Experiment No.

2
INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR HEAT AND STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

1. Objective:
To determine the transmission principle for radiation and the different factors affecting on it.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
2.1 show that the intensity of radiation on the surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of
the surface from the radiation source.
2.2 show that the intensity of radiation varies as the fourth power of the source temperature.
3. Discussion:
Inverse Square Law for Heat
The total energy dQ from an element dA can be imagined to flow through a hemisphere of radius r. A
surface element on this hemisphere dA 1 lies on a line making an angle with the normal and the solid angle
subtended by dA1 at dA is d 1 = dA1/r2. (Note: solid angle which is by definition the intercepted area on a sphere
divided by r2).

If the rate of flow of energy through dA 1 is dQ1then dQ1 = i d ldA where i is the intensity of radiation
in the direction direction i.e. dQ1 1/r2.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzman law states that:

Where: qb = Energy emitted by unit area of a black body surface (W/m 2)

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
TS = Source Temperature (K)
TA = Temperature of radiometer and surroundings (K)

Incident Radiation and Emitted Radiation

The digital meter indicates the intensity of the radiation received by the radiometer (in W/m 2) and not the
radiation emitted by the heated surface at which it is pointed.
It can be shown that the relationship between radiation received by the sensor and radiation emitted by
the heated source is as follows:
 Hence as the sensor is removed from the heated surface and L increased the angle decreases.

The model is exact for a black circular emitter and receiver. As it is not possible to utilize circular plates
due to the shape of the heater available an approximation is made to the “effective diameter” of a circular plate
that would be equivalent to the rectangular plates supplied. This diameter is 126 mm and hence r = 63 mm.
From the diagram,
Hence

Or

Or
Note that the sensor surface is 65 mm from the center line of the radiometer mounting rod. Hence for the
position of the radiometer sensor 65 mm must be subtracted from the marked center of the detector stand.

4. Resources:
Equipment/Appratus: Thermal Radiation Unit

5. Procedure:
A. Inverse Square Law for Heat
1. Set power control to wide position and allow approximately 15 minutes for the heater to reach
a stable temperature before beginning the experiment.
2. Record the radiometer reading (R) and the distance from the heat source (X) for a number of
positions of the radiometer along the horizontal track. It will take approximately 2 minutes for the
radiometer to stabilize after being moved to each new position.
 Initial Values of Variables to be used:
Distance from the heat source (X) = 800 mm. Note that radiometer sensor surface is 65 mm
from the center line of detector carriage and therefore center line position will be 865 mm.
B. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
1. Set power control to maximum on the instrument console.
2. Record the radiometer reading (R) and the temperature reading (T) at ambient conditions
then for selected increments of increasing temperature up to maximum within a practical range.
 Both readings should be noted simultaneously at any given point. It is recommended that while
waiting for the black plate temperature to stabilize between each increase of the heater power
control the reflective disc is placed in the radiometer aperture to prevent heating effects and
zero drift.
 Initial Values of Variables to be used:
Distance from radiometer to black plate (X) = 200 mm
Distance from black plate to heat source (Y) = 50 mm

6. Data and Results:

Subject: Unit Operations 1 Experiment No: 2

Group No: Section: 51102
Group Members: Sta. Teresa, Jabin M. Date Performed:
Villaruz, Alden D.
Estoque, Rey Martin G.
Era, Emil D.
Perez, Nikko Jay B.
Villagracia, Mark Jerome C.
Maimban, Sharina T.
Date Submitted:
Instructor: Engr. Robert Delfin

A. Inverse Square Law for Heat

log X log R
2.90309 1.146128
2.875061 1.230449
2.845098 1.278754
2.812913 1.342423
2.778151 1.380211
2.740363 1.431364

Table 1. log X (distance) vs. log R (radiometer reading)

 . The intensity of the radiation is inversely proportional to the distance because a point of source of gamma
rays emits in all directions about the source. The intensity of the gamma rays decreases with distance from
the source because the rays are spread over greater areas as the distance increases and vice versa.

