were demonstrated
first time in a commercial building in the year 1998 (Duff et al., 2004).
Fraidenraich et al. (1999) used non-evacuated CPC solar collectors
with a cylindrical absorber to describe a mathematical model for the
optical and thermal performance, where the heat loss coefficient is
temperature-dependent. They developed a new way of plotting solar
thermal collector efficiency, which enabled the representation of the
performance of a large class of solar collectors, such as flat plate, CPC
and parabolic troughs, such that measurements for a broad range of
solar radiation levels can be unified into a single curve, where the heat
loss functions are represented by second degree polynomials. Tamainot-
Telto and Critoph (1999) developed a prototype of CPC solar collector
(for a sorption refrigeration) and one dimensional (1D) numerical
model of isobaric absorber resulting to predict the maximum bed
(granular or monolithic carbon) temperature up to 172 °C.
Kothdiwala et al. (2000) proposed the correlation between Nusselt
and Grashof numbers for convective heat transfer in CPC solar collector
aligned in E-W orientation. They also discussed the discrepancies be-
tween these correlations. Various configurations are considered ranging
from a tubular absorber with or without an envelope, with different
truncation levels, with one or two concentric envelopes, with different
eccentric envelopes and inclination angles. Brogren et al. (2001) dis-
cussed a water-cooled PV thermal hybrid system with low con-
centrating aluminum CPC. Oommen and Jayaraman (2001) designed
and fabricated CPC solar collector with tubular absorber, oversized
reflector and thereby reduced the gap losses. Florides et al. (2002a)
discussed about the modelling, simulation of a domestic size solar based
absorption cooling system using Transient Systems Simulation
(TRNSYS) for Nicosia, Cyprus weather condition and evaluated the total
equivalent warming impact (TEWI) of cooling unit. Also, they con-
ducted experiments with the solar cooling system. Florides et al.
(2002b) investigated the performance and economic viability of dif-
ferent solar collectors (FPC, CPC and ETC) for the operation of ab-
sorption cooling system using TRNSYS. Adsten et al. (2005) developed
an asymmetrical truncated non-tracking CPC solar collector and it is
called as Maximum Reflector Collector (MaReCo). Pramuang and Exell
(2005) carried out a transient test of solar air heater using truncated
CPC with flat absorber painted with non-selective matt black
(Chungpaibulpatana and Exell, 1990). Tchinda and Ngos (2006) and
Tchinda (2008) theoretically (mathematical model) studied the thermal
process in CPC collector with a flat one-sided absorber.
Lambert (2007) designed and performed solar power adsorption
heat pump for residential cooling and heating by using CPC and evac-
uated flat panel. Kaiyan et al. (2007) developed an imaging 3D CPC
with prominent characteristics. Kim et al. (2008) compared the con-
ventional stationary and single axis tracking CPC solar collector.
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
Rodríguez et al. (2010) studied the performance of the solar water
disinfection using TiO2 and Ru (II) complex as fixed catalysts located in
a CPC collector photoreactor, in the laboratory as well as at a greenfield
site. Buttinger et al. (2010) developed and analyzed a new non-tracking
CPC with different configuration of reflectors (symmetrical/asymme-
trical), tilt angles, CRs and thin gases (Krypton/air). Gang et al. (2010)
used small CR CPCs for the operation of innovative configuration of low
temperature solar thermal electric generation with regenerative Or-
ganic Rankine Cycle (ORC).
Sharma and Diaz (2011) numerically investigated the performance
of a novel minichannel based solar collector for the configurations with
and without CPC. Hang and Qu (2011) optimized an integrated solar
absorption cooling and heating system consisting of non-tracking XCPC
solar collector and accessories by using Energy plus and TRNSYS.
Kaiyan et al. (2011) developed a novel multiple curved surfaces com-
pound concentrator which was composed of a parabolic and a flat
contour and a comparison between the traditional paraboloid, CPC and
proposed concentrator were carried out. Nkwetta and Smyth (2012)
used computer based simulation software ‘Eazea’ and Tecplot for the
generation of innovative single-sided absorber CPC and double-sided
absorber CPC solar collectors (in both full and truncated forms). The
generated coordinates for these solar collectors were moved to ‘AU-
TOCAD’ formats for the following purposes (i) to represent the profiles
in a ‘dxf’ format, (ii) to enable the construction of reflector support and
profiles. Harmim et al. (2012) introduced a novel solar cooker of box-
type equipped with an asymmetric CPC as booster-reflector with a
vertical double-glazing cover on one side and a vertical absorber plate
behind the transparent cover. They also studied the dynamic behavior
of the cooker by mathematical model. Horta et al. (2012) adopted in-
ternal convection control strategies for the thermal assessment of non-
evacuated CPC concentrators for applications at constant operating
temperature.
Gudekar et al. (2013) presented the fabricated CPC solar collector
for steam generation, which showed better performance and reduction
in cost when compared to the conventional CPC solar collector. Kim
et al. (2013) modeled a stationary solar thermal collector system
working for medium temperature (100–300 °C). Lu et al. (2013) used
new medium CPC solar collector for the experimental investigation of
solar adsorption and LiBr-H2O absorption chiller. Sagade et al. (2014)
conducted experimentation on the prototype compound parabolic
trough for its performance study with different combinations of re-
ceivers and its surface coating. Widyolar et al. (2014) and Winston et al.
(2014) experimentally studied the non-tracking XCPC solar collector
performance in driving the absorption chilling system and this was the
first system with the combination of XCPC and double effect absorption
chilling technologies.
Gu et al. (2014) analyzed experimentally and optically an in-
novative portable solar collector with a non-tracking CPC solar col-
lector with flat plate absorber. Okoronkwo et al. (2014) studied ex-
perimentally the performance of a thermos-syphon water heating
system with CPC solar collector. Wang et al. (2014) carried out ex-
perimental and numerical studies for simplified CPC solar air heater. Lu
and Wang (2014) investigated the performance and economic analysis
for three solar cooling systems with different configurations in collec-
tors and sorption chillers, one among the configuration was high effi-
cient evacuated tube CPC solar collector with single effect LiBr ab-
sorption chillers.
Antonelli et al. (2014) studied the Organic Rankine Cycle with CPC
solar collectors as the heat source collector and by using simulation tool
AMESim v. 12, a numerical model was developed. Santos-González
et al. (2014) used 1D numerical model for designing CPC solar collector
and Mexican standard was applied for the experimentation. Also, ray
tracing analysis was performed. Duong and Diaz (2014) simulated nu-
merically the XCPCs combined with ETCs and PTCs with carbon dioxide
(CO2) as HTF for medium and high temperatures. Almeida et al. (2014)
carried out a simulation study using TRNSYS and GENOPT for
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

themosyphon and forced circulation systems with different collectors Francesconi and Antonelli (2018) numerically analyzed heat
(including CPC solar collector under thermosyphon system) and com- transfer in a panel containing several CPC collectors and suggested
pared it with results using ISS (In Situ scientific software), v2.7. consideration of the panel (configuration) in the design of the solar field
Chamsa-ard et al. (2014) used ISO standard for testing the heat pipe for increased efficiency of the system. Hadjiat et al. (2018) presented a
evacuated tube with CPC solar collector. new design of integrated collector storage solar water heater combined
Jiang et al. (2015) presented the performance analysis of two novel with CPC for predicting the thermal behavior of the system under Sa-
mid temperature CPC solar thermal collector (XCPC and Integrated haran climate. Hassanzadeh et al. (2018) simulated and experimented a
CPC). Wang et al. (2015) studied the performance improvement of the novel medium-temperature CPC solar collector with optimized (Pen-
simplified CPC solar collector (using resilient stainless steel mesh) from tagon) absorber geometry for medium temperature applications to
their previous study (Wang et al., 2014). Sobhansarbandi and Atikol challenge natural gas as California’s primary heat source in the near
(2015) used TRNSYS for showing the possibility of using CPC solar future. Mahbubul et al. (2018) analyzed the effect of Single Walled
collectors instead of FPC for under floor heating system. Benrejeb et al. Carbon Nano tube-water nanofluid on the collector performance and
(2015) designed a new integrated collector storage solar water heater the nanofluids proved to enhance the efficiencies of (CPC) solar col-
with two concentrating stages and the optical and thermal perfor- lectors. Saini et al. (2018) integrated PV thermal with CPC and eval-
mances were analyzed. Karwa et al. (2015) conducted thermohydraulic uated the annual electrical gain, overall thermal energy and exergy gain
performance of a bifacially irradiated receiver (a combination of flat with five different solar cell materials.
and U-tube receiver) in a vacuum enclosure, CPC solar collector. Ajdad et al. (2019) proposed the application of the particle swarm
Kessentini and Bouden (2016) analyzed the fabricated double-glazed optimization method for the optical geometric optimization of linear
ICS with CPC reflectors and compared it with other configurations. Fresnel reflector solar concentrators with CPCs as secondary reflectors.
Zheng et al. (2016) studied numerically and experimentally the de- The evolution of the 2D CPC solar collector based on the literature
signed SCPC collector. Waghmare and Gulhane (2016) designed and survey is depicted in Fig. 22.
performed ray tracing for CPC solar collector. Also, determined the
reflector’s LD, maximum diameter, its location and the relationship
between LD and maximum diameter. Arunkumar et al. (2016) in- 4. Concept and design strategies
vestigated experimentally a novel approach on technology integration
of CPCs, pyramid and single slope solar stills, which focused for the Moderate levels of concentration with complete stationary con-
process efficient augmentation. centrators are possible with the application of the technique of non-
Nashine and Kishore (2017) compared CPC performance for dif- imaging optics (Kalogirou, 2004). All rays get collected by the CPC
ferent locations. Shrivastava et al. (2017) critically reviewed TRNSYS of collector and those rays that are nearer to the axis are not brought to a
solar water heating systems. Li et al. (2017) analyzed techno-economic focus. Even while designing the optical surfaces of the non-imaging
performance of the novel, low concentrated solar collector (consisted of optics, extreme angular rays are considered rather than for axial rays
prism arrays, Fresnel lens and CPC). Waghmare and Gulhane (2017) (O’Gallagher, 2008).
determined solar flux concentration of CPC collector by surface areal Most of the literature surveys observed CPC collector as a non-
irradiance (SAI) for designing solar collectors on the basis of utilization imaging concentrator, as the sun rays get focused at two points instead
ratios and heat equations which provides an optimal location for the of one, which comprises of two parabolic mirror segments (reflectors)
receiver. Waghmare et al. (2017) refined SAI method (geometric cosine with two focal points (Fig. 23). A parabola on each side extends until its
factors) using the reflector area for the determination of concentrated surface is parallel with the CPC axis. However, in imaging CPC, the
flux which helps in the design of solar collectors with desired require- focus of concentrator will be located outside the concave of CPC ie., the
ments. Zheng et al. (2017) conducted simulation and experimental absorber will be located backside of the reflector. Kaiyan et al. (2007)
studies related to semi-passive beam steering prism array. Pouyfaucon
and García-Rodríguez (2018) assessed solar thermal-powered desali-
nation technologies and found solar thermal-driven reverse osmosis for
seawater desalination advantageous as it requires less energy. Xu et al.
(2017) integrated a closed-end pulsating heat pipe (PHP) and CPC and
obtained a high thermal efficiency.
Expósito et al. (2018) used CPC solar collector to study the in-
tensification of solar photo-Fenton degradation of carbamazepine with
ferrioxalate complexes and ultrasound. Gutiérrez-Alfaro et al. (2018)
studied the efficiency of the solar disinfection process for the in-
activation of three of the microorganisms (Escherichia coli, En-
terococcus spp. and Clostridium perfringens) using a CPC solar collector
for five months under various conditions of irradiance and temperature.
Maddigpu et al. (2018) presented a novel approach to use a chitosan-
carbon nano particles (CHIT-CNP) composite membrane against Es-
cherichia coli under solar irradiation that showed high efficient anti-
microbial activity when used in a recirculating CPC reactor compared
to solar disinfection alone.
Aguilar-Jiménez et al. (2018) compared two CPC’s in both N-S and
E-W directions. Li et al. (2018) showed the desalination system with
CPC had a superior performance without power consumption and
showed good freshwater production performance. Widyolar et al.
(2018) designed and developed XCPC of a medium temperature non-
tracking solar collector, where the absorber shape was optimized
through simulation tool and a prototype was built using low-cost ma-
terials. Experimental results of the prototype were compared with the
simulation results and also an economic analysis was presented. Fig. 22. Evolution of CPC Solar collector.

306
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

heat should spread quickly.

The distance along a tangential line from the receiver to the curve
can be divided into the following two sections: involution and reflection
as shown in Fig. 26. Wang et al. (2014) designed the truncated sim-
plified CPC with a flat curve shaped bottom instead of the involute
curve shaped bottom for reducing the processing difficulty and cost.
Fig. 27 (a) and (b) shows the distribution of rays along the circumfer-
ential direction on the cover glass tube at incidence angles of 0° and 15°
respectively using ray tracing (TRACE PRO) software. The observation
showed that the majority of incident light on the bottom of CPC was not
captured by the absorber. Hence, this model performed lesser than CPC
with involute. When the incident angle changes from 0° and 15°, the
simplified CPC decreases its performance by 12–16%. Based on the
designed calculation and test result, the concentrating efficiency of the
simplified CPC with a flat curve bottom was about 15% lesser than the
involute bottom. The theoretical incident energy is dependent on the
transversal angle following cosine law, therefore the simulation con-
centration ratio or flux concentration ratio is expressed as follows (Gu
et al. 2014):
Iin ( T ) Iin ( T )
C= =
It Iirra cos( T ) (1)

The comparative concentration ratio is analyzed for the reduction

on concentration ratio and it is expressed as (Ustaoglu et al., 2016)
Cconc = Ctrunc / Cfull (2)
Fig. 23. Schematic drawing of a symmetric CPC with flat receiver (Hess, 2014). The concentration ratio for 2D, full CPC solar collector is calculated
(Ustaoglu et al., 2016) by
and Kaiyan et al. (2011) discussed about imaging CPC. Kaiyan et al.
Cfull = 1/Sin (3)
(2011) developed a new type of imaging concentrator consisting of a

parabolic and a flat contour which was named as imaging CPC. It has The concentration ratio for 2D, truncated CPC solar collector is
the following features: (i) It provides forward reflective light rays, (ii) calculated (Ustaoglu et al., 2016) by
Focus of the concentrator is totally located in the backside of the con-
centrator. Comparing with the parabolic dish, it has a larger surface Ctrunc = Aap / Aab (4)
area and there will be two reflections for every light ray before reaching Liu et al. (2013) conducted experiments with simplified CPC, which
the focus, which will increase the reflection loss. Fig. 24 shows the light had a flat curve shaped bottom (as shown in Fig. 28) instead of the
transmission pattern in an imaging concentrator. In non-imaging CPC, involute curve shaped bottom when compared to truncated CPC. Due to
focus of the concentrator will be located on the concave of CPC for flat this flat profile, there was a reduction of about 10–15% in con-
one-sided absorber (Fig. 9) and above the concave of CPC for tubular centrating heat efficiency of simplified CPC, when compared to that of
absorber type CPC solar collector (XCPC) (Fig. 8). the truncated CPC with the change of acceptance half angle. Based on
Fig. 23 shows 2D CPC solar collector accepting incoming radiation the benefit of significance in cost reduction in producing CPC, this
entering the aperture over a wide range of acceptance angles ( ± θa) marginal efficiency depreciation is fairly acceptable. Ustaoglu et al.
and with multiple internal reflections, the rays will be focused on the (2016) carried out simulation work using ray tracing technique for the
absorber surface not concentrated at a point or line and does not pro- CPC solar collector and found a significant improvement on the uni-
duce an image of the light source (Chamsa-ard et al., 2014). Fig. 25 formity of the absorber, which can be achieved by truncating the re-
shows the compound parabolic reflectors assembled in the solar col- flector without substantial loss on the performance.
lector module. The HTF takes away the captured solar energy in the Lower part of the reflector is designed as a cavity which reflects all
absorber and can be either stored in the thermal storage tank or directly radiation onto the absorber. W- or V-shape are the simple forms of the
utilized for applications. Chew et al. (1988) stated that by applying thin cavity, in which V-shape is the mostly seen shape for non-imaging edge
aluminum foil on the cavity wall surface for producing a smooth re- ray collectors while considering practical constraints (Buttinger et al.,
flector surface, the radiative contribution was reduced to about 10% for 2010). Buttinger et al. (2010) analyzed the CPC with V-shape. McIntire
the convective heat exchange rate in combination with nickel chrome-
plating for the surfaces of heater tube and cold plate. Balkoski (2011)
and Winston (2012) discussed about the types of reflector such as: i)
Polished aluminium: Alanod MIRO-SUN 90 was used for polished alu-
minium designs. It is most commercially available for outdoor solar use.
After 2–3 years of outdoor use, it loses significant specular reflectance.
ii) Metalized (silver) polymer film: Reflectech was used for film-based
designs. It was developed by NREL. Both hemispherical and specular
reflectances (using the Devices and Services portable specular re-
flectometer, Model 15R) of ReflecTech film exceed 94%.
Generally, in the optical design of solar thermal systems, hot spots
are undesirable because it may generate high local temperatures, which
may damage materials and cause flow instability (Gu et al., 2014).
Fig. 24. Light transmission pattern in an imaging concentrator (Kaiyan et al.,
Therefore, the selection of material has to be done in such a way that
2011).

