IR sensor:

Sensors are basically electronic devices which are used to sense the
changes that occur in their surroundings. The change may be in color,
temperature, moisture, sound, heat etc. They sense the change and work
accordingly. In IR sensor the there is emitter and detector. Emitter emits
the IR rays and detector detects it.
The IR sensor basically consists of three components:
• IR LED (emitter)
• Photodiode (detector)
• Op-Amp
IR LED:
IR LED is a light emitting diode which emits the IR radiations. The basic function of the emitter
is to convert electricity into light. It works on the principle of recombination of the electron-hole
pair. As in the conduction band of a diode, electrons are the majority carrier and in the valence
band, holes are majority carrier. So when an electron from a conduction band recombines with a
hole of valance band, some amount of energy is released and this energy is in the form of light.
The amount of energy released is depends upon the forbidden energy gap. The IR Led has two
legs, the leg which is longer is positive and other leg is negative.
Photo Diode:
The photodiode is a p-n junction diode which is connected in reverse bias direction. The
basic function of the detector is to convert light into electricity. As its name implies that
it works effectively only when the certain number of photon or certain amount of light
falls on it. When there is no fall of light on the photodiode it has an infinite resistance
and act as an open switch but as the light starts falling on the photodiode, the resistance
becomes low and when the full intensity of light fall on the photodiode then its
resistance becomes zero and it starts act like a closed switch.

Op-Amp
Op-Amp stands for operational amplifier. It is a DC-coupled high gain amplifier with
differential inputs and single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled by
either negative feedback or positive feedback. Due to the fact that it performs several
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration etc, it is named as
operational amplifier. It has two inputs pins and one output pin.

Circuit Diagram:

Different Types of IR Sensors:

 Speed Sensor: The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed
of multiple motors.
 Temperature Sensor: The temperature sensor is used for industrial
temperature control.
  Temperature Sensor: The temperature sensor is used for industrial
temperature control.
 PIR Sensor: The PIR Sensor is used for automatic door opening
system. Ultrasonic sensors are used for distance measurement.
 Ultrasonic Sensor: Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance
measurement.

Applications of IR Sensors:
IR sensors are used in various electronic devices which measure
temperatures. Some of them are discussed below.

Radiation Thermometers: IR sensors are used in radiation

thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the temperature and
the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors: These types of devices are used for detecting the light
emitted from the flames and to monitor how the flames are burning. The Light
emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region types. PbS, PbSe, Two-color
detector, pyro electric detector are some of the commonly employed detector used
in flame monitors.

Moisture Analyzer: Moisture analyzers use wavelengths which are absorbed

by the moisture in the IR region. Objects are irradiated with light having these
wavelengths(1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and 2.7µm) and also with reference
wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects depend upon the moisture
content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected light at
these wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN
photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture analyzer
circuits.

Gas Analyzer: IR sensors are used in gas analyzers which use absorption
characteristics of gases in the IR region. Two types of methods are used to
measure the density of gas such as dispersive and non dispersive.
Dispersive: An Emitted light is spectroscopically divided and their absorption
characteristics are used to analyze the gas ingredients and the sample quantity.

Non dispersive: It is most commonly used method and it uses absorption

characteristics without dividing the emitted light. Non dispersive types use discrete
optical band pass filters, similar to sunglasses that are used for eye protection to
filter out unwanted UV radiation.

This type of configuration is commonly referred to as non-dispersive infrared

(NDIR) technology. This type of analyzer is used for carbonated drinks, whereas
non dispersive analyzer is used in most of the commercial IR instruments, for an
automobile exhaust gas fuel leakage.

IR Imaging Devices: IR image device is one of the major applications of IR

waves, primarily by virtue of its property that is not visible. It is used for thermal
imagers, night vision devices, etc.
Ultra-Sonic Sensor (SONAR):

An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that can measure the distance to an object by

using sound waves. It measures distance by sending out a sound wave at a specific
frequency and listening for that sound wave to bounce back. By recording the
elapsed time between the sound wave being generated and the sound wave
bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance between the sonar sensor and
the object.
Circuit Diagram:

Types of Ultrasonic Sensors:

There are four types of ultrasonic sensors:

 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

 Ultrasonic 2 Point Proximity Sensors
 Ultrasonic Retro-Reflective Sensors
 Ultrasonic Through Beam Sensors
 Applications of SONAR Sensors:
 Box sorting using multi-transducer ultrasonic monitoring system

 Roll diameter, tension control, winding and unwind

 Liquid level control
 Thru beam detection for high-speed counting
 Full detection
 Thread or wire break detection
 Robotic Sensing
 Stacking height control
 45° Deflection; inkwell level detection; hard to get at places

 Vehicle detection for car wash and automotive assembly

 People detection for counting

 Vehicle detection for car wash and automotive assembly

 Irregular parts detection for hoppers and feeder bowls

 Presence detection

 Box sorting using multi-transducer ultrasonic monitoring system

Optical Encoder:

