Iitk CAD PDF

Introduction to CAD/CAM
IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 1

• CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to perform
certain functions in the design process.
• CAM is the use of computer systems to plan, manage and control
the operations of manufacturing plant through either direct or
indirect computer interface with the plant’s production resources.

From CAM definition, the application of CAM falls into
two broad categories:
1. Computer monitoring and control .
Process data
Computer Process
Process data
Computer Process
Control signals

2. Manufacturing support application .
Process data
Computer Mfg
Control signals operations

The Product Cycle and CAD/CAM
In order to establish the scope and definition of CAD/CAM
in an engineering environment and identify existing and
future related tools, a study of a typical product cycle is
necessary. The following Figure shows a flowchart of such a
cycle.

Typical Product Life Cycle
The Design Process
Design definitions, Collecting relevant
Design specifications, and design information
needs requirements and feasibility study
Synthesis
Analysis The CAD Process
Design documentation and Design modeling
Design Design Design
communication and simulation Design conceptualization
evaluation optimization analysis
The Manufacturing Process

Production planning
The CAM Process
Design and
procurement of new
Process planning
tools Quality control Packaging
Production Shipping
Order materials
NC, CNC, DNC

programming
Marketing

• The product begins with a need which is identified based on customers'
and markets' demands.
• The product goes through two main processes from the idea
conceptualization to the finished product:
1. The design process.
2. The manufacturing process.
The main sub-processes that constitute the design process are:

1. Synthesis.
2. Analysis.

Implementation of a Typical CAD Process on a
CAD/CAM system
Delineation of Design changes Design and
geometric model Analysis algorithms
Definition translator Drafting and

detailing
Geometric model
Documentation
Interface algorithms
To CAM Process
CAD Tools Required to Support the Design Process
Design phase Required CAD tools

Design conceptualization Geometric modeling techniques; Graphics aids;
manipulations; and visualization
Design modeling and simulation Same as above; animation; assemblies; special
modeling packages.
Design analysis Analysis packages; customized programs and
packages.
Design optimization Customized applications; structural optimization.
Design evaluation Dimensioning; tolerances; BOM; NC.

Design communication and documentation Drafting and detailing…

Implementation of a Typical CAM Process on a CAD/CAM
system
Geometric model Inspection
Interface algorithms
Assembly
Process planning Packaging
NC programs
To shipping and marketing
CAM Tools Required to Support the Design Process
Manufacturing phase Required CAM tools
Process planning CAPP techniques; cost analysis;

material and tooling specification.
Part programming NC programming
Inspection CAQ; and Inspection software
Assembly Robotics simulation and

programming

Definitions of CAD Tools Based on Their Constituents
Computer graphics
concepts
CAD
tools
Geometric modeling
Design tools

Definition of CAD Tools Based on Their Implementation in a Design
Environment
Hardware
Design tools + Computer (control unit; display terminals; = CAD tools
I/O devices
Software (graphics;
modeling; applications
programs

Definitions of CAM Tools Based on Their Constituents
Networking
concepts
CAM
tools
CAD
Mfg tools

Definition of CAM Tools Based on Their Implementation in a
Manufacturing Environment
Hardware
(control unit; display terminals;
I/O devices
Mfg tools + Computer Software (CAD; NC;

= CAM tools
MRP; CAPP…)
Networking
Definitions of CAD/CAM Tools Based on Their
Constituents
Mfg tools Design tools
CAD/CAM
tools Geometric
Networking modeling
Computer
graphics
concepts
Definition of CAD/CAM Tools Based on Their Implementation in an
Engineering Environment
Hardware
Design and Software

+ Computer = CAD/CAM tools
Mfg tools
Networking
Typical Utilization of CAD/CAM Systems in an Industrial Environment
Geometric modeling and graphics package
Process planning
Geometric modeling
of conceptual design CAPP package
Is design evaluation
Yes Are there manufacturing
No discrepancies in CAD
Possible with available
Standard software? databases?
Design
package Yes
Develop customized No
Design testing
programs and packages
And evaluation NC programming NC
package
Programming
No Is final design package
Applicable? Machining
Yes
Inspection
Drafting Inspection
And Robotics
Assembly package
Documentation IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 18
Automation and CAD/CAM
Automation can be defined as the technology concerned
with the application of complex mechanical, electronic,
and computer-based systems in the operation and control
of manufacturing systems.