307
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 25. Compound parabolic concentrators (Aluminum sheet reflectors)
mounted in the frame.
Fig. 26. Two sections of XCPC (Involution and Reflection) solar collector (Kim
et al., 2013).
(1984) stated that straight, symmetric facets are the easiest to fabricate
accurately and provide slightly larger gaps than asymmetric designs.
Practically, for the required gap, least number of facets has to be con-
sidered, including the manufacturing tolerances such as tube bow and
absorber reflector alignment. Similarly, least number of facets are de-
sirable while considering rounding of corners.
Wang et al. (2016a) proposed a model based on the edge ray prin-
ciple, with a new V-shaped profile at the bottom of the reflector and
analyzed its parameters such as geometrical optic efficiency, transmit-
tance, reflectance and absorption ratio, with methods of ray tracing
(TracePro) and geometrical optics. They concluded the selection of a
model based on the gap size and proved that the CPC with new V-
shaped profile had a good prospect (as shown in Fig. 29). The overall
efficiency is the product of gap efficiency and relative concentration
ratio.
The orientation of CPC collector w.r.t. long axis can be either along
Fig. 27. TRACE PRO simulation results for the simplified CPC solar collector at incident angles of (a) 0° and (b) 15° (Wang et al., 2014).
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Fig. 28. Profile of simplified CPC solar collector with a flat curve shaped
bottom instead of the involute curve shaped bottom (Liu et al., 2013).
Fig. 29. Overall efficiencies of CPCs w.r.t. incident angle (Wang et al., 2016a).
north–south (N-S) or the east–west (E-W) direction where the aperture
is tilted at an angle equal to the latitude directly towards the equator (Li
et al., 2013; Kalogirou, 2003). With N-S direction, the collector must
track so as to face the sun continuously by turning its axis (Kalogirou,
2003). For stationary CPC collectors oriented with its long axis along
the E-W direction, the minimum acceptance angle is equal to 47°
(Kalogirou, 2004). Large acceptance angle of the CPC solar collector
will be chosen when it has to operate fully stationary in both E-W and
N-S orientations (Carvalho et al., 1995). Kim et al. (2013) experimented
and showed that at higher working temperature, the radiation loss in E-
W collectors becomes lesser than N-S collectors because of higher CR
for E-W collectors. For temperatures above 169.9 °C, the E-W oriented
XCPC solar collector outperforms the N-S oriented XCPC solar collector
because of its high CR. For N-S collectors, the measured optical effi-
ciencies at zero normalized temperature were 68.3% and 66.9% for the
flow rates of 80 g/s and 40 g/s respectively and for E-W collectors, it
was 64.7% with the flow rate of 80 g/s. Due to the large amount of
diffused radiations captured by the collectors, the optical efficiency of
the N-S collectors (based on the direct normal irradiance) was higher
than that of considering an effective irradiance. Gu et al. (2014) found
V. Pranesh, et al.
that the proposed CPC solar collector with E-W and N-S orientations
provided ∼2300 and ∼1275 collection hours respectively throughout
the year in Sydney, which shows the longer operating duration for the
collector with E-W orientation than N-S orientation.
Rabl (1976b) discussed CPC collector with an acceptance angle of
around 30° requiring an average one reflection which causes ∼10
percent loss, even for good reflectors and may necessitate cooling (ex-
tracted heat may be useable). CR is one of the vital parameters of a solar
concentrator (Dang et al., 1983; Rabl, 1976b). Low to moderate con-
centrations of 1.1 X – 2 X and up to 4 X can be achieved by stationary
CPC collector and for slightly higher levels from ∼3 X to 10 X, seasonal
adjustment is necessary (O’Gallagher, 2008). The angle of acceptance
determines the requirement of tracking (Rabl, 1976b). For practical
interest, smaller concentrations are mostly preferred. Among the line
focus solar collectors for the hot water generation between the range of
80 °C and 120 °C, low-concentration CPC collectors are desirable when
compared with high concentrated collectors. CPC solar collector par-
tially collects diffuse radiation depending on the acceptance angle and
tilt angle, therefore the expense of an accurate tracking system gets
avoided (Kalogirou, 2004; Li et al., 2013; O’Gallagher, 2008). High CR
requires larger tilt angle and vice versa (Antonelli et al., 2014). Smaller
values of CR have benefits in terms of compactness of the concentrators,
the annual number of operating hours and sensitivity to cloudy weather
i.e., capable of capturing the diffuse radiation. For N-S direction, the
collector with higher CR has to track the sun so as to face the sun
continuously and for lower CR, the seasonal tilt adjustment is not ne-
cessary. Rabl (1976b) suggested that for stationary collector, the lim-
itation of concentration is almost two and he had also explained the
adjustment of collector tilt for various CRs.
Rabl et al. (1979) discussed about the selection of receiver type, the
optimum method for providing a gap between the receiver and reflector
in order to minimize optical and thermal losses, the effect of a glass
envelope around the receiver, effect of mirror errors, effect of receiver
misalignment and the effect of the temperature difference between the
fluid and absorber plate. The receiver should not touch the reflector in
order to minimize the conduction losses (Gu et al., 2014). Prapas et al.
(1987) predicted that the optimal annular gap for the non-evacuated
arrangement of approximately 5 mm, resulted in best overall collector
efficiency. Liu et al. (2013) experimented CPC solar collector with a
distance between CPC cusp and absorber of 6 mm. The general per-
formance of solar collector is not affected by providing small gap
(3 mm) between the absorber and tip of the reflector (Jiang et al.,
2015).
Buttinger et al. (2010) measured thermal losses of the CPC solar
collector for three different collector fillings, such as air at 1 bar, air at
0.01 bar and krypton at 0.01 bar. A prototype with an aperture area of
2 m2 showed an efficiency of about 50% for krypton and 40% for air at
0.01 bar and process heat of 150 °C with a radiation of 1000 W/m2. The
use of thin inert gases in the collector show heat loss reduction and is as
important as radiation concentration.
The collector parameter stagnation temperature plays a vital role in
describing the collector’s performance with regard to collector-ambient
heat loss (Bejan et al., 1981). The operating temperature of the working
fluid at a specific flow rate in the solar thermal systems is governed by
two key factors such as: (i) The total solar flux into the collector and (ii)
The overall heat loss in all forms of heat transfer: conduction, convec-
tion and radiation (Gu et al., 2014). The heat transfer coefficient plays a
vital role in the overall CPC efficiency, as it represents nearly 76% of
the overall heat transfer coefficient (Kothdiwala et al., 1995). Lambert
(2007) stated that, in CPC solar collector the emitting area is only a
fraction of aperture area and so the thermal efficiency of the CPC solar
collector will be high. Compared to standard flat panels with solar se-
lective coatings, the evacuated flat panel and CPC collectors are at least
three times more efficient (55–58%).
Gudekar et al. (2013) stated that 71% of energy can be made
available to the HTF with major improvement in convective loss,
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radiative loss, receiver absorption and glass tube transmittivity. In most
cases, the effective thermal capacitance is low, which is explained by
the low collector weight because of low material content (Adsten et al.
2005). Okoronkwo et al. (2014) stated that the thermal capacitance of
absorber components has a significant impact on the performance of the
system and should be maximized. By providing transparent baffle in the
CPC solar collector, the internal convective heat transfer from the ab-
sorber to cover will get reduced by reduction of total fluid movement,
thereby resulting in the reduction of heat losses and increase in total
collector efficiency (Eames and Norton, 1995). The associated reduc-
tion in optical efficiency is small due to this configuration.
A transparent cover provided on top safeguards the reflectors from
dirt and other foreign substances and also decreases the heat loss from
the solar collector, which improves the system performance sig-
nificantly (Okoronkwo et al., 2014). Also, the life of the reflector and
receiver coating get increased by using transparent cover (Sagade et al.,
2014). Gudekar et al. (2013) compared the thermal efficiencies of the
newly modified CPC system without and with glass tube cover on re-
ceiver pipe and found the overall increase in thermal efficiency due to
glass tube cover as 7.4% in absolute terms (46.8% relative rise).
Although double glazing for the integrated collector storage (ICS)
integrated with CPC reflectors decreases the total optical efficiency, the
numerical simulation study carried out by Kessentini and Bouden
(2016) showed that the double glazing performed better than single
glass cover with respect to heat retention of the stored water during
night operation and also operation during day time. The use of trans-
parent insulation (Teflon film), in low-concentrating solar collectors
can reduce the heat losses significantly (Ronnelid and Karlsson 1996).
Also, Carvalho et al. (1995) discussed about the heat loss reduction by
using Teflon film between the glass cover and inverted “V” shaped
absorber of CPC solar collector. The authors suggested that a simple
way to reduce the heat loss of CPC collector for higher temperature
applications of around or above 100 °C (Solar cooling applications) is
achieved by providing Teflon film in the collector system.
The top portion of fully developed or untruncated CPC is nearly
parallel to the optical axis, which does not contribute much radiation.
So, the depth of concentrator and its corresponding mirror area is re-
duced by cutting off the top portion without much loss in the con-
centration (O’Gallagher, 2008; Rabl, 1976b). Rabl extensively discussed
about the issues regarding truncation of CPC collector. In practical
applications, for economic reasons and compactness, most of the CPCs
will be truncated (Antonelli et al., 2014; Rabl, 1976c). Santos-González
et al. (2014) showed that, due to truncating full CPC, the percentage of
energy loss was 6.7% with 42.4% of material saving. Generally, the
troughs are truncated to approximately one-third of full concentrator
height (Prapas et al., 1987). When the cavity height is decreased, the
convective heat transfer rate from the cylinder to the aperture portion
(flat top) increased for the same temperature difference between them
(Chew et al., 1988). For similar conditions of operating temperature,
the heat loss to free air from the cylinder is about 50% higher when it is
surrounded by full CPC cavity and about 30% higher when the cavity
truncated to 1/3rd of full height.
Deciding the absorber tube diameter is very important, as it de-
termines the quantum of reflected rays that can be captured. Waghmare
and Gulhane (2016) used a term called ‘Limiting diameter’ (LD), which
is defined as the diameter of a tubular receiver below which no re-
flected rays will be cut. The reflected rays that are tangent to the re-
ceiver will be considered as LD of the receiver at the focus. Also, they
determine the relationship between LD and maximum diameter of the
tubular receiver and its location. The relationship between major and
minor axis of the ellipse is dependent on the acceptance angle and CPC
height. The collector effective thermal performance for large receiver
can be improved up to 3% with proper selection of receiver tube and fin
dimensions (Karwa et al., 2015). The performance gain will be higher at
lower collector mass flux. It was experimentally found that there was no
significant difference between the performance of horizontal and
V. Pranesh, et al.
vertical absorber fin orientated integrated CPC solar collector (Duff
et al., 2001, 2004). However later it was reported under substantial
degradation of the reflector, the horizontal fin integrated CPC retains
better optical performance than the vertical fin integrated CPC (Duff
and Daosukho, 2014).
Kim et al. (2013) stated that higher mass flow rate with fixed col-
lector inlet temperature causes lower outlet temperature resulting in
better thermal heat exchange and less temperature dependent thermal
losses. By choosing the optimum mass flow rate, the thermal efficiency
can be increased by a maximum of 2% for CPC solar collectors (Karwa
et al., 2015).
The coating is classified into non-selective and selective (Fig. 30).
The term ‘solar selectivity’ is used to define the optical behavior of the
coating and it is defined as the ratio of solar absorptivity to emissivity at
a given temperature (Suman et al., 2015). Therefore, the overall effi-
ciency of solar collector can be improved by enhancing the optical
characteristic of coating and its thermal stability at high temperatures.
Tchinda and Ngos (2006) showed that the selective coating and nature
of the reflector material had considerable effect in the performance of
the CPC collector. Gu et al. (2014) chose titanium nitride oxide (TiNOx)
as the receiver coating of CPC solar collector even though at short
wavelength the absorptance of black chrome is slightly higher than that
of TiNOx but at long wavelengths (> 2.5 μm), the thermal emissivity of
TiNOx is 0.08 at 100 °C is lower than that of black chrome (0.29). The
total power which is absorbed decreases as the reflectivity of the CPC
reflector is lower. Therefore, for higher power, the CPC surface per-
formance gets increasingly important. Emittance (in infrared) of the
reflector has an effect on the heat losses (Ronnelid and Karlsson, 1996).
The overall heat losses increased about 5–8%, while using high emitting
reflectors instead of low-emitting reflectors. For the effective utilization
of captured solar energy, the emitted radiation from the absorber
should not be permitted outside its acceptance angle (Rabl, 1976b).
By meeting the following three conditions, the placement of the
parabolas is defined (Hess, 2014) for the flat faced receiver:
(i) The endpoints of the receiver are the focal points.
(ii) Their center lines are sloped by θa, towards the receiver.
(iii) The two parabolas intersect the endpoints of the receiver.
Disadvantages of CPC solar collector are listed below:
Fig. 30. Classification of Absorber coating (for solar application) (Kaushal, 1997; Suman et al., 2015).
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
(a) Compared to a simple parabola, a fully developed or untruncated
CPC is very deep and requires a reasonably large reflector area for a
given aperture field. This issue is sorted by removing the top por-
tion with almost no loss in performance (Rabl, 1976c).
(b) Frequency of adjustment goes up with the increase in CR, resulting
in requirement of tracking system to enable the collector to follow
the sun. For example, CR of 3 requires only biannual adjustment
whereas CR of 10 requires nearly daily updates (Winston et al.,
2005).
(c) For capturing diffuse radiations larger acceptance angles are prac-
tically used at the expense of a smaller CR (Kalogirou, 2004).
(d) Reflectance of the solar reflecting surfaces may depreciate and thus
require periodic cleaning and renovating (Kalogirou, 2004).
(e) The CPC height increases rapidly with aperture, making the struc-
ture clumsy to handle and a substantial percentage of radiation
incident within the acceptance angle suffers multiple reflections
before reaching the receiver, resulting a drop in its optical effi-
ciency (Gudekar et al., 2013).
5. Heat transfer fluids (HTFs)
This section describes about the various HTFs that are used in the
solar collector. Sun energy is captured by a receiver/absorber of the
solar collector and transferred to a thermo fluid, also known as heat
transfer fluid (HTF). The indirect loop system uses a heat exchanger
(HX) which separates the portable HTF from the intermediate HTF that
circulates between HX and solar collector, whereas in the direct loop
system, HTF will be circulated between the utility and the solar col-
lector. Indirect system offers overheat protection and freeze protection
(Srivastva et al., 2015). Generally, solar thermal energy collectors are
categorized into low, medium and high temperature collectors.
Low temperature collectors operating range is from above ambient
to about 80 °C and use water and refrigerants (Hydrocarbons like pro-
pane, pentane and butane) as HTFs (Srivastva et al., 2015). Also, water-
glycol mixtures and water based nano fluids are used in low tempera-
ture applications where high freezing point is hampering and degrading
water quality. This type is commonly used for the applications such as
solar water heating, solar based space heating and cooling, solar ice
making etc. The refrigerants have a low boiling point and high heat
capacity, and used in applications like solar space heating and cooling,
V. Pranesh, et al.
refrigerator and air conditioning. The traditional refrigerants such as R-
717 (anhydrous ammonia) and R-764 (sulphur dioxides) are harmful
for domestic usage due to their leakage. Similarly, chlorofluorocarbon
(Freon R-12) causes global warming; hence it is replaced by hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFC, R-134a) (Antonelli et al., 2014). But both
CFCs and HCFCs are harmful to the ozone layer. Bolaji and Huan (2013)
suggested that natural refrigerants (Hydrocarbons-HC) are the most
suitable long time alternative solution for the refrigeration and air
conditioning applications. HCs are more environmental friendly, non-
toxic, chemically stable and highly soluble in conventional mineral oil.
Bu et al. (2013) evaluated four working fluids (R123, R245fa, R600a
and R600) of the organic Rankine cycle/vapor compression cycle
(ORC/VCC) ice maker driven by solar energy (Using PTC solar col-
lector) for identifying suitable working fluids which provide high
system efficiencies. The highlighted results showed that for a heat
source temperature range of 60–160 °C, based on ORC efficiency, ratio
of net work output to mass flow rate for ORC, volumetric flow ratio and
expander size parameter, R600 (Butane, HC) and R600a (Isobutane,
HC) are more suitable working fluids for ORC. R600a is the most sui-
table working fluid for VCC in terms of security risk caused by air
suction due to system leakage. R123 (HCFC) is the most suitable
working fluid for ORC/VCC based on COPs, overall efficiency of solar
ice maker and ice production per square meter of collector per day.
Water is preferred as HTF for the applications such as domestic
usage, swimming pool heating, solar heating and cooling (Hu et al.,
2011; Lambert, 2007; Li et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2013). Water as HTF has
following advantage (Srivastva et al., 2015; Lambert, 2007) such as: (i)
Abundantly available, (ii) Inexpensive and naturally nontoxic, (iii)
Highest specific heat of any liquid, (iv) Higher thermal conductivity
than all except liquid metals, (iv) Easy to pump because of very low
viscosity. The disadvantages are (i) Easily loses its neutrality in the pH
value by picking up contamination resulting in corrosion hazards, (ii)
Mineral deposits on heat transfer surfaces cause a depreciation in heat
transfer capability and also lead to blockages in the piping systems, (iii)
Not suitable for use in extreme conditions due to its low boiling point
and high freezing point.
Pure water will cause corrosion and therefore the life of a heat pump
Fig. 31. Elements of nanofluid and their commonly used examples along with thermal conductivity value (W/m K) (Suman et al., 2015).
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will be ∼20 years. The relationship between the thermal conductivities
of oil and ethylene glycol w.r.t. water are represented as
koil ≈ 0.20 × kwater and kEG ≈ 0.40 × kwater. Oils are non-corrosive and
ethylene glycol is commonly used in lower temperature applications. In
