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Changes in Barley Kernel Hardness and Malting Quality Caused by Microwave

Irradiation

Research · September 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4717.1043

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Changes in Barley Kernel Hardness and Malting Quality
Caused by Microwave Irradiation
P. López-Perea, DIPA, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Querétaro, México; J. D. C.
Figueroa,1 Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (CINVESTAV-IPN), Querétaro, México; E. Sevilla-
Paniagua, INIFAP Laboratorio Central de Cebada y Avena, Chapingo Edo. de México, México; A. Román-Gutiérrez,
Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Pachuca, México; R. Reynoso and R. Martínez-Peniche, DIPA,
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Querétaro, México
ABSTRACT
J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 66(4):203-207, 2008
Malting quality of feed and malting barley treated by microwave irradia-
tion for 0, 4, 5, 8, 10, 15, 20, and 25 sec was evaluated. Microwave irra-
diation periods longer than 10 sec increased kernel temperature higher than
the physiological limit and significantly affected germination. With 4 sec of
microwave irradiation, barley kernel hardness decreased and transformed
into malt of good quality. The feed barley Adabella without treatment
showed double the hardness (49.3 N) and Pastor Ortiz showed almost three
times the hardness (59.8 N) of malting barley Esmeralda without treat-
ment (23.7 N). With 8 sec of irradiation, kernel hardness increased. Irradia-
tion of feed and malting barleys for 4 sec increased the extract content in
malt. Barley kernel hardness showed a significantly high correlation with
malt extract (r = –0.61; P ≤ 0.001). Extract viscosity decreased with mi-
crowave irradiation in all cases. Diastatic power and α-amylase were not
affected by the treatments selected for this study. Microwave energy is a
new alternative that allows modification of the kernel endosperm in a few
seconds and increases the industrial quality of feed and malting barley.
Keywords: Hordeum vulgare, Kernel hardness, Malting quality, Micro-
wave energy
RESUMEN
La calidad de la maltera de pienso y maltera cebadas tratada por irradia-
ción de microondas de 0, 4, 5, 8, 10, 15, 20 y 25 seg se evaluó. Irradiación
de microondas períodos de más de 10 seg aumento la temperatura del nú-
cleo superior al límite fisiológico y afectado significativamente la germi-
nación. Con 4 seg de irradiación de microondas, la dureza del núcleo de la
cebada se disminuyó y se transforma en malta de buena calidad. La cebada
pienso Adabella sin tratamiento mostraron el doble de la dureza (49.3 N)
y Pastor Ortiz, casi tres veces la dureza (59.8 N), de cebada maltera Es-
meralda sin tratamiento (23.7 N). Con 8 seg de irradiación, la dureza del
núcleo se aumento. La irradiación de piensos y malteado cebada de 4 seg
aumentado el contenido de extracto de la malta. La dureza del núcleo de la
cebada mostró una alta correlación significativa con extracto de malta (r =
–0.61; P ≤ 0.001). Viscosidad del extracto disminuyó con la irradiación
de microondas en todos los casos. Poder diastatico y α-amilasa no fueron
afectadas por los tratamientos seleccionados para este estudio. La energía
del microondas es una nueva alternativa que permite modificar del endo-
spermo del núcleo en pocos segundos y aumenta la calidad industrial de
pienso y maltera cebadas.
Palabras claves: Calidad de la maltera, Dureza del núcleo, Energía de mi-
croondas, Hordeum vulgare
Microwaves have had many applications in the last 10 years in
different areas such as radio, television, radar, meteorology, com-
munications, satellites, measurement of distances, investigation of
1 Corresponding author. Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados (CIN-
VESTAV-IPN), Libramiento Norponiente 2000, Fracc. Real de Juriquilla, C.P.
76230 Querétaro, México. E-mail: jfigueroa@qro.cinvestav.mx; Phone: +52 (442)
211-9915; Fax: +52 (442) 211-9938.
doi:10.1094 /ASBCJ-2008-0811-01
© 2008 American Society of Brewing Chemists, Inc.
203
the properties of matter, and food processing. Microwaves have the
ability to excite dipolar molecules such as water, and consequently,
they are used in microwave ovens for warm foods that contain wa-
ter. The popularity of microwave ovens is due principally to their
easy application and fast warming of food compared with conven-
tional ovens (25).