Types of Manufacturing Systems
1. Continuous-flow processes. Continuous dedicated production of large amount of bulk
product. Continuous manufacturing is represented by chemicals, plastics, petroleum, and
food industries.
2. Mass production of discrete products. Dedicated production of large quantities of one
product (with perhaps limited model variations). Examples include automobiles,
appliances and engine blocks.
3. Batch production. Production of medium lot sizes of the same product. The lot may be
produced once or repeated periodically. Examples: books, clothing and certain industrial
machinery.
4. Job-shop production. Production of low quantities, often one of a kind, of specialized
products. The products are often customized and technologically complex. Examples:
prototypes, aircraft, machine tools and other equipment.

Continuous-flow
production
Mass production
Production Batch production

quantity
Job shop
production
Product variety

Category Automation achievements
Continuous-flow process •Flow process from beginning to end
•Sensors technology available to measure important process
variables
•Use of sophisticated control and optimization strategies
•Fully computer automated lines
Mass production of discrete products •Automated transfer machines
•Dial indexing machines
•Partially and fully automated assembly lines
•Industrial robots for spot welding, part handling, machine
loading, spray painting, etc.
•Automated material handling systems
•Computer production monitoring
Batch production •Numerical control (NC), direct numerical control (DNC),
computer numerical control (CNC).
•Adaptive control machining
•Robots for arc welding, parts handling, etc.
•CIM systems.
Job shop production •Numerical control, computer numerical control

Computer Technology in Automation
Most of the automated production systems implemented today make use of

computers. CAD/CAM in addition to its particular emphasis on the use of
computer technology, is also distinguished by the fact that it includes not only the
manufacturing operations but also the design and planning functions that precede
manufacturing.
To emphasize the differences in scope between automation and CAD/CAM,

consider the following mathematical model:

TTlc = BQT1 + BT2 + T3
TTcl = total time during the product life cycle
B = The number of batches produced throughou t the product life cycle.
Q = The number of units produced in each batch.
T1 = The time required to produce one unit of product.
T2 = The time associated with planning and setting up for
each batch of production .
T3 = The time required for designing the product and for all the other
activities that are accomplish ed once for each different product .
Tlc = The average time spent on each unit of product
T2 T3
during its life cycle = T1 + +
Q BQ
T1 The most important term in mass production and batch
production
T2 & T3 become very important in job shop

manufacturing.
Automation technology is concerned with reducing
T1 &T2the with emphasis on the unit production time
T1
CAD/CAM concerned with reducing all three terms, but is perhaps
focused on terms. The emphasis in CAD/CAM includes
the design and planning function of the product
T2 & lifeTcycle.
3

Advantages of CAD/CAM systems
• Greater flexibility. • Better product design.
• Reduced lead times. • Greater manufacturing control.
• Reduced inventories. • Supported integration.
• Increased Productivity. • Reduced costs.
• Improved customer service. • Increased utilization.
• Improved quality. • Reduction of machine tools.
• Improved communications with • Less floor space.
suppliers.

Introduction to Geometric Transformation
• Computer graphics plays an important role in the product

development process by generating, presenting, and
manipulating geometric models of objects.
• During the product development process, for proper
understanding of designs, it is necessary not only to generate
geometric models of objects but also to perform such
manipulations on these objects as rotation, translation and
scaling.

Introduction to Geometric transformation
• Essentially, computer graphics is concerned with generating, presenting and
manipulating models of an object and its different views using computer hardware,
software and graphic devices.
• Usually the numerical data generated by a computer at very high speeds is hard to
interpret unless one represents the data in graphic format and it is even better if the
graphic can be manipulated to be viewed from different sides, enlarged or reduced
in size.
• Geometric transformation is one of the basic techniques that is used to accomplish
these graphic functions involving scale change, translation to another location or
rotating it by a certain angle to get a better view of it.