solar water heaters, normally, the water quality of less than 200 ppm of
hardness is suggested (Srivastva et al., 2015).
Karwa et al. (2015) stated that, at a mean temperature of 100 °C,
HTFs (water and thermal oil) had no effective performance even with
the reduction in tube diameter of the CPC solar collector. For tem-
peratures up to 150 °C, the recommended HTF is water. Below 150 °C,
water performed better than thermal oil at all mass flow rates with no
substantial improvement in collector performance achieved by redu-
cing the tube diameter.
Antonelli et al. (2014) stated that the saturation temperature of the
working fluid (Tsat) influences the efficiency of both solar field and
thermal cycle, which is considered as the main operating parameter in
the system. Increase in Tsat provided a reduction in the captured energy
because of increase in thermal losses. So, it has to be decided correctly
according to the downstream requirement.
El-Assy (1988) found that under the same working condition, the
results of CPCs in two-phase flows had greater thermal efficiency than
similar CPCs in single-phase flows. Also, he stated that as CR is in-
creased, the working pressure can be increased so that the thermal
conversion efficiency gets improved.
Otanicar et al. (2010) performed experimentation on solar collec-
tors using nanofluids made from a variety of nanoparticles (carbon
nanotube graphite and silver) and observed that the solar collector ef-
ficiency improved up to 5% by utilizing nanofluids. Additionally, the
experimental data of a solar collector with direct absorption nanofluids
were compared with a numerical model. The maximum temperature
obtained can be closer to the center of the fluid and also minimized the
heat loss with the optimum profile of volumetric absorption, resulting
in further enhancement in efficiency. The unique advantages of using
nanofluid as a direct absorption solar collector (DASC) over conven-
tional collectors are as follows:
• Limiting the need for hot surface as the heating is within the fluid
V. Pranesh, et al.
volume and only heat transfers to a small area of fluid resulting in
the location of peak temperature obtained away from the surfaces
losing heat to the surroundings,
• Modification to maximize spectral absorption of solar energy
through the fluid volume is possible by the changeability of size,
shape, material and volume fraction of the nanoparticles,
• Efficiency improvements are obtained by an enhancement in the
thermal conductivity and
• Nanofluid based solar systems are attractive for thermochemical and
photocatalytic processes due to vast enhancements in surface area of
the extremely small particle size.
Liu et al. (2013) designed a novel evacuated tubular solar air col-
lector integrated with simplified CPC and special open thermosyphon
using working fluid as water based copper oxide (CuO) nano fluid to
provide air with high and moderate temperature. CuO nanoparticles
were made by the gas-condensation method with a mean average dia-
meter as 50 nm. Experimental results of solar air collector using na-
nofluid as open thermosyphon’s working fluid for the air outlet tem-
perature and system collecting efficiency was higher than that of using
deionized water. Different mass concentration of CuO nanoparticles
was used for experimentation which varies from 0.8 to 1.5 wt%. The
results highlighted that the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of nanofluids
moves upwards significantly when compared with that of deionized
water. The HTC slightly worsens the behavior when the mass con-
centration was above 1.2 wt%. Compared with mean HTC of water for
the operating temperature of 100 °C, the mean HTC of nanofluid (with
optimal concentration of 1.2 wt%) was about 15% higher. By adding
right amount of CuO into the water with the open thermosyphon, the
maximum value and mean value of the collector efficiency was 6.6%
and 12.4% respectively more than that of water. During winter, even
though the experimental system consists of only two collecting panels,
the maximum air outlet temperature was of 155 °C and 174 °C by using
deionized water and nanofluid respectively, at an air volume rate of
7.6 m3/h. Comparative study based on the performance of solar col-
lector integrated with open thermosyphon and with the common con-
centric tube was conducted. A much better collecting performance of
mean collecting efficiency as 12.74% was found experimentally for the
solar collector integrated with open thermosyphon. The authors had
used a heat conduction medium paste like mixture of high temperature
oil and graphite powder between the inner glass tube and evaporator
tube of open thermosyphon which was a core technology. It has prop-
erties such as good thermal endurance, high thermal conductivity and
considerable expansion capacity.
Fig. 31 illustrates the elements of nanofluid and their commonly
used examples along with thermal conductivity values. Based on the
dispersion of nanoparticles in base fluids, there are three major types of
nanofluids: metallic, ceramic and carbon nanotube nanofluids. Also,
based on the concentration level of the nanoparticles in base fluid, it
gets further classified as dilute, semi-dilute, semi-concentrated and
concentrated nanofluids. Sometimes, surfactant is used during disper-
sion, which is a stabilizing agent. Nanofluids have the following unique
properties such as minimal clogging in flow passages, long-term stabi-
lity and homogeneity (Chen and Ding, 2009; Das et al., 2006; Li et al.,
2009; Suman et al., 2015; Wang and Mujumdar, 2007; Yu and Xie,
2015).
Duong and Diaz (2014) stated that the thermal efficiencies com-
parable to thermal oils can be achieved using CO2 as working fluid. The
main drawback is the requirement of high operating pressure.
Medium temperature collectors use water, water-glycol mixtures –
emerging green glycol i.e., trimethylene glycol, naturally occurring HC
oils (aromatic oils, naphthenic and paraffinic oils) and semi-synthetic
oils as HTFs (Hess, 2014; Lambert, 2007; Srivastva et al., 2015). The
three most commonly used glycols in heat transfer applications are
ethylene glycol, propylene glycol and trimethylene glycol. Corrosion
inhibitor is added to the glycol based fluid for the system operated at
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bulk temperatures of above 120 °C, as the HTF degradation increases
appreciably resulting in acidic behavior and corrosion. The essential
properties of the glycol-inhibitor mixture of solar thermal application
are non-toxic, optimal reserve alkalinity, corrosion protection nature
and thermal stability.
High temperature collectors use water, air, synthetic hydrocarbon
oils, nanofluid compositions, molten salts, molten metals, dense sus-
pension of solid silicon carbide particles etc., as HTFs (Srivastva et al.,
2015).
6. Studies performed with major parameters of CPC solar collector
Table 4 illustrates the summary of researches on CPC solar thermal
collectors globally.
6.1. Experimental studies
Chew et al. (1988) presented experimentally the free convection
heat transfer between the cylindrical absorber and the flat aperture
surface of CPC. The maximum input power to the heater was about
55 W. The experimental curve occurred within about 8% of heat loss
calculated using the heat transfer correlation of Rice. The trend wise
agreement between the numerical and experimental results was very
good for a cavity truncated to 1/3rd of full height. Using an equivalent
length and cavity height as the characteristic length of the CPC cavity,
correlation of Nusselt number (Nu) and Grashof number (Gr) were
obtained. The authors recommended for the correlation based on the
cavity height and length ratio because of the computational con-
venience. The authors stated that for tall cavities, i.e., full height and 2/
3rd of full height by tilting the axis of about 60° to vertical, Nu was
about 12% larger than that of the untilted cavity, whereas for short
cavity (1/3rd of full height), Nu was reduced by 15%.
Florides et al. (2002a) experimentally determined the heat and mass
transfer coefficients which were applied in designing and estimation of
a 11 kW cooling capacity solar cooling machine. Using TRNSYS soft-
ware, the optimum system consisted of 15 m2 CPC solar collector with
tilt angle of 30°, 600 l hot water storage tank, a boiler, H20 – LiBr pair
absorption cooling system and a typical house load throughout the
year.
Pramuang and Exell (2005) conducted transient test of a solar air
heater with a truncated CPC and a flat absorber whose surface was
painted with non-selective matt black (Chungpaibulpatana and Exell,
1990). In a tropical climate to obtain high air temperatures, this type of
collector will be chosen where the proportion of diffuse solar radiation
is high. Four collector parameters were determined for evaluating the
performance of the solar collector such as effective heat capacity, op-
tical efficiency, first and second order heat loss coefficients. The solar
collector testing method of Chungpaibulpatana and Exell had been
successfully applied to a CPC solar air heater. The authors concluded
that their method can be used at any time of the year in a variable
tropical climate.
Adsten et al., (2005) developed the design concept of an asymme-
trically truncated non-tracking CPC type collector, which is optimized
for the northern latitudes. The main objective was to maximize the
reflector to the absorber area for a given ground area and this collector
is called as a Maximum Reflector Collector (MaReCo). This design
concept is also applicable for PV modules concentrators to reduce the
cost of electricity generated with solar cells. The article described about
collectors for the stand-alone, roof and wall mountings. Six different
collector prototypes were built and tested outdoor. The tested proto-
types are listed as follows: stand-alone collector ground mounting,
stand- alone collector with Teflon convection suppression film around
the absorber, standard roof MaReCo design for roof facing south with
tilt angle of 30°, roof facing east or west of 25° tilt angle, roof model
with load adapted and the active area reduced to 1/3 during summer
and Integrated vertical MaReCo for south facing walls (Figs. 32 and 33).
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 32. Photo of a MaReCo designed for east/west-facing roofs. The white
arrow indicates the south direction (Adsten et al., 2005).
Compared to flat plate collector, standard roof and stand-alone MaR-
eCos are more or equally cost effective. However, these collectors can
compete with standard collectors in the same areas.
For the evaluation of collector, statistical method (dynamic testing
model using multiple linear regression) and MINSUN simulation pro-
gram were performed. Bifacial absorber (high fin efficiency sunstrip
absorbers) with the combination of lower and/or upper reflector (an-
odized aluminum reflector with solar reflectance = 0.85) was used to
minimize the absorber area.
Lambert (2007) carried out design and performance of a solar (and/
or natural gas) powered adsorption (desiccant-vapor) heat pump for
residential cooling (and heating). The adsorbent-refrigerant pair was
carbon-ammonia. At the selected operating temperature of 170 °C, two
types of solar collector are determined satisfactorily, (i) CPC with high
CR (10+) and automatic tilt adjustment and (ii) evacuated flat panel
(0.001 atm), similar to atmospheric pressure versions employed for
domestic water heating. Low quality heat at 150–250 °C is required for
the adsorption heat pumps.
Kim et al. (2008) investigated numerically and experimentally the
thermal performance of the evacuated CPC solar collector with a cy-
lindrical absorber. Comparison of conventional stationary CPC and
single axis tracking CPC solar collectors was carried out based on outlet
temperature, net heat flux onto the absorber and thermal efficiency.
Using commercial FVM code, the outlet temperatures of each CPC solar
collector were calculated. The thermal efficiency of the tracking CPC
solar collector was 59.56% and its average value was 14.94% higher
than that of the stationary CPC solar collector.
Balkoski (2011) carried out the performance analysis of seven dif-
ferent types of XCPC solar collectors and are listed below:
• N-S with counter-flow tube with Alanod reflectors (NS AL CF)
• N-S with U-tube with Alanod reflectors (NS AL UT)
• N-S with U-tube with Reflectech reflectors (NS RT UT)
• E-W with counter-flow tube with Alanod reflectors (EW AL CF)
• E-W with X-tube with Alanod reflectors (EW AL XT)
• E-W with U-tube with Alanod reflectors (EW AL UT)
• E-W with U-tube with Reflectech reflectors (EW RT UT)
The experiments were carried out and found that the NS AL CF
version had higher optical efficiency and also outperformed the EW AL
CF collector upto 150 °C.
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The overall performance of the Reflectech version was better than
Alanod versions. The performance of X-tube over the counterflow tube
appears to improve at lower temperatures and at higher temperatures,
the effect is small. NS collector may prove superior for the sites where
clouds are more frequent and hazy locations. U-tube performs the best
among other collectors analysed. U-tube collector may be the best
candidate for commercial use till its costs are not significantly more
than the other tube types.
Horta et al. (2012) adopted internal convection control strategies
such as the use of low CRs, use of air or Argon as enclosure filling media
and the adoption of physical barriers within the CPC cavity. Strategies
were assessed in terms of the optical and thermal characteristic para-
meters of the collector and annual collector yield. Integrated design,
optical and thermal assessment of non-evacuated CPC concentrators,
simulated incidence angle modifier (IAM) and efficiency curve para-
meters were calculated for different CPC collector configurations and
the results provided guidelines to implement the strategies to a new
collector design. Results also illustrated the impact of climatic condi-
tions in optical and thermal effects of each strategy, for applications at
constant operating temperature.
Nkwetta and Smyth (2012) designed, fabricated, experimented,
analyzed and compared the innovative concentrated evacuated tube
heat pipe (single-sided absorber and double-sided absorber) CPC solar
collectors as shown in Fig. 34. The truncation of CPC reduces the size of
reflector and reflector losses. An overall improvement of 42.4% in
average outlet and inlet fluid temperature differential was found by
truncated double-sided absorber CPC compared to truncated single-
sided absorber CPC solar collector (at 0° transverse angle). The single-
sided absorber CPC (SSACPC) offers greater possibility in the collection
of direct incident solar radiation due to higher utilization area, whereas
in double-sided absorber CPC (DSACPC), the incident solar radiation
gets collected on both surfaces of the absorber, thereby eliminating the
back losses. Due to its higher outlet temperature with greater rise in
differential temperature and improved thermal performance, DSACPC
solar collector was considered better when compared to SSACPC solar
collector.
Gudekar et al. (2013) presented a working model of CPC system.
The proposed design of CPC solar collector overcame the disadvantages
of conventional CPC solar collector with the following modifications in
design: (i) The two foci were very close to the plane of the aperture, (ii)
The segments of two parabolic curves above the focal point were re-
moved and those below focal point were selected, (iii) The receiver pipe
was located near the aperture, and (iv) Receiver pipe size was selected
such that all rays incident within the angle of acceptance were captured
by it after reflection. The proposed collector when compared to the
conventional CPC system was easy to fabricate, helped in the reduction
of overall system cost and reduced the mirror area requirements per
unit aperture area substantially and also the proposed collector worked
reasonably well for steam generation at atmospheric pressure. Heat loss
analysis was carried out and found that with additional modification in
the design and scale up would further enhance the system performance
and also a significant fraction of the generated steam at various tem-
peratures can be utilized for the process heat. In the present system, the
final available energy to water was 175 W/m2 which was 25% of in-
cident radiation of 700 W/m2.
Kim et al. (2013) modeled a stationary XCPC collector system using
an evacuated glass and a counter flow absorber tube for medium which
was analyzed, fabricated and tested. Efficiencies for both N-S and E-W
orientations were modeled and measured at various working tem-
peratures. The schematic representation of test facility is shown in
Fig. 35. The proposed model achieved more than 40% efficiency above
200 °C. The counter flow tube consists of a coaxial pipe attached to the
absorber fin which makes the directions of the working fluids opposite.
Based on the simulation results, the total optical efficiency for E-W and
N-S orientations were 65.31% and 69.01% respectively. At zero nor-
malized temperature, the experimental data indicated that N-S
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 33. Sectional diagrams of Maximum Reflector Collectors (MaReCo) for different (a) Stand-alone MaReCo, Aperture tilt 30°; (b) Roof integrated MaReCo design
for a roof angle of 30°; (c) East/west roof MaReCo design for a roof facing west; (d) Spring/fall MaReCo designed for a roof tilted 30°; (e) Wall MaReCo designed for a
south facing wall (Adsten et al., 2005).
collectors performed 4% higher than E-W collectors.
Lu et al. (2013) experimentally investigated solar adsorption chiller
and LiBr-H2O absorption chiller with new medium CPC solar collectors.
Experimentally, it was found that when the adsorption chiller was
powered by 55 °C of hot water, the obtained average solar COP of the
system was 0.16. In the absorption cooling system, the achieved
average solar COP was 0.19 with the efficiency of the evacuated tube
CPC solar collector as 0.5 and the hot water temperature obtained was
125 °C. The solar absorption chiller system operated in two working
modes, one was heating mode in winter and the other was cooling mode
in summer. Figs. 36 and 37 are the installed units of solar adsorption
and absorption chiller systems respectively in China. The absorption
chiller was powered by relatively high temperature hot water (usually
≥80 °C).
Sagade et al. (2014) explored the experimental results of the pro-
totype of compound parabolic trough made of mild steel and silver
coated selective surface. Evaluation of collector performance has been
made with three kinds of receiver’s coated with two kinds of receiver
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coatings black copper, black zinc and top cover. Two different types of
receivers are utilized (i) copper receiver and (ii) mild steel receiver.
Using regression analysis, simple relationship between the parameters
such as (i) receiver temperatures with heat losses, (ii) receiver tem-
peratures with collector efficiencies, (iii) receiver temperatures with
outlet water temperatures and (iv) receiver temperatures with tem-
perature gradients were worked out. Positive relations were found for
the cases (i), (iii) and (iv), whereas negative relation was found for the
case (ii).
Widyolar et al. (2014) and Winston et al. (2014) analyzed the
performance of 53.3 m2 XCPC trough collectors for operating a 23 kW
double effect (Water and LiBr pair) absorption chiller. For XCPC col-
lector, an average daily efficiency of 36.7% and instantaneous effi-
ciencies up to 40% were obtained with collector operating temperature
ranging from 160 °C to 180 °C. The solar cooling system was designed,
installed and tested for different conditions such as cloudy day per-
formance, typical performance and performance test with dirty collec-
tors and after cleaning by UC solar group at the UC Merced castle
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Fig. 34. Cross sectional view of the full and truncated (a) SSACPC solar collector and (b) DSACPC solar collector (Nkwetta and Smyth, 2012).