The incorporation of microwaves and other new technologies in
the agricultural area has been left behind compared with applica-
tions in other areas such as medicine and telecommunications. In
agriculture, the energy of microwaves has been used to dry or to
warm corn (16) and to condition wheat kernels (13). Camapaña et
al (3,4) report that drying wheat with microwaves diminished the
capacity for germination and also negatively affected its rheological
and baking properties. Microwaves have become popular in homes
for popping popcorn (9,19) and for selection of corn cultivars in
improvement programs for popcorn (14). However, there are very
few reports of the use of this technology in grain processing, nor
has this technology been taken advantage of in terms of its poten-
tial to improve grains and seed. Specifically, it is important to know
the safe temperature limits of seeds and grains to avoid damage
when microwaves are applied.
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is a cereal of great importance world-
wide and, in Mexico, for the production of malt for use in the beer
industry, as well as in foods for human or animal consumption. Bar-
ley is marketed as barley malt and feed, and unlike other grains, it
is commercialized in Mexico by a differential price according to
its quality in agreement with the Official Mexican Norm NMX-FF-
043-SCFI-2003 (17). If the barley does not fit within the specifi-
cations of the official norm, it is used as lower-value cattle feed;
consequently, the price of feed barley is lower than that of malting
barley.
It takes five years to genetically improve the quality of barley
for the brewing industry. A new alternative discussed in this paper
is the physical modification of the kernel of feed or malting barley
by microwave irradiation to increase its industrial quality. With
this objective, the effect of microwave radiation on the mechani-
cal properties of barley kernels and the malting quality of differ-
ent varieties of barley was evaluated.
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
Three varieties of barley were used: two feed barleys (Adabella
and Pastor Ortiz) grown in Apán, Hidalgo, Mexico, in 2006 and a
malting barley (Esmeralda) grown in Palma Gorda, Hidalgo, Mexi-
co, in 2005.
Cleaning and Selection of Grain for Use in Malting
For every sample of barley, 5 kg was run through four sieves;
two had circular orifices with diameters of 12/64 and 6/64 in. to sepa-
rate the impurities from the barley kernels. The clean grain then
was selected according to size, using two sieves with oblong ori-
fices of 6/64 × 3/4 in. and 5.5/64 × 3/4 in. (Seedburo Equipment Com-
204 / López-Perea, P., Figueroa, J. D. C., Sevilla-Paniagua, E., Román-Gutiérrez, A., Reynoso, R., and Martínez-Peniche, R.
pany, Des Plaines, IL), based on Official Norm NMX-FF-043-SCFI-
2003 (17).
Determination of Barley Moisture Content
This test is based on the dielectric properties of the material; in
this case, the barley kernel. A digital moisture tester (Seedburo
Equipment 1200) was used to measure the moisture of the grain.
Calibration of Microwave Oven
A conventional microwave oven (model R-501CW, Sharp Elec-
tronics Corp., Mahwah, NJ) with a power capacity of 1.45 kW and
a frequency of 2,450 MHz was used. The microwave oven was
calibrated as follows: 100 mL of water was warmed for 40 sec,
and the initial and final temperatures of the water were measured.
The energy absorbed by the sample (MWabs) was measured using
the formula
4.187mCpΔT
MWabs =
Δt
where MWabs is the power absorbed by the sample (W), m is the
mass of the sample (g); Cp is the specific heat (kJ/kg °C), ΔT is
the temperature rise (°C), and Δt is the operation time (sec) (10).
Irradiation with Microwaves
Kernel samples (100 g, db) were placed in 2-kg polyethylene
bags. The samples were arranged in layers one or two grains thick,
avoiding conglomerates to achieve homogeneous irradiation. The
electromagnetic irradiation exposure times were 4 and 8 sec, with
a control time of 0 sec.
Malting
Steeping. Samples (100 g, db) of irradiated barley were placed
in 250 mL of cold water at 4°C for 4 hr to eliminate the dormancy
of the grains (7). At the end of this period, the water was changed.
The samples were placed in the germinating chamber (Seedburo
Equipment EU650) at 16°C for 48 hr (7,8,15), with changes of wa-
ter every 24 hr. After this period, the excess water was eliminated,
having reached 45% grain moisture.
Germination. The samples were placed in a glass beaker in the
same germinating chamber at 16°C and 100% RH in darkness for
4 days until the acrospires reached a size of three-fourths of the
grain (7,8,20,24). During this step, three manual agitations were
performed to avoid and separate roots (5).