2D Transformations

Rotation About the Origin
y-axis
To rotate a line or polygon, we must rotate each of

(x2,y2)
its vertices.
(x1,y1)
To rotate point (x1,y1) to point (x2,y2) we observe: B

r
From the illustration we know that: (0,0)

x-axis
sin (A + B) = y2/r cos (A + B) = x2/r

sin A = y1/r cos A = x1/r

Rotation About the Origin
From the double angle formulas: sin (A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
cos (A + B)= cosAcosB - sinAsinB
Substituting: y2/r = (y1/r)cosB + (x1/r)sinB
Therefore: y2 = y1cosB + x1sinB
We have x2 = x1cosB - y1sinB

y2 = x1sinB + y1cosB
P2 = R P1 .
(x2) (cosB -sinB) (x1)

(y2) = (sinB cosB) (y1)

Translations
Moving an object is called a translation. We translate a point by adding to the x and y coordinates,
respectively, the amount the point should be shifted in the x and y directions. We translate an
object by translating each vertex in the object.
P2 = P 1 + T
Ty
P1 = ( x1 ) T = ( tx )
Tx ( y1 ) ( ty )
P2 = (x1 + tx)
(y1 + ty)

Scaling
Changing the size of an object is called a scale. We scale an object by scaling the x and y coordinates
of each vertex in the object.
.
P2 = S P1
S = (sx 0) P1 = ( x1 )
(0 sy) ( y1 )
P2 = (sxx1)
(syy1)

Homogeneous Coordinates
Although the formulas we have shown are usually the most efficient way to implement programs to
do scales, rotations and translations, it is easier to use matrix transformations to represent and
manipulate them.
In order to represent a translation as a matrix operation we use 3 x 3 matrices and pad our points to
become 1 x 3 matrices.
cos ø -sin ø 0
Rø = sin ø cos ø 0
(x)
0 0 1 Point P = (y)
(1)
Sx 0 0
S = 0 Sy 0
0 0 1
1 0 Tx
T = 0 1 Ty
0 0 1
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IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar
Composite Transformations - Scaling
Given our three basic transformations we can create other transformations.
Scaling with a fixed point

A problem with the scale transformation is that it also moves the object being scaled.
Scale a line between (2, 1) (4,1) to twice its length.

(2 0 0) =
(0 1 0) (2) (4)
(0 0 1) (1) (1)
(1) (1)
(2 0 0) =
(0 1 0) (4) (8)
Bef ore
(0 0 1) (1) (1)
(1) (1) Afte r
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Composite Transforms - Scaling (cont.)
If we scale a line between (0, 1) (2,1) to twice its length, the left-hand endpoint does not move.
(2 0 0) =
(0 1 0) (0) (0)
(0 0 1) (1) (1)
(1) (1)
(2 0 0) =
(0 1 0) (2) (0)
(0 0 1) (1) (1) Bef ore
(1) (1) Afte r
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(0,0) is known as a fixed point for the basic scaling transformation. We can used composite
transformations to create a scale transformation with different fixed points.

Fixed Point Scaling
Scale by 2 with fixed point = (2,1)
• Translate the point (2,1) to the origin
• Scale by 2
• Translate origin to point (2,1)
(1 0 2) (2 0 0) (1 0 -2) = (2 0 -2)
(0 1 1) (0 1 0) (0 1 -1) (0 1 0)
(0 0 1) (0 0 1) (0 0 1) (0 0 1)
(2 0 -2) (2)= (2)

(0 1 0) (1) (1)
(0 0 1) (1) (1) Bef ore
Afte r
(2 0 -2) (4)= (6)
(0 1 0) (1) (1)
(0 0 1) (1) (1) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