research facility, University of California. Calorimetric technique is

used for the measurement of collector performance. Winston et al.
(2014) suggested that by eliminating the intermediate water-glycol
loop and associated heat exchanger, makes the heat transfer oil flow
directly to the chiller, with improved system efficiency and simplified
operation of the system.
Okoronkwo et al. (2014) presented the experimental study on per-
formance evaluation of a thermo-syphon water heating system using a
CPC solar collector at Owerri, Imo state Nigeria. The experimental re-
sults were highlighted with the following observations: (i) Using this
system with insulated water tank containing 200 L of water can be
heated to 99.1 °C from an initial temperature of 25.8 °C. (ii) The ab-
sorber surface temperature can go above 100 °C. (iii) The system effi-
ciency ranges from 43 to 69 %. The lower efficiency value may be at-
tributed due to high relative humidity value for Owerri region, (iv)
Prevailing weather condition was considered as a highly dependent
factor for the performance of the CPC collector thermo-syphon system,
(v) By incorporating a transparent cover over the collector and also
providing proper insulation over the water tank, the system perfor-
mance can be improved significantly, and (vi) Economically, this study
showed that this system will compete favorably with conventional
electric powered heating system. Fig. 36. Installed solar adsorption chiller system in Dezhou city, China (Lu et al.
Gu et al. (2014) analyzed an innovative portable solar collector with 2013).
a non-tracking CPC solar collector as shown in Figs. 10 and 38. The
solar flux distribution on the receiver was determined using ray tracing Wang et al. (2014) conducted an experimental study and numerical
optical analysis and experimentally measured properties as a function simulation on a new type all-glass evacuated tubular solar air heater
of incidence angle. At reasonable flow rates, the stagnation temperature with simplified CPC with the setup shown in Fig. 39. Fig. 40 shows the
of collector allows efficient methanol reforming. sectional view of the glass evacuated tubular solar air heater. The

Fig. 35. Schematic of the test facility (Kim et al., 2013).

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V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Fig. 37. Installed solar absorption chiller system in Jinan city, China (Lu et al., 2013).

system consisted of 10 linked collecting panels and each panel com-
prised of a simplified CPC with a U-shaped copper tube located inside
the evacuated tube and a heat conduction medium between the inner
glass tube and U-shaped tube. The results showed that the system outlet
air temperature exceeds 200 °C for relatively large air flow rate even in
winter. The comparative results of experimental and calculated data
showed that the proposed model meets the general requirements of
engineering calculations.
Lu and Wang (2014) presented experimental performance
investigation and economic analysis of three small solar cooling systems
with different kinds of collectors and sorption chillers. The integrated
combinations were traditional ETC with silica gel-water adsorption
chiller, high efficient evacuated tube CPC solar collector with single
effect LiBr absorption chillers and PTC solar collector with double effect
LiBr absorption chillers. The obtained hot water temperature from the
solar collectors were 60–85 °C, 85–125 °C and 125–150 °C respectively.
The auxiliary heat sources for the solar cooling systems were natural
gas boilers. Silica gel water adsorption chiller can be driven by hot

Fig. 38. Schematic of the micro solar concentrator (a) close view of the copper receiver and (b) cross section of the combined tube (Gu et al., 2014).

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V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Fig. 39. Solar air heating system using CPC solar collector (Wang et al., 2014).

when compared to BCCCT absorber, due to higher emissivity of glass

tube (0.84) than BCCCT (0.2–0.4). A vacuum pressure of below 10−3
mbar was maintained between the outer glass tube and the absorber
with the help of Turbo pumping station.
Arunkumar et al. (2016) experimentally studied the performance of
CPC-assisted tubular solar still (CPC-TSS) and CPC-concentric tubular
solar still (CPC-CTSS) with different augmentation systems. The pro-
ductivity of the un-augmented CPC-TSS and CPC-CTSS were 3.71 l/day
AND 4.96 l/day, respectively. Considering the heat extraction tech-
nique, the productivity of CPC-CTSS (with a single slope solar still) and
CPC-CTSS (with a pyramid solar still) were 6.46 l/day and 7.77 l/day,
respectively.
Milczarek et al. (2017) designed to produce 40 kW of heating power
using 98.3 m2 XCPC solar collector integrated with small scale double
drum dryer and also demonstrated the potential for solar thermal en-
ergy to cater the heat for drum drying fruit and vegetable pomaces.
Fig. 40. Cross sectional view of the glass evacuated tubular solar air heater Optimization of the system was performed via a split-plot design. To
(Wang et al., 2014). determine the significance of four independent variables such as added
water, added maltodextrin carrier, dwell time, and drum surface tem-
water of 55 °C. perature analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied. To assess the
Wang et al. (2015) designed and conducted experiments using drying performance, the response variables such as moisture content
simplified CPCs consisting of a set of evacuated tube with high tem- and overall color change were chosen.
perature air heaters and concentric tube heat exchanger for the air flow Pouyfaucon and García-Rodríguez (2018) assessed solar thermal-
for industrial applications. Between the evacuated tube and concentric powered desalination technologies to identify key issues for develop-
copper tube was filled with a resilient stainless steel mesh layer as ment in market. He considered different scenes: (i) Rural communities
shown in Fig. 41, instead paste mixture of high temperature oil and with limited fresh water demand; (ii) Regions with high demands of
graphite powder of the previous work as shown in Fig. 40 (Wang et al., both, water and electricity and (iii) Intermediate water demands; and
2014). The system unit comprised of 30 linked all-glass evacuated tube
collecting units. The article focused on the further improvement in
performance of the solar collector from the authors’ previous study
(Wang et al., 2014). Investigation of its thermal performance was
conducted and the results demonstrated that even in the winter the
designed solar air collector had an excellent high temperature col-
lecting performance with maximum temperature that can reach up to
230 °C on sunny days.
Zheng et al. (2016) designed a SCPC collector (Fig. 42) which
provides low temperature hot water for space heating in cold regions.
The maximum experimental thermal efficiency of the collector was
obtained as 60.5%. Li et al. (2016) experimentally and numerically
analyzed the vacuum-packaged volumetric receiver and vacuum-pack-
aged black chrome-coated receiver CPC solar collector. The optical ef-
ficiency of MWCNTs nanofluid receiver with/without vacuum glass
packaging was found to be lesser than the black chrome-coated copper
tube (BCCCT) absorber with/without vacuum packaging. This was due
to the optical reflective losses from outer glass surface of the nanofluid
receiver. Also, particularly at higher temperatures the overall heat loss
Fig. 41. Provision of stainless steel mesh between the concentric copper tube
was approximately doubling for the glass tube (nanofluid receiver)
and evacuated tube (Wang et al., 2015).

317
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 42. Structure of the SCPC solar collector (Zheng et al., 2016).
also presented a detailed analysis of solar thermal-driven desalination
in comparison with solar PV/RO (Reverse osmosis). His highpoints
were, fully developed membrane distillation systems, will have the
marketplace opportunities for very small-capacity seawater desalina-
tion. Solar thermal-driven reverse osmosis for seawater desalination is
of major advantage as it requires less energy. Also, the possibility of
using thermal storage instead of batteries makes it much more ad-
vantageous.
Xu et al. (2017) reported an experimental investigation of a newly
proposed solar collector that integrates a closed-end PHP, used as an
absorber and CPC. Prototype of the solar collector was built, with a PHP
absorber bent by 4 mm diameter copper tube and with the collection
area of 300 × 427.6 mm2. The operating characteristics and thermal
efficiency of the solar collector were studied and the collector appar-
ently shows start-up, operational and shutdown stages at the starting
and ending temperatures of 75 ⁰C. The experimental results suggested
that the heat flux of the PHP absorber’s evaporation section con-
centrated by CPC was appropriate and the use of CPC was reasonable.
Collector’s instantaneous thermal efficiency can reach up to 50%, when
the direct normal irradiance is 800 W/m2.
Li et al. (2018) designed and tested a small-sized solar seawater
desalination system with multi-effect heat recovery processes using CPC
solar collector. The designed system was made up of 7 heat collecting
integration units divided into 7 temperature/pressure states. Standard
CPC was modified by truncating the reflector in order to increase col-
lecting time. The system satisfied primary demand and showed good
freshwater production performance. The study also provided useful
guidelines for the development of passive type of high effective solar
desalination system.
The experimental tests were carried out by Aguilar-Jiménez et al.
(2018) simultaneously and the analysis of the effects of varying mass
Table 5
Consolidated results obtained for various CPC solar collector configurations.
Source: Prapas et al. (1987).
Sl. No. CPC Solar collector configuration
1. Collector with either an evacuated cavity or selective absorber with low CR less than 1.55
2. Collector with non-evacuated, a non-selective absorber
3. Collector with an evacuated cavity, a selective absorber and a CR of 3.85.
4. Collector with high CR greater than 3.85.
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
flow, the inlet temperature at the collectors and changes in the ambient
temperature and solar radiation were studied. The results showed that
on average, CPC with an E-W orientation had an increased optical ef-
ficiency (of 57.5%) than the N-S orientation (which reached 51.3%).
The coefficient of heat losses was also higher for CPC in E-W position
than the N-S position. CPC orientation will depend on the range of
temperature and working hour as the N-S position will be limited to a
concentration time due to its acceptance angle.
6.2. Theoretical studies
6.2.1. Numerical studies
The mathematical model was much helpful in designing and opti-
mizing the solar collector (Zheng et al., 2016). Prapas et al. (1987)
presented a theoretical analysis of all the heat exchanges in the pro-
posed CPC solar collector and their predictions were compared with
experimental results and adequate corroboration was obtained. The
absorber configuration considered for the analysis is a tube with or
without a spectrally-selective surface, either directly exposed or en-
closed within one or two glass envelopes. The following results are
observed and tabulated in Table 5 for an acceptable lower limit of 40%
instantaneous collector efficiency.
Chew et al. (1989) numerically simulated the laminar free convec-
tion in a CPC solar collector cavity using the finite element method with
first order triangular elements and the φ-ω formulation of the gov-
erning equation. The results obtained numerically are compared with
those from a parallel experimental study and found to be very sa-
tisfactory. The present analysis mainly focused the convective heat
transfer between the tubular absorber and the flat top of the con-
centrator cavity. As the truncation of CPC cavity was from full height to
one-third full height, the convective heat transfer rate between the
absorber and top got increased.
Eames and Norton (1991) formulated the heat transfer coefficient in
terms of fluid inlet, ambient temperature and insolation level. Kim et al.
(2008) carried out numerical work for evacuated CPC solar collector.
Thermal processes in a CPC collector with flat one-sided absorber was
studied theoretically through mathematical equations by Tchinda and
Ngos (2006) and also validated the proposed mathematical model with
experimental study done by Rabl. An expression for the temperature of
the HTF was developed as a function of the space co-ordinate in the
flow direction and time dependent solar intensity. Also, the effect of
some of the design parameters like rate of the fluid flow, inlet tem-
perature, CPC length, selective coating and mirror reflectance was
analyzed. The results showed that the shorter CPC length was more
efficient than long length.
Chaves and Pereira (2007) presented the practical designs for
photocatalysis. To treat contaminated water chemically or biologically,
the solar radiation spectrum could be used in the presence of a catalyst
(Photo catalysis) or in Photo Fenton techniques. To collect and deliver
solar radiation for the treatment of the contaminated water, an efficient
optics is required. The authors used non-imaging optics (CPC collector)
for the water treatment. It was found that concentration falls short by
∼1% of the maximum ideal concentration because of caustic formation
inside the dielectric.
Sharma and Diaz (2011) numerically investigated the thermal
Achievable Absorber Temperature
Below 70 °C
Below 115 °C
(Actual value depends on the CR)
up to 290 °C
Above 290 °C
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

performance of solar collector consisted of a novel minichannel with U-
shaped flat tube absorber of selective coating on its external surface and
was enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope (Fig. 43). Operation at
higher temperatures was benefited by the reduction in the heat path
from the absorber surface to the working fluids. The entire assembly of
minichannel was enclosed in an evacuated glass tube and glass to metal
seals were used to maintain the vacuum. The performance of the
minichannel based solar collector with and without a concentrator was
compared against the results of an evacuated tube collector without
minichannels from the literature. In minichannel based solar collector
without concentrator, the following observations were made:
• The effect of mass flow rate beyond 10 −3
kg/s had no significant
effect on fluid outlet temperature and collector efficiency of the
respective fluid inlet temperatures,
• The collector efficiency was reduced by increasing the fluid inlet
temperature due to radiation losses,
• The minichannel based solar collector shows a significant ad-
vantage, particularly at higher operating temperatures,
• The pressure drop level inside the minichannel based collector can
offset any gain in heat transfer and
• High flow rates and low temperatures were not recommended for
the operation of the collector.
cover, double glazing with 12 mm air layer, double glazing with low-e
coated lower glass with 12 mm air layer and double glazing with low-e
coated lower glass with 12 mm argon layer. Among all double glazing
with low-e coated, lower glass with argon layer performed better.
Nashine and Kishore (2017) analyzed the performance of a CPC
collector and compared its performance for two different locations such
as Visakhapatnam and Mumbai by considering the solar radiation data
from the Indian Meteorological Department. The evaluated results
showed the potential of improving the thermal efficiency up to 75%.
The collector was designed for the steam temperature of 150 °C. The
authors concluded with the following statements: (i) The variation of
solar intensity was highly fluctuating for Mumbai during the seven
months from December to June, while for Visakhapatnam it was almost
the same except during February, (ii) The efficiency for both the cities
were almost similar for most of the months except May and June, for
which the solar collector placed at Mumbai had 14% higher efficiency
than that of Visakhapatnam, (iii) In both the cities, the heat transfer
coefficient increases with mass flow rate due to increase in temperature
difference. In Mumbai, it was found that the heat transfer was 5%
higher than that of Visakhapatnam, (iv) The useful heat rate for Visa-
khapatnam was 9.4% more than that of Mumbai and (v) The heat re-
moval factor increases linearly with the mass flow rate and they found
that for both cities the values are almost the same.