7. Calculations:
Sample Computations:
8. Conclusion:

Whenever an object is subjected at an elevated temperature it emits thermal radiation and the higher
temperature the object is subjected to the higher thermal radiation it emits. As the radiometer moves
further away from the source of heat, the particles that are emitted will scatter making it harder to hit
the radiation measurement device. Since the area over which the emissions are dispersed is that of an
expanding sphere about the source, the radiation intensity follows the inverse square law as one move
away from the source. According from the graph of log distance vs. log radiometer it can be expected
that it will provide a negative slope since the line has a decreasing y-axis.
The temperature measuring device that was given to the experimenter is a thermometer that
has a maximum capacity of temperature at 250oC thus the data obtained by the experimenters have
error but theoretically the energy emitted by unit area of a black body surface which came from the
result of the product of radiometer reading and a factor should be almost equal to the energy emitted
by unit area of a black body surface when the Boltzmann constant is divided by the difference of
temperature source and the absolute temperature of the surroundings raised to its fourth power, and
when this happen the Stefan Boltzmann law is verified.

9. Pictures:

Equipment Set Up
 Figure 1. Thermal Radiation Unit

Figure 2. Instrument Console

10. Questions / Problems:

1. Define the following:
a. absorptivity
 b. reflectivity
c. transmissivity
d. emissivity
2. What is the view factor F21 of a sphere (1) of diameter D inside a cubical box (2) of length L = D?
3. Calculate the view factor, F21 and the net radiation transfer between two black surfaces, a rectangle 2 m
by 1 m (area A1) at 1500 K and a disc 1 m in diameter (area A 2) at 750 K, if the view factor, F12 = 0.25.
4. A plane surface having an area of 1.0 m 2 is insulated on the bottom side and is placed on the ground
exposed to air at 290 K, and the convective heat transfer coefficient from the air is 12 W/m 2-K. The plane
radiates to clear sky. The effective radiation temperature of the sky can be assumed as 80 K. If the
plane is a black body, calculate the temperature of the plane at equilibrium.
5. A horizontal oxidized steel pipe carrying steam and having an OD of 0.1683 m has a surface
temperature of 374.9 Kand is exposed to air at 297.1 K in a large enclosure. Calculate the heat loss for
0.305 m of pipe from natural convection plus radiation. For the steel pipe, use an ε of 0.79.

11. Answers:
1. A.) Absorption is the fraction of radiation absorbed by a surface.

B.) Reflectivity is the fraction reflected by the surface.

C.) Transmissivity is the fraction transmitted by the surface.

E.)Emissivity  is  the ratio between the re-emitted energy of a usual object and the re-emitted
energy of a blackbody at the same temperature of the object is called emissivity and noted ε. This ratio
depends on wavelength and is comprised between 0 and 1. Of course, the emissivity of a true blackbody
equals 1

1. Sphere within a cube:

Given:

Solution:

By Inspection, F12=1

By reciprocity,
 A1F12 = A2F21

2.

4.)Qb = eσA(TS4- TA4)

12 W/m2-K. = 1.0*5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4 *1.0 m2*((Temp.plane^4)-(290^4)) K4

Temp. Plane= 292.15 K

5. )Qt= Qp+ Qr

Cross-sectional Area of pipe =3.14*L*D= 3.14* 0.305*0.1683 = 0.1612 m^2

Qp=hAdT=6.12 W/m2*0.1612 m2*((374.9^4)-(297.1^4)) K4= 76.78W

Qr = eσA(TS4- TA4)= 0.79*5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4 *0.1612m2*((374.9^4)-(297.1^4)) K4=86.41W

Qt= Qp+ Qr=76.78W+86.41W

 Qt=163.19 W

12. Further Readings:

Cao, E. (2010). Heat transfer in process engineering . Boston: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Cengel,Y.A. and Ghajar, A.J. (2011). Heat and mass transfer: fundamentals and applications (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Hellemans, M. (2009). The safety relief valve handbook: design and use of process safety valves to ASME .
Massachusetts: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Kakac,S., Liu, H., and Pramuanjaroenkij, A. (2012). Heat exchangers: selection, rating and thermal design . Boca
Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Kothandaraman, C.P. and Rudramoorthy, R.(2011). Fluid mechanics and machinery (3rd ed.). United Kingdom:
New Academic Science.
Strathmann, H. (2011). Introduction to membrane science and technology . Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co.

13. Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):

ADAMSON UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department
 M an i la

Unit Operations 1
Experiment 2: INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR HEAT AND STEFAN-
BOLTZMANN LAW

Prepared by:

Sta. Teresa, Jabin M.

Villaruz, Alden D.

Estoque, Rey Martin G.

Era, Emil D.

Perez, Nikko Jay B.

Villagracia, Mark Jerome C.

Malimban, Sharina T.

Submitted to:
Engr. Robert Delfin

Date:
___________________________