More Fixed Point Scaling
Scale by 2 with fixed point = (3,1)
• Translate the point (3,1) to the origin
• Scale by 2
• Translate origin to point (3,1)
(1 0 3) (2 0 0) (1 0 -3) = (2 0 -3)
(0 1 1) (0 1 0) (0 1 -1) (0 1 0)
(0 0 1) (0 0 1) (0 0 1) (0 0 1)
(2 0 -3) =
(2) (1)
Bef ore
(0 1 0) (1) (1)
Afte r
(0 0 1) (1) (1)
(2 0 -3) =
(4) (5) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(0 1 0) (1) (1)
(0 0 1) (1) (1)
Rotation about a Fixed Point
Rotation of ø Degrees About Point (x,y)
• Translate (x,y) to origin
• Rotate
• Translate origin to (x,y)
(x,y) (x,y)
(1 0 x) (cosø -sinø 0)(1 0 -x) (cosø -sinø -xcosø + ysinø + x )

(0 1 y) (sinø cosø 0)(0 1 -y) = (sinø cosø -xsinø - ycosø + y )
(0 0 1) (0 0 1)(0 0 1) (0 0 1 )
You rotate the box by rotating each vertex.

Shears
Original Data y Shear x Shear
1 0 0 1 b 0
a 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
GRAPHICS --> x shear --> GRAPHICS

Reflections
Reflection about the y-axis Reflection about the x-axis
-1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 -1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

More Reflections
Reflection about the origin Reflection about the line y=x
-1 0 0 0 1 0
0 -1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

Concatenation of Transformations
• Concatenating
– affine transformations by multiplying together
– sequences of the basic transformations
➔ define an arbitrary transformation directly
– ex) three successive transformations
p1 p2
p A B C q
p1 = Ap q = (C(B(Ap ))) = CBAp CBA

p2 = Bp1
q = Cp2 M = CBA
q = CBp1 q = Mp p M q
q = CBAp
43
Matrix Concatenation Properties
• Associative properties
M1  M2  M3 = M1  (M2  M3 ) = (M1  M2 )  M3
• Transformation is not commutative

– Order of transformation may affect transformation position

Two-dimensional composite transformation (1)
• Composite transformation
– A sequence of transformations
– Calculate composite transformation matrix rather than applying individual transformations
P' = M2  M1  P
• CompositeP'= MP
two-dimensional translations
– Apply two successive translations, T1 and T2
T1 = T (t1x , t1 y )
T2 = T (t 2 x , t 2 y )
= T2  (T1  P)matrix
P' transformation
– Composite = (Tin2 coordinate
T1 )  P form
T(t 2 x , t 2y )  T(t1x , t1y ) = T(t1x + t 2 x , t1y + t 2 y )

• Composite two-dimensional rotations

– Two successive rotations, R1 and R2 into a point P
P' = R(1 )  {R( 2 )  P}
P' = {R(1 )  R( 2 )}  P
– Multiply two rotation matrices to get composite transformation matrix

R(1 )  R( 2 ) = R(1 +  2 )
P' = R(1 +  2 )  P
• Composite two-dimensional scaling
S(s1x , s1y )  S(s 2 x , s 2 y ) = S(s1x  s 2 x , s1y  s 2 y )
P' = S(s1x  s 2 x , s1y  s 2 y )  P

• General two-dimensional Pivot-point rotation

– Graphics package provide only origin rotation
– Perform a translate-rotate-translate sequence
• Translate the object to move pivot-point position to origin
• Rotate the object
• Translate the object back to the original position
– Composite ( coordinates
r , y r )  Rin
T( x matrix ) = R( x r , y r , )
)  T( − x r ,− y rform

• Example of pivot-point rotation

Pivot-Point Rotation
(xr,yr) (xr,yr) (xr,yr) (xr,yr)
Translate Rotate Translate
T (xr , yr )  R( )  T (− xr ,− yr ) = R(xr , yr , )

1 0 x r  cos  − sin  0 1 0 − x r  cos  − sin  x r (1 − cos ) + y r sin  
0 1 y r    sin  cos 0  0 1 − y r  =  sin  cos  y r (1 − cos  ) − x r sin  

0 0 1   0 0 1 0 0 1   0 0 1 

General Fixed-Point Scaling
(xr,yr) (xr,yr) (xr,yr) (xr,yr)
Translate Scale Translate
T (x f , y f ) S (sx , s y ) T (− x f ,− y f ) = S (x f , y f , sx , s y )
1 0 x f  s x 0 0 1 0 − x f  s x 0 x f (1 − s x ) 
0 1 yf   0 sy 0  0 1 − yf  = 0 sy y f (1 − s y ) 
       