In minichannel based solar collector with a concentrator, the fol-

6.2.2. Simulation studies
lowing observations were made (Sharma and Diaz, 2011): i) The effi-
Table 6 illustrates the simulation tools used to study the CPC solar
ciency at an angle of incidence 0° is lower than the efficiency at 35°
collectors. It covers three different sets of simulation tool: Programming
mainly due to higher gap losses at 0°. Therefore, the configuration was
simulators, Programmed simulators and Ray tracing simulators.
sensitive to the gap loss and ii) This arrangement had a distinct ad-
Florides et al. (2002b) discussed about the modeling and simulation
vantage in terms of efficiency at high operating temperature when
of solar operated single effect, H20 – LiBr pair absorption cooling
compared to the literature.
system using TRNSYS software for Nicosia, Cyprus, covering a typical
Antonelli et al. (2014) presented a study on a thermal power plant
house load during the whole year. They also investigated the applica-
(ORC) that uses an expansion device driven with pressurized vapor
tion of different collectors such as FPC, CPC and ETC for the solar based
generated with the heat collected by a CPC collector solar field. An
absorption cooling system using TRNSYS software. The article had
analytical model of the collector was presented for the evaluation of
shown the economic viability of the proposed system for both cooling as
collected heat w.r.t. sun incidence angle, external temperature, inlet
well as hot water generation for home needs. Additionally, the article
carrier fluid temperature and mass flow rate. Numerical model was
presented the performance and evaluation of long term integrated
developed for the evaluation of delivered power, isentropic efficiency
system and behavior of dynamic system. Kim et al. (2008) investigated
and specific working fluid consumption. The steady state analysis of
the heat flux with the incidence angle using ray-tracing code TRACE
global electrical energy delivered was presented as a function of both
PRO. The amount of absorbed heat flux analyzed with the incident
the thermodynamic parameters of the plant and the geometrical para-
angle and the beam intensity with a ray-trace projection of 1,00,000
meters of the collector. The considered saturation temperature (Tsat)
rays apart from fixed positions was carried out in the 2D models for
range for the analysis purpose was 80–130 °C. Using different combi-
nations of CR and solar collector tilt angle, same amount of collected
energy was obtained. Higher value of solar collector tilt angle provides
a more constant energy collection along the year. The maximum yearly
amount of energy is collected, when Tsat = 120 °C with the CR and tilt
angle in the range of 1.75–2.25 and 35–50° respectively. The optimal
tilt angle was found to be 40° and CR = 1.75, these values were arrived
by assuming that there was no tilt adjustment throughout the year.
Zheng et al. (2016) studied the effects of key parameters including
the structural and operating parameters of the thermal performance of
SCPC collector. A detailed mathematical model was developed based on
the analysis of heat transfer and further solved using software tool
Matlab. The key parameters are length, diameter and emissivity of the
tube receiver, CR, ambient temperature, solar radiation intensity, water
flow velocity and water inlet temperature.
Kessentini and Bouden (2016) presented the numerical simulation,
design and construction of a double-glazed ICS with CPC reflectors
(Fig. 44). The use of double glazing with argon layer and low-e coated
lower glass instead of one glass cover shows significant improvement in
thermal behavior of the ICS heater and reduction in the thermal losses
during the night through simulation results. The results were presented
as variation of the water temperature during stagnation test, daily and
diurnal efficiencies and thermal loss coefficient during the night. The
different investigation models were studied such as ICS with single glass Fig. 43. Minichannel based solar collector (Sharma and Diaz, 2011).

319
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 44. Photo of constructed double glazed ICS solar heater with CPC reflector
(Kessentini and Bouden, 2016).
both stationary and tracking CPC solar collectors.
Tchinda (2008) computed the thermal performance of an air heater
with a truncated CPC through mathematical model for a flat one-sided
absorber painted with non-selective matte black. Also, the author in-
vestigated the influence of air mass flow rate, wind speed and the
collector length of the air heater thermal performance. Using a con-
structed computer code, a theoretical solution procedure of the energy
equations for the solar air heater was discussed in predicting its thermal
performance.
Buttinger et al. (2010) developed and analyzed a new stationary,
low-concentrating collector for the economical supply of solar process
heat of the temperature between 120 °C and 150 °C. Asymmetrical re-
flectors with a concentration of 0.6X located below the headers pro-
vided extra radiation and prevented longitudinal radiation losses. They
discussed about the merits and demerits of both asymmetric and sym-
metric reflectors. The heat losses were suppressed by using air or inert
gas like krypton at a pressure below 10 mbar. The collector heat losses
with air could be minimized as 50% and with krypton as 75%, com-
pared to air at 1 bar. Optimal troughs were developed with the aid of
FEM simulations.
Balkoski (2011) performed optical and thermal models by applying
optical efficiency data as inputs. Using LightTools, the optical char-
acteristics of systems were analyzed. The software performed Monte
Carlo simulations for ray-tracing. The thermal models highlighted the
results of previous works and also compared with the experimental
results.
Hang and Qu (2011) presented the development of a method to
optimize an integrated solar absorption cooling and heating (SACH)
system. The building and secondary systems were analyzed using En-
ergy plus and by using TRNSYS, the experimental trials (plant analysis)
were conducted. A case study was conducted to apply the optimization
method for the design of an integrated SACH system installed in a
medium-sized office at Los Angeles. Regression analysis was used to
identify the relationship between the life cycle primary energy savings
Fig. 45. Visual ray tracing numerical simulation by using Tonatiuh software
(Santos-González et al., 2014).
320
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
and the system factors according to the data provided by experiments.
The system mainly consists of the non-tracking XCPC solar collectors, a
buffer storage tank, an absorption chiller, a hot storage tank and an
auxiliary heater in the space heating loop. The collector can achieve
temperature up to 180 °C with 40% of the solar collector efficiency. No
extra auxiliary heater is required in the cooling loop as the dual fired
double effect absorption chiller was driven either by hot water or
natural gas. The energy system simulation consists of two major parts: i)
building simulation and ii) energy supply system simulation. The
output variables such as fuel demand and consumption were predicted
and used to calculate the life cycle primary energy savings.
Gu et al. (2014) conducted experiments on non-tracking CPC solar
collector using Ray tracing simulation. Some of the key factors for the
optical performance is the quality of the selective absorber, absorption,
transmission and reflection by the glass cover and absorption by CPC
reflector. Simulation results were observed as follows:
• The expected overall optical efficiency fluctuates between 0.75 and
0.80, over all operational transversal angles which shows that the
collector optical performance is insensitive with time,
• For the transversal angle less than 20°, the optical losses were
negligible and when increased to 25° considerable amount of rays
pass through the gap between the receiver and the CPC reflector,
• When the transversal angle is 0°, then the heat flux along the re-
ceiver is symmetric and highest heat flux was observed at the edges
of the receiver due to the reflection by the partial circle, and for 10°,
the power on the top and bottom of the receiver were almost the
same and for 10° to 27.4°, the peak heat flux moved from the left
side towards the right side of the receiver respectively,
• The optical efficiency generally decreases with increasing long-
itudinal angle,
• When the longitudinal angle is less than 20°, the heat flux is larger
than 2.2 kW/m2, for which working temperature of more than
250 °C is achieved.
• For the transversal angle of 27.4°, almost all the rays are con-
centrated around the parabola focal point for both top and bottom
surfaces.
Santos-González et al. (2014) designed the CPC with copper cy-
lindrical receiver using a detailed 1D numerical model. In this article,
two CPC geometries of acceptance angles 30° and 40° were proposed
based on numerical simulation and commercial availability of the ma-
terial; one of them with 30° was tested experimentally at different inlet
temperatures and mass flow rates. Experimental results obtained show
that this technology could provide stable temperatures for industrial
processes. The parameters that were analyzed in the article are thermal
efficiency, increment of water temperature, UEG of the working fluid
and pressure drop in the collector. Ray tracing analysis using Tonatiuh
software was conducted for truncated and non-truncated models to
quantify optical energy losses. Fig. 45 shows the visual outcome of
Tonatiuh software. The highest UEG collected was 1.47 kW at a mass
flow rate of 12 kg/min, with solar irradiance on the collector plane of
1026 W/m2 and ambient temperature of 36 °C. The maximum increase
in temperature with water as the working fluid was 7 °C for mass flow
rate of 2 kg/min, solar irradiance in the collector plane of 1054 W/m2,
collector inlet water and ambient temperatures were 42.5 °C and
35.6 °C respectively. The highest pressure drop found was 1.2 kPa for
the mass flow rate of 12 kg/min.
Hess (2014) developed a stationary, double-covered process heat
flat-plate collector with a one-sided, segmented booster reflector (Re-
fleC), which approximates one branch of a CPC. The work included
contribution of the instantaneous and the annual output of low-con-
centrating solar thermal collectors, which was investigated by ray tra-
cing and monitoring of a pilot plant. External reflectors can highly in-
crease the gain of stationary solar thermal collectors. From the
simulation results, it is revealed that the RefleC booster increases the
 Table 6
Particulars of the simulation tools for CPC solar collectors.

S.NO Reference Type of Tool Software Name Origin Methodology Used Year Current version Developers Type
V. Pranesh, et al.

1 f-chart (2018); Programming F-CHART Madison, WI, F-Chart Method 1975 Version 10 S.A. Klein and W.A. Analysis and design
Löf (1993) Tool United States Beckman program
2 f-chart (2018) Programming EES Madison, WI, MARTIN hou (1955) – Version 10.342 Developed by F-Chart Equation Solving
Tool United States equation of state and 2018 Software (by Professor Program
fundamental equation Sanford A Klein from
of state (Tillner-Roth Department of
(1998)) approach. Mechanical
Engineering University of
Wisconsin-Madison).
3 Sørensen et al. Programmed/ TRNSYS University of Successive substitition 1975 Version 18 University of Wisconsin Modular system
(2009); Programming Wisconsin method by the members of Solar simulation program
Gravagne and Tool Energy Laboratory
Treuren (2008);
Riederer et al.
(2009); TRNSYS
(2018); Zhou
(2013)
4 Vela (2018) Programmed/ Polysun Switzerland Various methods are 1992 Version: 10.1 Northern lights solar Simulation software
Programming followed based on the solutions and partnership for renewable
Tool applications such as with Vela Solaris. energy sector (such
Approximate as performance of
calculation method for solar heating
solar fraction system)
calculation; Rainflow
Cycle counting method

321
for battery lifetime
estimation; Automatic,
Catalog & From file
methods used for cold
water supply system
calcuation; Number of
transfer units –
Effectiveness for air/
water heat exchanger
calcuation.
5 Das (2013); Programming MATLAB Natick, – 1984 MATLAB 9.3 MathWorksdesigned by Object-Oriented
Math (2018) Tool (Matrix Massachusetts, (R2017b) Cleve Moler, Chief Programming
Laboratory) U.S.A. Mathematician, chairman
and cofounder
6 Baloi et al. Programmed SIMULINK Natick, – 1984 R2017b MathWorksdesigned by Simulation and
(2015); Math Tool Massachusetts, Cleve Moler, Chief model-based design
(2018) U.S.A. Mathematician, chairman
and cofounder
7 Synopsys (2018) Ray tracing Light tools Mountain View, – 1986 8.5 Synopsys Design, simulation,
simulator California, optimization and
U.S.A. analysis solution
8 Zemax (2018) Ray tracing OpticStudio Kirkland, Works by ray 1990 18.1 Dr. Ken Moore; ZEMAX Optical design and
simulator Washington, tracing—modelling the analysis
U.S.A. ray's path through an
optical system. Contrast
optimization by using
Moore Elliott method –
Zemax.
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
 Table 6 (continued)

S.NO Reference Type of Tool Software Name Origin Methodology Used Year Current version Developers Type

9 COMSOL (2018) Ray tracing COMSOL Stockholm, Finite Element Method 1986 5.3a Svante Littmarck and Modelling and
V. Pranesh, et al.

simulator Multiphysics Sweden Farhad Saeidi, COMSOL simulation software

group
10 Hardy and Steeb Ray tracing Radiance and Gemany Photon mapping – – RADIANCE 5.0 Fraunhofer Institute for Simulation software
(2008); simulator RADIANCE forward raytracing Solar Energy Systems ISE
Radiance Photon Map (P technique which
(2018); Ward Map) supplements Radiance's
(1994) standard backward ray-
tracer. Monte Carlo
sampling method for
integration of
contributions (diffuse
skylight,
interreflection).
11 Abraham et al. Ray tracing Photopia U.S.A. Monte Carlo Raytracing 1996 Photopia LTI Optics Non-imaging optical
(2018); Photopia simulator method 2017.3 design software.
(2018)
12 Ansys (2018) Ray tracing ANSYS U.S.A. Hybrid finite-element/ 1970 ANSYS 18.2 John Swanson Engineering
simulator CFX,CFD finite-volume approach simulation software
13 LMS (2018); Ray tracing AMESim U.S.A. Based on the Bond 1995 LMS Siemens PLM Software Modeling and
Neto et al. simulator (Advanced graph theory Imagine.Lab simulation software
(2007) Modeling Amesim 15
Environment
for Simulation
of Engineering
System) (or

322
LMS
Imagine.Lab
AMESim)

S.NO Highlights Price Merits Demerits Operating Platform Sectors Applications Programming language

1 Life-cycle economics One-time Weather data (over Parameter All version of MS – Educational –
analysis; charge of $600 300 locations and can range is Windows. and
Variation in monthly (including one be added based on limited. commercial
parameter; year of instant requirement); Various applica-
Two dimensional IAM; update types of collectors tions.
BS and SI units. service). (FPC, ETC, CPC, one
and two axis tracking)
can be analyzed.
2 Solves simultaneous $ 600 (Single) Thermodynamic and Difficult to All version of MS Mechanical Engineering Interated tp Fortran,
non-linear equations transport property incorporate Windows. engineering. applica- C/C++, Python, Excel
up to 6000 database consisting of specific tions; and MATLAB.
(Commercial version), high accuracy. Very diagnostic Propagate
12,000 (32-bit fast computational capability. the
Professional version) speed. Uncertainty uncertainty
and 24,000 (64-bit analysis, optimization of
version). Helpful in of single & multi- experi-
solving problems variable and regression mental data.
related to capability. Consistency
thermodynamics, fluid checking of unit
mechanics and heat conversion and
transfer with the automatic unit.
support of inbuilt data Spreadsheet-like table
bank of for parametric studies.
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

(continued on next page)

 Table 6 (continued)

S.NO Highlights Price Merits Demerits Operating Platform Sectors Applications Programming language

thermodynamic and
V. Pranesh, et al.