Fig. 1. Effect of microwave irradiation time and final kernel temperature
after microwave treatment on germination energy of barley. Q = germina-
tion energy; Q = final kernel temperature after microwave irradiation.
Kilning. Kilning was carried out using a Felisa oven. The samples
were treated at 35°C for 19 hr, followed by 45°C for 24 hr, 65°C for
25 hr, and 30°C for 14 hr. At the end of this stage, the malt reached
a moisture content of 3–6%, which was determined using AOAC
method 935.29 (2).
Malt Processing Efficiency and Grinding
The roots generated during germination were eliminated from
the malt by shaving, and the clean sample was weighed (7,18).
Samples were ground using AOAC method 935.30 (2) and the meth-
od of Figueroa (7).
Malt Analysis
Malt extraction was carried out using fine- and coarse-grind malt-
ing flour and the recommended methods (2,6,7). Modification of
the malt was based on the difference between extracts from fine
and coarse grinds (7). The viscosity of the must was measured us-
ing Ostwald’s viscometer with the EBC method 4.8 (6). Diastatic
power was determined using EBC method 4.12 (6). α-Amylase
activity was reported as the dextrinization time of a solution of
starch in the presence of excess β-amylase (6).
Physical Properties of Barley
The moisture content of the barley was determined using AACC
International methods 55-10 and 44-15A (1). Kernel thickness was
measured using a digital caliper (model CD-6" CS, Mitutoyo Corp.,
Kanagawa, Japan).
Uniaxial Compression Test
A TA.XT2 texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming,
England) was used to measure the kernel response to compressive
loading using parallel plates. The technique reported by Singh et
al (23) was used to determine the contact area (load-bearing area)
of the individual kernels during the loading process. Before load-
ing, the thickness of each kernel was determined with a caliper.
Individual kernels, with the crease side down, were placed onto the
plate. The strain used to evaluate the mechanical properties of some
grains was 0.50 mm, with a constant deformation velocity of
0.1 mm/sec, and the resultant load deformation behavior was re-
corded. Each point was the average of four readings for each repeti-
tion of different barley kernels from the same sample.
Statistical Analysis
The results were analyzed using Tukey’s test and simple corre-
lations (SAS statistical package [21]); correlations were consid-
ered highly significant at P ≤ 0.05 and 0.01, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Quality of Barley Malt
The barley feed variety Adabella was irradiated. Five samples
of 100 grains each were irradiated for 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 sec,
respectively, and one sample without irradiation was used as a con-
trol. The aim was to evaluate the energy necessary to modify the en-
dosperm of the grain without affecting the germination of the grain.
Periods of microwave irradiation longer than 10 sec affected
germination significantly (Fig. 1). Campaña et al (3,4) studied the
use of microwaves on dried wheat kernels and evaluated the physio-
chemical and breadmaking properties of irradiated wheat. They
reported a drastic reduction in germination and quality after expo-
sure to microwaves. The authors indicated that temperatures higher
than 58–62°C significantly affected germination. The reduction in
germination was related to the final temperature and also to the
starting kernel moisture (4). In the present work, we decided to limit
the exposure time to less than 10 sec of irradiation, because tem-
peratures of 38°C were near the physiological limit of barley ker-
 Microwaves and Malting Quality / 205

nels (Fig. 1). Irradiation times of 0, 4, and 8 sec were selected for
the present investigation based on the curve in Figure 1. The shape
of the curve in Figure 1 was very similar to that reported by Campaña
et al (3,4). Microwave irradiation for longer than 10 sec drasti-
cally affected germination due to heat damage of barley kernel with
a moisture content of approx. 12%.
Mechanical Properties of Barley
There are barley genotypes with good agricultural yields but hard
endosperms that cannot transform appropriately during malting to
achieve a suitable quality. Therefore, their value is diminished sig-
nificantly. Physical improvement of the grain is a new alternative
that allows modification of the kernel endosperm and improve-
ment of the performance of microwave-irradiated foods and malt-
ing barley kernels.