0 0 1  0 0 1
  0 0 1   0 0 1 

• General two-dimensional scaling directions

– Perform a rotate-scaling-rotate sequence
– Composite matrix in coordinates form
R −1( )  S( s1, s 2 )  R( )
s1 cos 2  + s 2 sin2  ( s 2 − s1 ) cos sin 0
 
=  ( s 2 − s1 ) cos sin s1 sin2  + s 2 cos 2  0
 0 0 1
 
s1

s2
General Scaling Directions
• Converted to a parallelogram
y y
(1/2,3/2) (2,2)
(0,1) (1,1)
(3/2,1/2)
(0,0) (1,0) x (0,0) x
Scale
 s1 cos 2  + s2 sin 2  ( s2 − s1 ) cos sin  0 y s2
 
R −1 ( )  S ( s1 , s2 )  R ( ) =  ( s2 − s1 ) cos sin  s1 sin 2  + s2 cos 2  0
 0 0 1 xs
 1

General Rotation (1/2)
• Three successive rotations about the three axes
rotation of a cube about the z axis rotation of a cube about the y axis
?
rotation of a cube about the x axis
53
General Rotation (2/2)
R = Rx R y Rz
1 0 0 0  cos  0 sin  0 cos  − sin  0 0

0 cos  − sin  0  0 1 0 0  sin  cos  0 0
   
0 sin  cos  0 − sin  0 cos  0  0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1

Examples

3D Transformation
◼ A 3D point (x,y,z) – x,y, and z coordinates
◼ We will still use column vectors to represent points
◼ Homogeneous coordinates of a 3D point
(x,y,z,1)
◼ Transformation will be performed using 4x4 matrix
x
z
58
Right-handed Coordinate System
x  y = z; y  z = x; z  x = y
x
z Left hand coordinate system
Not used in this class and
Not in OpenGL
59/94
3D Transformation
◼ Very similar to 2D transformation
◼ Translation transformation
 x   1 0 0 t x  x 
    
 y   0 1 0 t y  y 
 z  =  0 0 1 t x  z 
    
 1  0 1  1 
   0 0
Homogenous coordinates
60
3D Transformation
◼ Very similar to 2D transformation
◼ Scaling transformation
 x   s x 0 0 0  x 
    
 y   0 sy 0 0  y 
 z  =  0 0 sz 0  z 
    
1 0 1  1 
   0 0
Homogenous coordinates
61
3D Transformation
◼ 3D rotation is done around a rotation axis
◼ Fundamental rotations – rotate about x, y, or z axes
◼ Counter-clockwise rotation is referred to as positive rotation
(when you look down negative axis)
+ x
z
62
3D Transformation
◼ Rotation about z – similar to 2D rotation
x' = x cos  − y sin 
y ' = x sin  + y cos 
z' = z
 x   cos  − sin  0 0  x  y
    
 y   sin  cos  0 0  y 
 z  =  0 0 1 0  z 
     +
1  0 1  1 
x
   0 0 z
63
3D Transformation
◼ Rotation about y: z -> y, y -> x, x->z
z
z ' = z cos  − x sin 

x' = z sin  + x cos  y
x
y' = y
 x   cos  0 sin  0  x  y
    
 y   0 1 0 0  y 
 z   =  − sin  0 cos  0  z 
    
1  0 1  1 
x
   0 0 z
64
3D Transformation
◼ Rotation about x (z -> x, y -> z, x->y)
x
y ' = y cos  − z sin 

z ' = y sin  + z cos  z
y
x' = x
 x   1 0 0 0  x  y
    
 y   0 cos  − sin  0  y 
 z  =  0 sin  cos  0  z 
    
 1  0 1  1 
x
   0 0 z
65
Inverse of 3D Transformations
◼ Invert the transformation
◼ In general, X= AX’->x’=A-1X
 x  1 − t x  x' 
 x   1 0 0 t x  x    
0 0
 
      y 0 1 0 − t y  y ' 
 y   0 1 0 t y  y   z  = 0
 z  =  0 − t x  z ' 
t x  z 
0 1
0 1     
      1  0 1   
 1  0    0 0  1 
   0 0 1  
 1 
T(tx,ty,tz) T(-tx,-ty,-tz)
 x   cos  − sin  0  x   x   cos  sin  0 0  x' 