transport properties.
3 It is made of two parts: $ 5060 (Single Behavior of transient Mixed quality All version of MS Researchers Solar Fortran, C, C++,
i) Engine (Kernel) and user license – systems can be of the Windows. to systems language having
ii) Extensive library of Commercial simulated by extremely documenta- consultants, (solar compiler capable of
components. The Price) and $ flexible graphical tion, TRNSYS engineers to thermal and creating a DLL.
engine reads and 2530 (10 user environmental almost building PV
processes the input file, license- software (TRNSYS). always simulation systems),
iteratively solves the Educational Dynamic systems such reports unit experts, and low energy
system, determines Price). as traffic flow or mismatches, students to buildings
thermophysical biological processes error architects. and HVAC
properties, inverts can be modelled. propagation. systems,
matrices, performs renewable
linear regression and energy
interpolates external systems,
data files. cogenera-
tion, fuel
cells.
4 Time-saving and Annual Effectively simulate Only with Windows 7/8.1/ Best suited Design of Java, Python, Matlab
professional system Subscription: € solar thermal, PV and considerable 10 and MAC OS X for: engi- solar
design; 949 (Polysun geothermal systems; amount of 10.11.3 or above neering thermal,
Integration of Professional Easy optimization of uncertainty offices, heat pump,
worldwide weather Solar thermal existing and proposed the long-term designing PV systems
data for reliable yield Simulation) systems; User-friendly predictions of engineers, and
prediction. in report generation; future energy combined
Continuous updation in inflation rate consultan- systems

323
the product databases; of an cies,
Automization of economic producers.
multiple simulaitons. area are
possible.
5 Support provided for MATLAB Allows users to Requires Windows, Linux, Scientists, Automotive C, C++, C#, Java,
MATLAB commands INR 1,45,000 accurately solve skilled and Macintosh. researchers, systems, Fortran and Python
with automation, Individual and problems, easily programmer. and aerospace
contextual hints for USD 23 produce graphics and engineers flight
arguments, property (MATLAB produce code (Automotiv- control and
values and alternative Student – efficiently. e, aerospace, avionics,
syntaxes; Analyzing unbundled) communica- telecommu-
and modeling text data tions, nications
of proposed design; electronics, and other
Problem based industrial electronics
optimization using automation equipment,
simple methods; industries) industrial
Without SQL, database machinery
explorer app visualizes and medical
relational databases. devices.
6 Simulation Manager USD 45 The results are Restrictions Windows, Linux, Engineers Automotive C, C++, C#, Java,
(Monitor, inspect and (MATLAB and centralized in a list on code and Macintosh. and systems, Fortran and Python
visualize simulation Simulink which is accessible generated Scientists aerospace
progress and student suite) using powergui button; from Worldwide flight
outcomes); Possibility to export Simscape Rely on control and
Advanced Simulation the results in other models; Some Simulink avionics,
Data Inspector UI and useful files format (xls tools and (Automotiv- telecommu-
API; spreadsheets). features do e, aerospace, nications
Reduced memory not work with communica- and other
usage for large models. Simscape tions, electronics
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
 Table 6 (continued)

S.NO Highlights Price Merits Demerits Operating Platform Sectors Applications Programming language

blocks and its electronics, equipment,

V. Pranesh, et al.

software. industrial industrial

automation machinery
industries) and medical
devices.
7 Sophisticated solid $ 48,000 (full Offers many time- May require Windows 7 LEDs, LED –
modeling with equipped, saving solutions; significantly displays, speedom-
accuracy; including a Increase Engineering disk space for general eter, LED
Ray tracing speed with permanent Productivity. large models lighting, flashlight,
user control accuracy license) and complex solar, LED lamp,
and resolution analyses. automotive, Cellphone
requirements; Build a stray light applica-
light source for any simulation, tions, LED
geometric model; projectors, street lamp,
Application-specific photorea- luminescent
utilities; Robust data listic solar
exchange support. concen-
trator, solar
power
tower, soar
fresnel
concen-
trator, solar
compound
concentra-
tors utility,

324
solar trough
collector,
CPC skinned
solid etc.,
8 User defined surfaces $ 5600 per Improvement in optical – Windows, Mac OS, Imaging Thermal Zemax programming
and objects; Design user performance; Short Linux, Unix optics, imagers. language macro
complex, custom CAD (Standard) duration to market; Lighting and programming, C#,
objects to create in a Reduction in cost. illumination, MATLAB.
non-sequential optical lasers and
system. fibers.
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
 Table 6 (continued)

S.NO Highlights Price Merits Demerits Operating Platform Sectors Applications Programming language

9 It is to control the $ 1695 (CPU Possibility to export A Windows, MacOS, Engineers Engineering Java
V. Pranesh, et al.

deployment and locked license) geometries, meshes combination Linux and field.
distribution of running and surface plots in the of different scientists
simulation apps. User STL format for 3D materials
developed apps can be printing. remains a
run through web significant
browsers/a Windows- challenge
installed client. task.
10 Can handle arbitrarily – Benefits of photon map – UNIX platforms, Researchers, Lighting C
complex objects; Can are: efficient and including SGI, Sun, educators, system in
integrate with existing globally allows other HP, DEC, Apple architec- architec-
ray tracing techniques. illumination (A/UX) and IBM turers and tural,
phenomena to be engineers. engineering
rendered as it is not and
patent on the method. manufac-
turing firms.
11 LTI Optics are not $800–$75,000 Accurate, The analysis Raysets often Windows 7 Industrial Performanc- –
relied on third party is fast, as it can trace do not have applications. e evaluation
data source, as over millions of rays in accurate 3D of non-
700 fully measured minutes. emanation imaging
materials are available; points, as the optical
Output is relevant and data systems;
standard compliant; complied Architectur-
Inbuilt optical design from a set of al lighting;
tools (AutoCAD, 2D images. Signaling
SolidEdge, devices; UV

325
SOLIDWORKS, Pro/ curing and
Engineer CREO and disinfection;
Inventor). daylighting;
Solar
Concentrat-
or.
12 CFX has outstanding $440 Amazing flexibility, Do not UNIX and – Multi- CFX Expression
robustness and speed accurate, takes support Windows physics Language (CEL)
with rotating simulation to another remote applica-
machineries. level, provides high- display of tions.
memory efficiency, certain
reliable and speed. graphics,
such as
CFX_Pre and
CFD_Post, to
computer
using
Exceed3D
13 Provides a unique – Provides a great Interpreting Windows, UNIX Engineering Academic Matlab, Python and
integrated platform, scalability in main the reuslts are (particularly under and research and Scilab or Microsoft
realistic component physical domains and difficult and Linux) research Excel and Visual basic
and system models for application libraries. lack in application
every stage of cycle. It Generation of complex accuracy of
also enables engineers models are easy and each
to initiate evaluation simulation analysis is parameter's
and validation phases performed quickly. effect.
initially in the design
cycle.
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 46. Photo of the RefleC prototype (Stationary, double covered process heat
flat plate collector with a one-sided, segmented booster reflector) (Hess, 2014).
annual output of the double-covered flat-plate in Wurzburg by 20% at a
constant inlet temperature of 40 °C and 87% at an inlet of 120 °C. The
pilot plant as shown in Fig. 46 is demonstrated for the process heat
generation with RefleC at working temperatures up to 130 °C. Con-
sidering all inlet temperatures, the total annual gains of RefleC was 39%
above the flat-plates without reflectors.
Duong and Diaz (2014) presented numerical simulations of XCPCs
combined with ETCs and PTCs operating with CO2 as a working fluid
for a range of temperatures which covers medium and high range. They
also explored the benefits and drawbacks of using CO2 in a solar
thermal system at medium and high operating temperatures. A math-
ematical model (XCPC collector) was generated for the implementation
in Engineering Equation Solver (EES) to simulate the behavior of
working fluid (CO2). Three different cases were simulated for the XCPC
collector which are Case 1: Analysis of the thermal efficiency of the
collector as a function of working fluid inlet temperature between the
range 50 °C and 220 °C at 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 kg/s mass flow rates,
Case 2: Analysis of the thermal efficiency based on inlet temperature of
CO2 at 9, 10 and 12 MPa operating pressures and Case 3: Analysis of
the effect of solar irradiance for the range between 300 and 1000 W/m2
on the difference between outlet and inlet fluid temperature for the
pressures 8, 9 and 10 MPa. The results for the different cases based on
the consideration are highlighted as Case 1: Thermal efficiency was not
Fig. 47. Profile of the new and old ICS systems respectively (Benrejeb et al., 2015).
326
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
a significant function of mass flow rate, Case 2: The effect of operating
pressure on the thermal efficiency was negligible. The additional de-
crement of pressure will cause a significant reduction in working fluid
density, which creates high flow velocities requirement for the fixed
mass flow rate and Case 3: Difference in temperatures (inlet and outlet
fluid conditions) varies linearly with solar irradiance. A reduction in
operating pressure resulted in a larger temperature difference, parti-
cularly at high values of solar irradiance.
Almeida et al. (2014) presented the simulation of the solar thermal
system by TRNSYS for the identification of parameters with a different
approach, optimized by GENOPT. A good agreement of differences
lesser than ± 5% was obtained as a result for both thermosyphon and
forced circulation systems, when compared with the results using ISS,
v2.7. The objective of the article is to demonstrate the use of TRNSYS
and GENOPT as an alternative to ISS, 2.7.
Sobhansarbandi and Atikol (2015) made the following observations
from the simulation results (i) the TRNSYS results suggested that a 2 m2
CPC solar collector can perform satisfactorily same as that of an 8 m2
flat plate collector array, achieving the same required circulating water
temperature in the radiant slab. Hence lesser space requirement for
system installation of CPC solar collector when compared to FPC; (ii)
FPC and CPC solar collector outlet fluid temperature were between
25−70 °C and 25−95 °C respectively and (iii) higher total energy ab-
sorption by CPC solar collector than FPC.
Benrejeb et al. (2015) presented a new design of an integrated
collector storage solar water heater of capacity 100 l, combined with a
full CPC in order to increase the quantity of absorbed energy and im-
prove the optical and thermal performances. The model consisted of
two concentrating stages where the upper part contains two symme-
trical parabolic sections and the lower part is constituted by three in-
volute reflectors. The lower stage ensures the reception of the reflected
solar rays on absorber surface. The article studied the new and old
designs (as shown in Fig. 47a and b), their optical and thermal per-
formances through the following approaches (i) by providing the
mathematical equations describing the geometric design of the ICS
system, (ii) optical study with ray tracing technique, results and energy
flux distribution on the absorber surface and (iii) heat balance on the
absorber. The old design consisted of full CPC reflectors of three
parabolic sections. Using analytical geometry and vector calculation,
Matlab code was developed for data generation, plotting and simulating
the reflected rays on the CPC reflectors at any instant. The maximum
obtained temperature for the new design is about 65 °C.
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 48. Cross-section view of CPC designed for (a) a U-tube receiver without fins and (b) a hybrid of bifacially irradiated flat receiver and a U-tube receiver (Karwa
et al., 2015).
Karwa et al. (2015) modeled and evaluated the thermohydraulic
performance of a bifacially irradiated receiver which was a hybrid of a
flat and U-tube receiver in a vacuum enclosure with CPC and collector
fluid (Therminol 66) with temperature in the range of 100–300 °C.
Fig. 48 shows the cross-sectional view of CPC designed for (a) a U-tube
receiver without fins and (b) a hybrid of bifacially irradiated flat re-
ceiver and a U-tube receiver. Modeling’s were carried out in the optical
performance, useful heat gain in the collector and pumping losses.
Maximizing the collector effective thermal efficiency was obtained by
optimizing the receiver shape ie., tube and fin dimensions, which was
dependent on the receiver area, gap size, CR, mass flux, fluid tem-
perature, selective surface emissivity, etc. Normally, in the laminar –
turbulent transitional regime, maximum effective thermal efficiency
will be obtained. Due to the higher gap loss for the hybrid receiver, the
optical efficiency will be lower than the tubular receiver. However, the
hybrid receiver had similar or better thermal efficiency than tubular
receiver. The author suggested that by appropriate selection of tube
diameter using the proposed thermal model, improvement in the ef-
fective thermal efficiency can be obtained for the receiver perimeter
with larger value, low to moderate flow rate (≤0.15 kg/s m2) and the
fluid with less viscosity. The optimum outer tube diameter was between
5 and 10 mm with thickness of 1 mm with the dependency of receiver
perimeter and the optimum copper fin thickness up to 1 mm for a mass
flux of ≤0.15 kg/s m2.
Waghmare and Gulhane (2016) designed CPC solar collector and
performed ray tracing analysis without receiver using 2D sketcher
software to distinguish the region of maximum collection and no
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Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
collection of reflected rays. Also, they determined the LD and maximum
diameter of the tubular receiver at the focus of CPC by the geometrical
method of ray tracing and their geometrical relationship. Through ray
tracing analysis, it was observed that the maximum concentration of
reflected rays occurred below the focus and with no reflected rays
around the common focus of CPC. The portion with no reflected rays
from reflector’s half follow an elliptical shape and will be tangent in-
ternally to LD of the receiver at the focus.
Shrivastava et al. (2017) reviewed simulation of solar water heating
system consisting of early works and simulation tools comparison in
relation to TRNSYS. Also, they highlighted that the maximum error
range of 5 to 10% could be provided by TRNSYS. Moreover, assump-
tions, modeling of different components, merits and limitations of si-
mulation were reviewed.
A low profile concentrated solar thermal collector was examined by
Li et al. (2017) which provides medium temperature heat for heating
and cooling applications in commercial buildings. Also, they carried out
the viability of the collector design for solar heating and cooling using a
TRNSYS model. The system consisted of the proposed solar thermal
collectors, a double effect absorption chiller and an auxiliary heater.
Among design options, yearly solar fraction and economic metrics are
used as the selection criteria. The simulation outcomes showed that
2.4 m2 per kW cooling with 40 l/m2 (optimal storage tank specific vo-
lume) was sufficient to achieve 50% of load requirement of the
building.
Zheng et al. (2017) designed, analyzed and tested a compact, semi-
passive beam steering prism array for solar applications, thereby
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

Table 7
Details of the application of CPC solar collector in various fields.