Microwave irradiation has an important effect on barley kernel
hardness (Fig. 2; Table I). The untreated kernels of feed barley va-
riety Adabella were twice as hard (49.3 N) and kernels of variety
Pastor Ortíz (59.8 N) were almost three times as hard as those of
untreated malting barley variety Esmeralda (23.7 N). Similar re-
sults were reported by Lopez-Perea et al (12), who indicated that
malting barley has kernels that are less hard than those of feed bar-
leys. Lopez-Perea et al (12) reported that malting barley Esmer-
alda presented kernel hardness within a range of 6.9 to 7.6 kgf,
i.e., 1.8 kgf less than the feed barley Pastor Ortiz, which had a
range from 10.7 to 13.6 kgf. The difference in kernel hardness be-
tween feed and malting barleys is due to the fact that floury grains
have a lower density than glassy grains (22).
In the present study, the untreated feed and malting barley grains
showed an average kernel hardness of 42 N, whereas with only 4 sec

Fig. 2. Effect of microwave irradiation time on barley kernel hardness. A–C, Feed barley variety Pastor Ortíz: without irradiation, with 4 sec of irradiation,
and with 8 sec of irradiation, respectively. D–F, Malting barley variety Esmeralda without irradiation, with 4 sec of irradiation, and with 8 sec of irradiation,
respectively.

TABLE I
Mean Values for Kernel Hardness and Malting Quality in Barley and Malt Treated with Microwavesa
Microwave Kernel Recovered Malt Extract Fine and Coarse Viscosity Diastatic α-Amylase
Barley Variety Irradiation (sec) Hardness (N) Malt (%)b (%, db) Extracts (%)c (cP) Power (°L, db) (DU, db)d
Esmeralda 0 23.7 bc 88.2 ab 76.1 bc 2.5 bc 1.57 a 102.2 c 24.0 c
Esmeralda 4 14.9 c 88.5 ab 83.7 a 2.0 c 1.52 b 127.2 b 33.6 b
Esmeralda 8 33.3 a–c 85.4 b 74.4 c–e 2.8 a–c 1.47 d 127.8 b 31.6 bc
Pastor Ortíz 0 59.8 a 89.7 ab 66.9 f 3.0 a–c 1.32 e 181.2 a 61.4 a
Pastor Ortíz 4 43.8 a–c 90.0 ab 74.1 c–e 3.5 ab 1.29 ef 179.05 a 61.5 a
Pastor Ortíz 8 48.8 ab 90.3 ab 72.6 e 3.1 a–c 1.27 f 183.9 a 60.3 a
Adabella 0 49.3 ab 92.3 a 73.5 de 3.7 a 1.52 b 92.9 c 28.3 bc
Adabella 4 41.2 a–c 92.2 a 75.2 b–d 3.5 ab 1.50 bc 96.1 c 27.8 bc
Adabella 8 39.7 a–c 90.8 ab 77.1 b 3.3 ab 1.49 cd 88.8 c 28.2 bc
Specificatione … … … Min 76 Min 2.5 Max 1.50 125–170 Min 35
a Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).
b Malting processing efficiency.
c Difference between extracts from fine and coarse grinding.
d Dextrinization units at 20°C.
e Malting quality specifications for new varieties of barley for use in the brewing industry (7).
206 / López-Perea, P., Figueroa, J. D. C., Sevilla-Paniagua, E., Román-Gutiérrez, A., Reynoso, R., and Martínez-Peniche, R.
of microwave irradiation hardness in the grains decreased signifi-
cantly to approx. 30 N. For kernels irradiated with microwaves for
8 sec, the effect on hardness (Fig. 2) was reversed.
Microwave irradiation at the selected levels did not affect the
recovered malt for the three barley varieties submitted to different
treatments (Table I). In general, the losses due to germination (in-
dicated by the development of acrospire and roots) and the respira-
tion of the grain itself were normal. The feed barleys showed higher
malting processing efficiency; Adabella showed a minor loss, fol-
lowed by Esmeralda at 8 sec, with the lowest malting processing
efficiency of all three varieties.