  
0
      
 y   sin  cos  0 0  y   y   − sin  cos  0 0  y ' 
 z  =  0 z = 0 0  z ' 
0 1 0  z    
0 1
 
     1  0
1  0 1  1     0 0 1  1 
   0 0
Rz ( − )
Rz ( )
3D Rotation about Arbitrary Axes

◼ Rotate p about the by the
r angle 

r
z
p = ( x, y, z )
67
3-D Rotation
◼ General rotations in 3-D require rotating about an arbitrary
axis of rotation
◼ Deriving the rotation matrix for such a rotation directly is a

good exercise in linear algebra
◼ The general rotation matrix is a combination of coordinate-

axis rotations and translations!
68

r angle 

r
z
p = ( x, y, z )
69
3-D Rotation
◼ General rotations in 3-D require rotating about an arbitrary
axis of rotation
◼ Deriving the rotation matrix for such a rotation directly is a

good exercise in linear algebra
◼ Standard approach: express general rotation as composition

of canonical rotations
◆ Rotations about x, y, z
70
Composing Canonical Rotations
◼ Goal: rotate about arbitrary vector r by θ
◆ Idea: we know how to rotate about x,y,z
⧫ Set up a transformation that superimposes rotation axis onto

one coordinate axis
⧫ Rotate about the coordinate axis
⧫ Translate and rotate object back via inverse of the

transformation matrix
71
Composing Canonical Rotations
◼ Goal: rotate about arbitrary vector r by θ
◆ Idea: we know how to rotate about x,y,z
⧫ So, rotate about z by - until r lies in the xz plane

⧫ Then rotate about y by -β until r coincides with +z
⧫ Then rotate about z by θ
⧫ Then reverse the rotation about y (by β )
⧫ Then reverse the rotation about z (by )
72

r angle 

r
z
p = ( x, y, z )
73
◼ Translate so that rotation axis passes through the origin

r
z
x
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
74
◼ Rotation by −  z-axis
about
z

r
y

x
T −1 Ry ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
75
◼ Rotation by −  y-axis
about
z

r 
x
T −1 Ry ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
76
◼ Rotation by  z-axis
about
z

r
x
T −1 Ry ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
77
◼ Rotation by  y-axis
about
z

r 
x
T −1 Ry ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
78
◼ Rotation by  z-axis
about
z

r
y

x
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
79
◼ Translate the object back to original point

r
z
y

x
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
80
◼ Final transformation matrix for rotating about an arbitrary
axis 
r
z
y

x
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
81
axis 
r
z
y

x
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
82
axis
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
 r11 r12 r13 0

 
 r21 r22 r23 0
=
r r32 r33 0
 31 
0 0 0 1
axis
T −1 Rz ( ) Ry (  ) Rz ( ) Ry (−  ) Rz (− )T
 r11 r12 r13 0

 
 r21 r22 r23 0
=
r r32 r33 0
 31 
0 0 0 1
A 3 by 3 Rotation matrix—orthogonal matrix

Rotation Matrices
◼ Orthonormal matrix:
◆ orthogonal (columns/rows linearly independent)
◆ normalized (columns/rows length of 1)
85
Rotation Matrices
◼ The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is just its transpose:
−1 T
 r11 r12 r13   r11 r12 r13 
   
 r21 r22 r23  =  r21 r22 r23 
r r33  r r33 
 31 r32  31 r32
86
Rotation Matrices
◼ The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is just its transpose:
−1 T
 r11 r12 r13   r11 r12 r13 
   
 r21 r22 r23  =  r21 r22 r23 
r r33  r r33 
 31 r32  31 r32
87
Examples

Examples

Splines and Bezier Curves

• |Representing Curves
– A number of small line-segments joined
• Interpolation
• Parametric equations
• Types of curve we study
– Natural Cubic Splines and Bezier Curves
• Derivation
• Implementation
“Computers can’t draw curves.”
The more points/line segments

that are used, the smoother the
curve.