Sl. No. Application (Sector Wise) Sub-category Authors/Researchers

1. Solar Thermal Process steam generation Gudekar et al. (2013)

2. Thermal power plant (ORC) Antonelli et al. (2014)
3. Adsorption heat pump for residential cooling (and heating). Lambert (2007)
4. Two stage lithium bromide (Li-Br) absorption chiller for cooling and heating system. Hu et al. (2011)
5. Solar absorption cooling and heating system Hang and Qu (2011)
6. Building heating and cooling applications (Solar based single effect and double Nkwetta and Smyth (2012)
effect absorption cooling systems)
7. Solar adsorption chiller (one two-phase thermo-syphon silica gel-water) and LiBr- Lu et al. (2013)
H2O absorption chiller.
8. Single effect LiBr absorption chillers Lu and Wang (2014)
9. Double effect absorption chiller Balkoski (2011); Widyolar et al. (2014); Winston
et al. (2014)
10. Double effect absorption chiller, Heating and cooling applications in commercial Li et al. (2017)
buildings.
11. Rural applications, such as water heating, steam cooking (Pressure cooker), Oommen and Jayaraman (2001)
sterilization, low power steam generator.
12. Box type solar cooker Harmim et al. (2012)
13. Domestic water heating (of about 90 °C) in buildings in the tropical region Okoronkwo et al. (2014)
14. Integrated collector storage solar water heater Benrejeb et al. (2015)
15. Integrated water storage Kessentini and Bouden (2016)
16. Industrial heating application at lower flow rate Sagade et al. (2014)
17. Methanol reforming process at 250 °C to produce hydrogen for fuel cell Gu et al., (2014)
18. Under floor heating systems Sobhansarbandi and Atikol (2015)
19. Space heating Zheng et al. (2016)
20. Solar air heater Pramuang and Exell (2005) and Tchinda (2008)
21. Air heating (150–230 °C) for industrial application. Wang et al. (2015)
22. Process heat application between 120 °C and 150 °C Buttinger et al. (2010)
23. Process heat in the range of 100–300 °C Karwa et al. (2015)
24. Industrial and commercial heating applications Li et al. (2016)
25. Solar thermal drum drying system (Prune pomace and tomato pomace) Milczarek et al. (2017)
26. Passive solar seawater desalination system Li et al. (2018)
27. Organic Rankine cycle, desalination, and air conditioning Aguilar-Jiménez et al. (2018)
28. Day lighting Solar day lighting system Kaiyan et al., (2007)
29. Others Optical transceiver Yoshinori Matsumoto et al., (2001)
30. Building integrated photovoltaic Guiqiang et al. (2012)
Mammo et al. (2013)
31. Solar distillation system Prasad and Tiwari (1996)
32. To treat chemically or biologically contaminated water Chaves and Pereira (2007)
33. Solar water disinfection Rodríguez et al., (2010)
34. Solar disinfection of urban wastewater Gutiérrez-Alfaro et al., (2018)
35. Solar disinfection of wastewater Maddigpu et al., (2018)
36. Water treatment Expósito et al., (2018)

providing an alternative solution in tracking the sun within limited
space (Rooftops). The proposed design allows the linear concentrator to
remain stationary and also it can be integrated with various solar
concentrators. The proposed system demonstrated that it can increase
the average daily optical efficiency of the collector by 32.7% and also
increase the effective working hours from 6 h to 7.33 h.
7. Applications
Table 7 illustrates the researchers who work in the field of CPC solar
collector on application basis. The information is categorized based on
the literature survey.
Balkoski (2011) concluded that the XCPC technology would be ideal
for applications using a double effect absorption chiller because of high
performance at 140 °C and above. And also, this leads the researchers at
UC Merced to develop and carry out a demonstration project using the
first non-tracking XCPC solar collector to run the double effect ab-
sorption chiller.
Kim et al. (2013) stated that their proposed model of non-tracking
system consists of XCPC with an evacuated counter flow type absorber
is suitable for applications such as solar heating, cooling, desalination,
oil extraction, electricity generation and food processing. Widyolar
et al. (2014) and Winston et al. (2014) mentioned the usability of XCPC
solar collector in solar heating, cooling, food processing, electricity
generation, desalination and oil extraction. Ulavi et al. (2014)
evaluated the performance of a hybrid solar window which consists of
2D CPC that provides heating as well as daylighting (as shown in
Fig. 49).
Li et al. (2016) stated that by overcoming the loss mechanisms in
volumetric receiver type CPC solar collector, results in providing an
effective and low-cost approach, paving the nanotechnology into in-
dustrial heating and air conditioning applications. The proposed col-
lector with lower profile (< 15 cm height) is suitable for supplying
thermal energy in the range of 100–250 °C. Widyolar et al. (2018)
stated that providing heat efficiently up to 200 °C, the XCPC collector
can be used for a number of industrial process heat applications in-
cluding boiler pre-heating, steam generation, absorption cooling, de-
salination, drying, and food processing.
8. Standards and certifications for solar collector
Table 8 illustrates the various standards and certifications for the
solar thermal collectors issued by the technical committees of various
countries and are also described below:
8.1. Standards
• CEN-CENELEC stated the European Standard as, “It carries with it
the obligation to be implemented at national level by being given
the status of a national standard and by the withdrawal of any

328
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 49. Schematic diagram of hybrid solar window with typical cross-section view (Ulavi et al., 2014).
conflicting national standard“. EN standards are valid for 34 CEN-
CENELEC member countries (CEN, 2018).
• Mexican standard (NMX-ES-004-NORMEX-2010) applies to do-
mestic solar water heating systems that work by: Natural or ther-
mosyphonic circulation and Forced circulation (Technologies using
FPC, ETC and CPC collectors) (NMX, 2018). This standard cannot be
applied to solar collectors with tracking systems and systems with
more than one TES tank.
• ISO standard was developed by CEN Technical Committee, Thermal
solar systems and components, in collaboration with ISO Technical
Committee, Solar energy in accordance with the Agreement on
technical cooperation between ISO and CEN (Vienna Agreement)
(ISO, 2018). ISO is a worldwide federation of national standard of
bodies.
– In ISO 9459-5:2007, by means of whole system tests, the system
performance is characterized using a ‘black box’ approach (ISO,
2018).
– ISO 9806:2017 is valid to all types of fluid heating solar collectors,
hybrid solar collectors (co-generating heat and electric power), for
laboratory testing and for in situ testing. It is not applicable for
collectors with an integral thermal storage unit to the extent of
collection process, not separated from the storage process for
measuring purposes (collector thermal performance) (ISO, 2018).
• Canadian Standard (CAN/CSA-F378 SERIES-11) (CSA, 2018)
comprises of F378.1-11 and F378.1-11 standards. F378.1-11 applies
to liquid heating solar collectors such as glazed/unglazed FPC,
glazed ETC, ICS systems with time constant < 30 minimum and
concentrating collectors with θa > 30°. F378.2-11 applies to air
heating solar collectors with glazed/unglazed and closed/open loop
configurations.
• ASHRAE (ASHRAE, 2010; ASHRAE, 2018) is a global professional
association seeking to advance HVAR systems in design and con-
struction. It focuses on building systems, energy efficiency, indoor
air quality, refrigeration and sustainability within the industry.
329
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
8.2. Certifications
Solar Keymark is a CEN/CENELEC European mark scheme (ESTIF,
2018). This scheme has a network, which acts together with CEN. After
two Solar Keymark schemes I and II, more than two thirds of the col-
lectors sold had Solar Keymark.
SEIA (SEIA, 2018) is a non-profit trade association of the solar en-
ergy industry that develops education and outreach programs for the
development of solar energy in the U.S.
DIN CERTCO (DIN, 2018) demonstrates the quality, safety, effi-
ciency and reliability of the products. It concerns the following activ-
ities such as: develops objective assessment criteria, thus ensuring the
high quality services and expert advice; certifies service providers;
awards quality marks; and keeps the level of quality of companies and
their employees.
SHAMCI (SHAMCI, 2018) is an Arab certification scheme which
promotes adopting standard quality measures, accreditation systems
and quality labels across the Arab states.
ICC-SRCC is an ISO 17065-accredited third-party certification body
with programs for the certification and performance rating of solar
thermal and small wind turbines (SRCC, 2018).
The performance of the solar collector is analyzed based on time
constant. The time required for the collector outlet temperature to rise
by 63.2% of the total increase with the proceeding step rise in solar
irradiance at time zero is defined as the time constant of collector (Kim
et al., 2013). Buttinger et al. (2010) carried out tests according to DIN
12975. Nkwetta and Smyth (2012) evaluated the experimental results
and analysis of the SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors using ANSI/
ASHRAE standard 93-2003. Santos-González et al. (2014) used Mexican
standard NMX-ES-001-NORMEX-2005 for the experimental study of the
CPC solar collector system. Almeida et al. (2014) generated test se-
quences according to ISO 9459-5:2007 for the simulation study.
Chamsa-ard et al. (2014) tested the heat pipe evacuated tube with CPC
solar collector by ISO 9806-1 and found the thermal efficiency as 78%.
They also developed mathematical model to compute energy produc-
tion for Phitsanulok province. Test standard (ISO 9806-1) was satisfied
regarding the accuracy of the experiment by Li et al. (2016). According
 Table 8
List of various standards and certifications for the solar thermal collectors.

S. NO. Reference Standard/certification Title Description Year Country Organization

V. Pranesh, et al.

1 CEN (2018); EN 12975-1 Thermal solar systems and components – Specifies requirements (for liquid-heating solar 2006 (Amendment Europe CEN
Kalogirou (2013); (European Standard) Solar collectors – Part 1: General collectors) on reliability, durability and safety. made in 2010)
QAIST (2018) Requirements
2 Fischer et al. EN 12975-2 Thermal solar systems and components – Allows the test institute all over Europe to perform 2000 Europe CEN
(2004); Kalogirou (European Standard) Solar collectors – Part 2: Test methods. the collector test according to their very own
(2013); QUAIST weather conditions.
(2018)
3 ESTIF (2018); EN 12976-1 Thermal solar systems and components – Objective is to ensure that systems operate reliably 2017 Europe CEN
Kalogirou (2013); (European Standard) Factory made systems, Part 1: General even under extreme conditions (Heavy snow/wind
Weiss (2003) requirements. loads/extended stagnation periods during the
summer)
4 ESTIF (2018); EN 12976-2 Solar thermal systems and components – Purpose is to evaluate hydraulic pressure rating of 2017 Europe CEN
Kalogirou (2013); (European Standard) Factory made systems, Part 2: Test all components and interconnections of a solar
Weiss (2003) methods. water heating system.
5 CSN (2012) EN 12977-2 Test methods for solar water heaters and Applies to small and large custom built solar 2012 (Supersedes Europe Standard prepared by Technical
(European Standard) combisystems heating systems with liquid heat transfer medium CEN/TS 12977- Committee CEN/TC 312.
for residential buildings and similar applications. 2:2010)
6 NMX (2018) NMX-ES-004- Solar energy – Thermal evaluation of solar Establishes the test method and to evaluate the 2010 Mexica United States of Mexico
NORMEX-2010 systems for water heating – Method of thermal behavior of solar water heating systems.
(Mexican standard) testing.
7 ISO (2018) ISO 9459-5:2007 Solar heating – Domestic water heating Specifies a method for outdoor laboratory testing of Last reviewed and Switzerland Independent, non-governmental
systems – Part 5: System performance SDHW systems. Also, this standard applies for in- confirmed in 2015. organization. Coordinated by Central
characterization by means of whole-system situ tests and for indoor tests at specified conditions Secretariat in Geneva.
tests and computer simulation.
8 ISO (2018) ISO-9806:2017 Solar energy- Solar thermal collector – Test Specifies test methods for assessing the durability, 2017 Switzerland. Independent, non-governmental

330
(Second edition) methods. Replaced ISO 9806:2013, first reliability, safety and thermal performance of fluid organization. Coordinated by Central
edition. heating solar collectors. Secretariat in Geneva.
9 CSA (2018) CAN/CSA-F378 Comprised of F378.1-11 (Glazed and Replaces the previous edition of CSA F378, Solar 2016 Canada US Department of Energy authorizes CSA
SERIES-11 (R2016) unglazed liquid heating solar collectors – Collectors, published in 1987. International for energy efficiency
Test methods) and F378.2-11 (Air heating verification testing.
solar collectors – Test methods)
10 ASHRAE (2010); ASHRAE 93-2010 (RA Methods of Testing to determine the Determines the thermal performance of both non- 2014 USA ASHRAE was formed by the merger in
ASHRAE (2018) 2014) (Withdrawn Thermal Performance of Solar Collectors concentrating and concentrating collectors that use 1959 of ASHAE founded in 1894 and the
Standard) (ANSI Approved) single-phase fluds and having no significant ASRE founded in 1904.
internal energy storage. This standard is applicable
to fluid entering and leaving the collector through
a single inlet and outlet respectively.
11 ESTIF (2018); The Solar Keymark Dedicated to Solar thermal collectors(based The Solar Keymark netwok members are Industrial Founded in 2000 Europe Developed by the European Solar
Nielsen (2009) (Certification) on EN 12,975 and EN/ISO 9806) and Solar representatives, Solar Keymark certification Thermal Industry Federation (ESTIF) and
thermal systems, storages and controllers bodies, Solar Keymark test labs and inspectors. CEN in close co-operation with leading
(based on EN12976 and EN12977). European test labs and the European
Commission.
12 SEIA (2018) SEIA (Certification) To promote, develop and implement the Driving force behind solar energy and building Since 1974 Washington, DC, IREC
use of solar energy in US. a strong solar industry to power America. USA
13 DIN (2018) DIN CERTCO Conformity assessment – Requirements for Deutsche Akkreditierungsstelle GmbH (DAkkS), – Berlin, Germany, DAkkS
(Certification) bodies certifying products, processes and the national accreditation body for the Federal Europe
services (DIN EN ISO/IEC 17065) Republic of Germany for the certification of
products according to the European Standard DIN
EN ISO/IEC 17065.
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

to EN 12,975 and ISO 9806-1, performance data of solar thermal col-

Center for Renewable Energy (AIDMO –

lector was used for finding the coefficient of the nonlinear thermal ef-
SHAMCI was initiated by the Regional

AMEC of the League of Arab States).

ficiency.

9. Research publication status

Citation analysis is carried out based on the literature (finding) ti-

tled ‘CPC solar collector’ and the source of information is from Scopus.
Fig. 50 (Scopus, 2017) represents the number of documents published
Organization

based on country/territory in relation to the CPC solar collector from

the year 1966 to 2018, where the size of the circle is proportional to the
ISO

number of documents published. It illustrates that CPC solar collectors

are widely focused by the European countries, Asian countries, Amer-
Washington, DC,

ican countries, Australia and some African countries.

Cairo, Egypt

Fig. 51 (Scopus, 2017) represents the number of worldwide docu-

Country

ments published on CPC solar collector from the year 1966 to 2017,
USA

which shows the increase in development of CPC solar collector in

various applications.
Founded in 2013

Founded in 1980

10. Market players and recent developments

Table 9 illustrates the particulars of manufacturers/suppliers for

CPC solar thermal collectors. The survey among Indian suppliers of
Year

concentrating solar collectors has shown that an increasing number of

thermal products and services in the Arab states in

firms are entering the market through this technology. Apart from
the Middle East and North Africa. It is inspired by

State-of-the-art rating system; Develop consumer

manufacturers/suppliers list mentioned in Table 9, following are the list

The first Arab certification scheme for solar

of manufacturers/suppliers empaneled by Ministry of New and Re-

newable Energy (MNRE), Government of India (as on 01 February
confidence; Solar incentive schemes.

2017) (CST, 2017) for the installation of non-imaging concentrating

system:

(i) Thermax limited, Pune;

SRCC benefits include:

(ii) VSM solar Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore and

(iii) Vcare Engineering Pvt. Ltd., Vadodara.
Solar Keymark.
Description

Concentrator solar collector manufacturers and systems supplier

have welcomed the order published by MNRE, Government of India on
26 February 2018 about the extended financial support (MNRE, 2018).
MNRE, Government of India made a benchmark cost and eligible sub-
Provide certification for the solar collectors
and Solar water heaters by SHAMCI bodies
complying ISO/IEC 17,065 and ISO 9001.

Certification provided to solar consumers,

sidy for various technologies, in that the benchmark cost for CPCs is
solar thermal industry, local, state and

kept as ₹ 12000/m2.
Manufacturers follow materials standards thereby assuring the
quality for the end-user. In general, CPC manufacturer’s vision is to be
innovative and competitive, providing end-to-end solar energy solu-
federal regulatory bodies.

tions to customers. With the most competitive sales network all over the
world, CPC manufacturers will penetrate in the future markets with
new technologies. Continuous development in the design and manu-
facturing of CPC solar systems by the pioneers focus on the quality and
efficiency of their products with well-known recognitions. Some of the
Title

recent CPC solar collector information (STW, 2018) pertaining to the

developments and installations are listed below:
Standard/certification

• In 2015, Ritter Group was awarded by East-Bavarian Institute for

Technology Transfer, OTTI for their innovative demonstration plant
(Certification)

(Certification)

of producing steam (above 150 °C) by CPC (plasma coating) vacuum

ICC-SRCC
SHAMCI

tube collector combined with a steam-jet chiller.