An optical encoder is an electromechanical device which has an electrical

output in digital form proportional to the angular position of the input shaft.
Optical encoders enable an angular displacement to be converted directly into a
digital form.
Circuit Diagram:

Types of Optical Encoders:

There are two types of Optical Encoders. They are:

 Incremental Optical Encoders: They are the simplest and most

commonly used. The encoder provides information about the
instantaneous position of a rotating shaft by producing one square wave
cycle per increment of shaft movement. Referred to as the resolution of
the encoder, this increment is built directly into the device's internal
hardware.
 Absolute Optical Encoders: These types of optical encoders
naturally have a more complicated signal structure. These
encoders provide a "whole word" output with a unique code
pattern that is derived from independent tracks on the encoder
disc which correspond to individual photo-detectors and
represents each position. The output from these detectors is HI or
LO depending on the code disc pattern for that particular position.
Applications of Optical Encoders:
Pyro- Electric Sensor (PIR)

Pyroelectric crystals have a rare asymmetry due to their single polar axis. This causes their
polarisation to change with temperature. This so-called pyroelectric effect is used in sensor
technology. For this, a thin pyroelectric crystal is coated perpendicular to the polar axis with
electrodes. On the upper electrode of the crystal, an absorbing layer (black layer) is applied.
When this layer interacts with infrared radiation, the pyroelectric layer heats up and surface
charge arises. If the radiation is switched off, a charge of the opposite polarity originates.
However, the charge is very low. Before the finite internal resistance of the crystal can equalise
the charges, extremely low-noise and low leakage current field-effect transistors (JFET) or
operational amplifier (OpAmp) convert the charges into a signal voltage. Thermopiles, too,
belong to the group of thermal detectors, however, the measuring effect is less significant. While
pyroelectric infrared detectors show a good signal/noise ratio up to modulation frequencies of 4
kHz, e.g. in FTIR spectrometers, thermopiles produce good results up to modulation frequencies
of specific Hertz only.Pyroelectric crystals have a rare asymmetry due to their single polar axis.
This causes their polarisation to change with temperature. This so-called pyroelectric effect is
used in sensor technology. For this, a thin pyroelectric crystal is coated perpendicular to the polar
axis with electrodes. On the upper electrode of the crystal, an absorbing layer (black layer) is
applied. When this layer interacts with infrared radiation, the pyroelectric layer heats up and
surface charge arises. If the radiation is switched off, a charge of the opposite polarity originates.
However, the charge is very low. Before the finite internal resistance of the crystal can equalise
the charges, extremely low-noise and low leakage current field-effect transistors (JFET) or
operational amplifier (OpAmp) convert the charges into a signal voltage. Thermopiles, too,
belong to the group of thermal detectors, however, the measuring effect is less significant. While
pyroelectric infrared detectors show a good signal/noise ratio up to modulation frequencies of 4
kHz, e.g. in FTIR spectrometers, thermopiles produce good results up to modulation frequencies
of specific Hertz only.

Circuit Diagram:

Applications of Pyro-Electric Sensors:

 Intrusion Sensors
 Light Control
 Temperature Measurement
 Flame Detector
 Automatic Door Switch
 Visitor Detector
 Home Security
 Life Safety
Thermistor:

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so

than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor.
A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a precise and predictable
change in resistance proportional to small changes in body temperature. How much its
resistance will change is dependent upon its unique composition. Thermistors are part of
a larger group of passive components. And unlike their active component counterparts,
passive devices are incapable of providing power gain, or amplification to a circuit.
Michael Faraday; an English scientist, first discovered the concept of thermistors in 1833
while reporting on the semiconductor behavior of silver sulfide. Through his research, he
noticed that the silver sulfides resistance decreased as the temperature increased. This
discovery would later lead to the commercial production of thermistors in the 1930’s
when Samuel Ruben invented the first commercial thermistor. Since then, technology has
improved; paving the road to improved manufacturing processes; along with the
 availability of higher quality material.

Types of Thermistors:
There are two types of thermistors. NTC or Negative Temperature
Coefficient thermistors and PTC or Positive Temperature Coefficient
thermistors. The difference is that NTC thermistors exhibit a DECREASE
in resistance as body temperature increases, while PTC thermistors exhibit
an INCREASE in resistance as body temperature increases.

Applications of Thermistors:

 Temperature compensation
 Temperature measurement
 Temperature Control
Light Detecting Resistor (LDR):

An LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that changes with the light
intensity that falls upon it. This allows them to be used in light sensing circuits. The
resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it
exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and
light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have
a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor
can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own
charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic devices
the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough
energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also
called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

Circuit Diagram:
Applications of LDR:
Photoresistors or LDRs come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in
many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the detector
for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc.

Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient light falling
on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light
is only on during hours of darkness.

They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent or neon
lamp, or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction. A common usage of this application can
be found in many guitar amplifiers that incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating
light patterns control the level of signal running through the amp circuit.