Malt extract is a factor of major importance to the brewing in-
dustry; therefore, one objective was to evaluate the malt extract
levels of irradiated barley. The irradiated feed and malting barleys
had higher malt extract values in most cases. Extract levels for va-
riety Adabella improved to 75.2% with 4-sec irradiation treatments
and to 77.1% with 8-sec treatments. The second value was higher
than the minimum required (76%) by the industrial specification
for malting-quality malts in Mexico (7). The untreated feed bar-
leys did not reach the malting specifications established for the
industry and showed low extract percentages, which implies lower
industrial yield and quantity. The feed barley Pastor Ortíz treated
with 4 sec of irradiation improved to 74.1% extract, very close to
the minimum specification required by the industry. When com-
pared with the extract obtained from the untreated control (66.9%),
the increase of 7.1% was highly significant. The variety Esmeralda
showed behavior similar to Pastor Ortíz in relation to the time of
exposure to microwaves. Its extract increased compared with the un-
treated control (76.1%). A barley malt irradiated for 4 sec showed
83.7% malt extract, an increase of 7.5%; malt extract decreased to
74.4%, however, with 8 sec of treatment. This level of extract was
statistically the same as the control, indicating the microwave ir-
radiation treatment of 8 sec had a reverse effect in kernel hardness
(Fig. 2), which relates directly to malt extract and quality. Kernel
hardness showed a significantly high correlation (r = –0.61; P ≤
0.001) with malt extract obtained (Fig. 3).
Malt extract decreased as the hardness of the grain increased. For
example, the feed barley Adabella control (49.3 N) and Pastor Ortiz
with 8 sec of irradiation (48.8 N) showed higher hardness levels and
obtained lower extracts (73.5 and 72.6%, respectively). Llorca (11)
has indicated that, in general, feed barleys have a large amount of
Fig. 3. Correlation between barley kernel hardness and malt extract.
glassy endosperm compaction of starch granules, as well as a large
amount of protein matrix that surrounds the starch granules, which
impedes the transformation of the endosperm during germination.
This relates directly to the difference between extracts from fine
and coarse grinding, for which the feed barleys had higher values,
with ranges of 3.0–3.7 (Table I). Esmeralda showed good modifi-
cation without treatment and was excellent after 4 sec of micro-
wave treatment (Table I). In general, the losses due to germination
(indicated by acrospire development and roots) were normal, as
was the respiration of the grain itself during germination.
Arguably, filtration of the wort is the most difficult step in the
production of beer; consequently, controlling extract viscosity is
very important. The viscosity of the extract is affected by the hy-
drolysis of β-glucans during mashing of the malt. Yiu et al (25)
analyzed the effect that warming with microwaves had on rolled
oats and observed that the β-glucan content decreased after 1 min
of irradiation. In the present study, wort viscosity decreased in all
cases with an increase in irradiation time (Table I). For example,
Esmeralda at 0 time had a viscosity of 1.57 cP and, after 8 sec of
microwave irradiation, viscosity diminished to acceptable levels of
1.47 cP.
Diastatic power represents the activity of amylolytic enzymes
such as α-amylase and β-amylase, and it is convenient that malts
have a high diastatic power of 125–170°L, as well as a minimum
α-amylase activity of 35 DU. This assures a suitable quantity of
sugars for fermentation during the production of beer. Barley va-
rieties Esmeralda and Pastor Ortíz were within the range of speci-
fications for diastatic power and α-amylase (Table I). However,
Adabella had lower diastatic power (88.8–96.1°L) and α-amylase
activity (27.8–28.3 DU). It is important to note that irradiation for
4 and 8 sec did not negatively affect enzyme levels in the grains;
in fact, in some cases, such as Esmeralda, it improved them. How-
ever, some variations can be attributed to experimental error dur-
ing the kilning process.
CONCLUSIONS
The feed barleys tested showed higher kernel hardness than the
malting barleys tested. Microwave irradiation for 4 sec softened
the barley kernel endosperm to resemble those of good-quality malt-
ing barley and to levels that are commercial acceptable. The mi-
crowave irradiation of barley kernels had a direct effect on malting
performance, as indicated by hardness, malt extract, and wort vis-
cosity. Microwave irradiation for 4 sec improved the quality of the
feed and malting barleys, which reached the values specified by
the brewing industry for malts from malting barleys.
Use of a texturometer to determine grain hardness is a simple
and rapid method that allows evaluation of the mechanical proper-
ties of the grain for selection of the end use of barley. The kernel
hardness test method presented has the potential to be used in the
selection of good-quality malts in early generations of breeding pro-
grams.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
P. López-Perea received a scholarship from CONACYT. Support was
received from the Center for Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic
Institute (CINVESTAV), Campus Querétaro, and the Laboratory of Barley
of INIFAP for the analyses of malt. P. López-Perea thanks N. Ponce-
García, J. Juan Véles, and M. Gaytán from the Department of Material Sci-
ence, Area of Bio-organic Materials, CINVESTAV Mexico, for their assis-
tance during her research.
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