• Oorja Energy Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd., India had installed
110 m2 ETC CPC field at axle and transmission manufacturer TML
Drivelines for solar-heated metal degreasing with a payback time
SHAMCI (2018)

below four years. Also, they installed 500 m2 ETC CPC space heating
SRCC (2018)
Table 8 (continued)

system for 200 people shelter of the Indo-Tibetan border police,

Reference

Ladakh. The data shows that this technology is far better than for a
solar electricity heating system with space requirement of 1/3rd
than that of a solar PV unit. A.T.E Enterprises Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India
S. NO.

set up a 44 m2 roof-mounted ETC CPC field (@ 95 °C) at garment

14

15

manufacturer (Frontier Knitters), Tamil Nadu, India with a payback

331
V. Pranesh, et al.
Fig. 50. Number of documents published based on country/territory in related to CPC solar collector.
Fig. 51. Number of documents published on CPC solar collector.
period of less than three years when including subsidy from MNRE.
• German Agency for International Cooperation initiated the project
‘Solar Cooling in Industry and Commerce’ in Jordan, due to rapid
increase in demand for air-conditioning. German Technical
University, Berlin played a key role in this technology transfer,
planning, installation and monitoring of four solar-driven air-con-
ditioning systems in public and private buildings in Jordan. The
solar fields comprise of vacuum tube solar collectors with CPC from
German Ritter Group.
• Usage of hot water of up to 90 °C by vacuum tube collectors with
CPCs has been on the rise in commercial application and by several
industries (e.g. automotive, chemical, dairy, food processing and
pharmaceutical). Solar thermal federation of India emphasized that
unless the government intervenes for the check on quality for solar
components and systems by establishing stringent and mandatory
standards, India may soon become a haven for sub-standard items,
resulting in deterioration of customer confidence.
332
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
• Gujarat state electricity corporation limited (GSECL) installed a
capacity of 150 tons solar based vapour absorption machine as part
of clean energy initiative in August 2017, to cool the Gandhinagar
Thermal Power Station’s office building in Gujarat, India. Based on
the data provided by GSECL, the installation saved 250 MWh of
electricity per year. The installation was executed by German-Indian
venture VSM solar, Bengaluru, India. The solar energy was captured
by vacuum tube collectors with CPC of a total area of 1,575 m2 and
hot water supply to the application is at 90 °C.
• In India, concentrating solar thermal technologies continue to
flourish. CPC with vacuum tube collectors dominate the solar heat
for industrial processes market share by nearly 80%.
11. Inferences and recent research trends
Among the surveyed literatures for the CPC solar collector, the most
interesting behavior that can be observed is its significant progress in
the performance and utilization in various fields because of the large
amount of research works carried out. Its domestic usage has been in-
creased now tremendously with its minimal cost and weight. Many
industries have installed CPC as it tends to serve their purpose e.g.
dairy, textiles, desalination, solar cooling, solar heating etc.
Globally, water and energy are the most vital resources (STW,
2018). After agricultural businesses, the second biggest water consumer
is the industrial division. In 2017, International Energy Agency (IEA)
Solar Heating and Cooling Programme launched a new research plat-
form (Solar energy in industrial water and waste water management) to
analyze the link between water and energy across industrial division.
Christoph Brunner (a researcher at Austrian-based AEE Institute for
Sustainable Technologies (AEE INTEC) and chair of new research
platform) stated that in industry, they envisioned to investigate and
improve solar powered water separation and water purification. That
shows the important of rise in demand of water and focus of research
towards the technology of solar powered water separation. Since CPC
solar collector meets the requirement of desalination, they will play a
 Table 9
Particulars of the manufacturers for CPC solar thermal collectors.

S. No Reference Company Type of CPC Type of Company Country Tilt angle Type of mounting
V. Pranesh, et al.

1a Suntask (2018) Zhejiang Shentai Solar Fast assembly CPC Solar Manufacturer China – –
Energy Co., Ltd. Collector
1b Suntask (2018) Zhejiang Shentai Solar Split non-pressurized Manufacturer China – –
Energy Co., Ltd. solar water heaters
(360°absorber)
2a LR (2018) Linuo Ritter International Forced circulation Manufacturer Shandong Province, Minimum 15° On roof, Flat roof/
Co., Ltd., systems – Pressurized – China wall mounted
Evacuated tube collector
with CPC-reflector
2b LR (2018) Linuo Ritter International Forced circulation Manufacturer Shandong Province, – Pitched roof, flat,
Co., Ltd., systems – Pressurized – China roof, on-wall
CPC OEM XL Evacuated
tube collector
3 BNS (2017) BNS CPC Solar Collector (360 Manufacturer Vidin, Bulgaria 15–90° –
degree absorber)
4 Taylormade (2018) Taylormade Solar Evacuated tube collector Key components (Coating Gujarat, India. Minimum 15° On roof, Flat roof/
Solutions Pvt. Ltd. with CPC-reflector materials and Evacuated wall mounted
tubes) imported from (Except CPC OEM
Linuo-Ritter, China. XL ETC = Pitched
Manufacturing, roof, flat, roof, on-
Marketing and wall).
distribution of Linuo
solar thermal products.
5 Sunbest (2018) Sun best CPC Solar Collector Fabricator and Supplier Theni, Tamil Nadu, – Arbitrary placement
(Pressurized system) (Product designed from India

333
Germany)
6 ATE (2018) A.T.E Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. CPC solar collector Supplier (CPC supplied is Pune, India – Rooftop/Ground
(Evacuated tube) based on technology
from Ritter Gruppe,
Germany)
7 Emsol (2018) Emsol Innovations Pvt. XCPC solar collector Supplier (Developed in Chennai, India – Rooftop/Ground
Ltd. (Evacuated tube) collaboration with the
University of California,
Merced, CA, USA)
8 Oorja (2018) and STW Oorja Energy Engineering CPC solar collector Manufacturer Hyderabad, India – Rooftop/Ground
(2018) Services Pvt. Ltd. (Evacuated double glass
tube)
9 Ultra- Conserve (2018) Ultra conserve Pvt. Ltd. Non-imaging Manufacturer/Supplier Mumbai, India – Rooftop/Ground
concentrating system
10 Bayer (2018) Solarbayer GmbH Vacuum tube collector Manufacturer Germany 15–65° On roof (Pitched/
CPC Solar Collector flat roof)
11 IVT (2018) IVT GmbH & Co. KG LATENTO CPC Solar Supplier Rohr, Germany – –
Collector
12 Ritter (2018) Ritter XL Solar GmbH Evacuated Tube Manufacturer Germany – –
Collectors XL Series and
XL P Series (With CPC
reflector)
13 Artic (2018) Artic Solar, Inc. XCPC Solar Collector Manufacturer Florida, U.S.A. – Roof top
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
 Table 9 (continued)

S. No Reference Company Type of CPC Type of Company Country Tilt angle Type of mounting

14 Baltic (2018) BSP (Baltic Solar Projects) SOLFEX evacuated-tube Supplier (Solfex Energy Lithuania, Europe – On roof, flat roof
V. Pranesh, et al.

collector CPC INOX systems vacuum tube and wall mounted

collectors are
manufactured by OEM
partner and EU market
leader – Ritter Solar
GmbH, Germany)
15 Solarus (2018) Solarus Power collector Manufacturer Venio, Netherlands – Rooftop,wall and
ground

S. No Maximum pressure and Establised Year Standards Certifications Application Tube (Coating) Optical efficiency Marketing
Stagnation temperature

1a 6 bar 2000 Section 8 of S/NZS ISO9001:2008, SGS, Solar hot water Vacuum tube with – Germany, South
3500 4:2003; AS/NZS Solar Keymark, heat pipe Africa, South
3500 5:2000 SRCC certified configuration [Φ Korea and South-
58 mm × (L) east Asia.
1800 mm] (SS-C/
CU)
1b – 2000 Section 8 of S/NZS ISO9001:2008, SGS, Solar hot water heater Vacuum tube [Φ – Germany, South
3500 4:2003; AS/NZS Solar Keymark, 47 mm × (L) Africa, South
3500 5:2000 SRCC certified 1500 mm] Korea and South-
east Asia.
2a 10 bar/272 °C 2001 DIN 4757–4 or Solar Keymark, DIN Hot water generation, Evacuated Tube 64.2% (Aperture) 40 countries
EN12975 CERTCO space and process (Borosilicate glass worldwide
(Certification heating and solar 3.3 [Φ 47 mm × (L)

334
organization of TUV cooling. 1500 mm])
Rheinland Group
and DIN, the
German Institute
for
Standardization).
2b 10 bar/272 °C 2001 DIN 4757-4 or Solar Keymark, DIN Hot water generation, Evacuated Tube 64.2% (Aperture) 40 countries
EN12975 CERTCO space and process (Borosilicate glass worldwide
(Certification heating and solar 3.3 [Φ 47 × (L)
organization of TUV cooling. 1500 mm])
Rheinland Group
and DIN, the
German Institute
for
Standardization).
3 6–9 bar – German quality – Solar thermal Evacuated tube – In and around
standard (Heat pipe Bulgaria.
[Φ58mm × (L)
1800 mm × (Thk.)
1.8 mm (ALN/AIN-
SS/CU)])
4 10 bar/272 °C 2010 DIN EN12975-2 and ISO 9001 : 2008 Same as Linuo Ritter Same as Linuo Ritter Same as Linuo India
thermal shock test. CERTIFIED Product. Product. Ritter Product.
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
 Table 9 (continued)

S. No Maximum pressure and Establised Year Standards Certifications Application Tube (Coating) Optical efficiency Marketing
Stagnation temperature
V. Pranesh, et al.

5 6 bar/160 °C 1989 – Empaneled by Industrial application. Vacuum tube Above 60%. Europe, Japan
MNRE and other
countries where
during winter
solar radiation
levesl are very
low.
6 up to 120 °C 1939 – Empaneled by Boiler feed water, Glass tubes with – India
MNRE textile processing, highly selective
distillation, absorber layer
degreasing/parts
washing
7 Peak temperature: greater 2013 – Empaneled by Industrial application – – India, U.A.E.
than 250 °C;Stagnation MNRE (Process heating,
tested upto: 350 °C drying, desalination,
effluent evaporator,
steam generation, food
processing) and
Consumer applications
(Hospital, hotel, solar
HVAR cooling)
8 150 °C 2010 – – Solar drying, solar – – India
laundry, solar
desalination, solar
autoclaving/

335
sterlization, Industrial
process heat, boiler
feedwater preheating
9 – 2009 – Empaneled by Domestic application – – India
MNRE
10 6 bar and 259 °C 2003 DIN EN 12,975 Solar Keymark, DIN Solar heating Vacuum tube 71.80% Germany
CERTCO application [Φ58mm] (Selective
AL-N/AL)
11 – 1994 – DIN ISO 9001, – Vacuum tube 64.20% Germany, Russia,
WRAS, DVGW, ATG China, Australia
13/2284, DIN
CERTCO, Solar
Keymark.
12 10 bar/301 °C (XL Series) 2010 DIN 4757–4 or EN Solar Keymark, DIN Designed for Very Evacuated Tube 68.7% (XL P series, Worldwide
and 10 bar/338 °C (XL P 12,975 CERTO, SRCC Large Systems and except XL
Series) Industrial Applications 19/49P = 68.8%)
and 64.4% (XL
series)
13 Exceed 200 °C – – Solar Rating A/C Refrigeration- Single U-bend flow – –
Certification Dehumidification, tube
(SRCC) Process heat -Hot
water-Steam, Solar
thermal desalination,
Electric power
generation.
(continued on next page)
Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340
V. Pranesh, et al. Solar Energy 187 (2019) 293–340

major role in desalination plants in the near future.

Indian government has taken a great initiation towards the field of

Europe, South
Africa, India
renewable energy. Incentive programs may help in stimulating further
Marketing

Lithuania
development and application of CPC with improved performance and
reduced barriers.
CPC collector modification based on the geometric parameters can
be perceived right from the beginning till now (Buttinger et al., 2010;
Prapas et al., 1987; Rabl et al., 1980; Santos-González et al. (2014);
Peak efficiency up
Optical efficiency

Waghmare and Gulhane, 2016; Winston, 1970; Winston, 1974). At the

initial development of high CR CPC collectors, for the effective utili-
zation of sun energy ie., to increase the working hours of the solar
to 70%.

collector, tracking mechanism will be integrated to the whole collector

for the external rotation. This results in a complex system and increases
–

the cost of system. So, the researches focused in improving the selective
coating, anti-reflective coating on glass and improving absorber to re-
duce the thermal resistance, thereby providing solution of using lesser
(Borosilicate glass
tube (Aluminium

CR CPCs with smaller collector area instead of using traditional high CR

Evacuated tube
Tube (Coating)

nitrite sputter

CPCs with larger collector area and also complex tracking mechanism.
coating))

Recent research studies include usage of nanotube with nano fluid for
improved collector performance along with the consideration of optical
properties (Li et al., 2016; Mahbubul et al., 2018). Arrangement of
–

collectors with high gap values (between top glass cover and tip of the
concentrator) and higher truncation values serve to decrease thermal
Hospitality sector, food

heat losses (Francesconi and Antonelli, 2018). Integration of CPC solar

solar backup heating

residential buildings
Solar water heating,

and space heating

collector with other technologies such as PV, other collectors etc.

and institutions
industry, large

continues to be under research (Ajdad et al., 2019; Duong and Diaz,

applications
Application

2014; Saini et al., 2018).

In recent years, the technological development is of concern for
utilizing the concentrated collectors in limited space where there is
restriction of traditional tracking methods. So, researchers are focusing
to non-rotational tracking mechanism like semi-passive beam steering
prism array where the linear concentrator system remains stationary.
This technology is capable of achieving high optical performance,
Certified BCorp
Solar Keymark
Certifications

compact, simple and suitable for rooftop solar applications.

Kothdiwala et al. (2000) discussed the discrepancies of Nusselt and
Grashof correlations by various authors. In earlier stages of research by
Duff et al. (2001, 2004), experimentally observed that the performance
of horizontal and vertical absorber fin absorber orientated integrated
CPC collector with no significant difference, but later Duff and
International standards
12975–2 and thermal

Daosukho (2014) found that horizontal fin integrated CPC performed

according to DIN EN

better than the other type when there was considerable amount of re-
flector degradation.
Hailstone test

shock test.

Some of the authors explained their future plan for researches: Li

Standards

et al. (2016) planned to demonstrate commercial viability of the vo-

lumetric receiver type CPC solar collector through long-term stability of
the nanofluid in comparison to a surface absorber. Further planned for
determining the limits of the proposed technology to reach 400 °C.
Widyolar et al. (2018) stated that in future, the installed XCPC collec-
tors of 20 kW capacity at UC Merced Castle Test Facility will be used to
Establised Year

power a solar wastewater evaporator for the reduction in waste stream

volume.
2009

2006

12. Conclusion

A comprehensive review of the CPC solar collectors mainly focusing

its two-dimensional profile type is presented and the state of art on
Max working pressure :
Stagnation temperature
Maximum pressure and

solar thermal applications of these collectors in both domestic and in-

temperature : 180 °C

dustrial aspects by surveying the evolutional progress in the past five

10 barStagnation

decades. Most of the researches were focused on introducing new de-

sign concepts and some on the modifications of the previously available
Table 9 (continued)

designs. It is observed that the focus of recent studies is gradually

shifting towards commercialization. Though this technology attained
–

commercialization stage, it still needs considerable time and efforts of

the scientists, designers and manufacturers to improve several aspects
S. No

such as absorber temperature, material, selective coating, annular gap,

14

15

overall heat transfer coefficient, glazing, etc., to reduce the cost of

336
V. Pranesh, et al.
manufacturing. The major conclusion from the extensive survey made
are summarized below:
• The elimination of tracking mechanism in the CPC solar collectors
for low to moderate concentration and higher efficiency attracts the
end users. Hence there is a great scope of commercialization in a
large scale for various applications in the near future.
• Modification of absorber shapes has been in progress right from its
evolution. Till now different types of absorbers such as flat, tubular,
bifacial, pentagon, volumetric absorber etc., are evolved. CPC solar
collector with different truncation ratios are probed, the results
show that the performance of CPC collector is not affected much due
to truncation. Also, it has the advantage of material saving and can
be significant when it is viewed from optical gains.
• Three different sets of simulation methods have been discussed:
Programming simulators, Programmed simulators and Ray tracing
simulators. Climatic data from the meteorological department will
be of great importance for practical applications. The increase in the
simulation studies in this field will be useful to optimize the system
geometry and operational parameters to achieve higher efficiency.
The use of simulation software will drive the market for CPC solar
collector at a faster rate.
•
Usage of HTFs for operation at various temperature ranges and
different applications are discussed. Nano tubes with nano fluids as
HTF have gained momentum in the recent years.
•
The standards and certifications for collectors, their testing has been
discussed briefly and they would be more helpful for the commer-
cialization of the collectors for various applications.
•
Research publication status showed that there is sustainable growth
in development of CPC solar collector and it is concluded from the
consolidation of this surveyed information that the CPC solar col-
lector is continuously progressing towards the betterment in its ef-
ficiency and find applications in various sector worldwide.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Department of science and technology
– Clean energy research initiative (DST-CERI), Government of India
[DST/TM/SERI/FR/196(C & G)].
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.04.056.
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