Why have curves ?
• Representation of “irregular surfaces”
• Example: Auto industry (car body design)
– Artist’s representation
– Clay / wood models
– Digitizing
– Surface modeling (“body in white”)
– Scaling and smoothening
– Tool and die Manufacturing

Curve representation
• Problem: How to represent a curve easily and efficiently
• “Brute force and ignorance” approaches:
• storing a curve as many small straight line segments
– doesn’t work well when scaled
– inconvenient to have to specify so many points
– need lots of points to make the curve look smooth
• working out the equation that represents the curve
– difficult for complex curves
– moving an individual point requires re-calculation of the entire curve

Solution - Interpolation
•Define a small number of points
•Use a technique called “interpolation” to

invent the extra points for us.
•Join the points with a series of (short)

straight lines

The need for smoothness
• So far, mostly polygons
• Can approximate any geometry, but
– Only approximate
– Need lots of polygons to hide discontinuities
• Storage problems
– Math problems
• Normal direction
• Texture coordinates
– Not very convenient as modeling tool
• Gets even worse in animation
– Almost always need smooth motion

Geometric modeling
• Representing world geometry in the computer
– Discrete vs. continuous again
• At least some part has to be done by a human
– Will see some automatic methods soon
• Reality: humans are discrete in their actions
• Specify a few points, have computer create something which
“makes sense”
– Examples: goes through points, goes “near” points

Requirements
• Want mathematical smoothness
– Some number of continuous derivatives of P
• Local control
– Local data changes have local effect
• Continuous with respect to the data
– No wiggling if data changes slightly
• Low computational effort

A solution
• Use SEVERAL polynomials
• Complete curve consists of several pieces
• All pieces are of low order
– Third order is the most common
• Pieces join smoothly
• This is the idea of spline curves
– or just “splines”

Parametric Equations - linear
Walk from P0 to P1 at a constant
speed.
P1 x1,y1
(13,8) Start from P0 at t=0
(7.5,4)
dy
Arrive at P1 at t=1
P0
dx = x1 - x0
dx
x0 ,y0
(2,3) dy = y1 - y0
Where are you at a general time t?
x(t) = x0 + t.dx
Equation(s) of a straight line as a y(t) = y0 + t.dy
function of an arbitrary parameter
t. IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 120
Why use parametric equations?
• One, two, three or n-dimensional representation is
possible
• Can handle “infinite slope” of tangents
• Can represent multi-valued functions

• Natural Cubic Spline
• Bezier Curves

Splines
• Define the “knots”
– (x0,y0) - (x3,y3)
• Calculate all other points
spline
knots

Continuity
• Parametric continuity Cx
– Only P is continuous: C0
• Positional continuity
– P and first derivative dP/du are continuous: C1
• Tangential continuity
– P + first + second: C2
• Curvature continuity
• Geometric continuity Gx
– Only directions have to match

Order of continuity
G (0) C (0) 0 th order continuity
(a)
G (1) C (1) 1st order continuity
(b)
( 2) ( 2) 2nd order continuity

G C
(c)

Wiggling effect
• Example:
– Four data points
– Third degree polynomial
– Might look something like:
• This the ONLY third degree polynomial which fits the
data
• Wiggling gets much worse with higher degree

Polynomial parametric equations
• To represent a straight line -
linear parametric equation (i.e.
one where the highest power of t
was 1).
• For curves, we need polynomial
equations. Why? Because the
graphs of polynomial equations
wiggle!

Natural Cubic Spline
• spline, n. 1 A long narrow and relatively thin piece or strip
of wood, metal, etc. 2 A flexible strip of wood or rubber
used by draftsmen in laying out broad sweeping curves,
as in railroad work.
• A natural spline defines the curve that minimizes the

potential energy of an idealized elastic strip.

• A natural cubic spline defines a curve, in which the points
P(u) that define each segment of the spline are
represented as a cubic P(u) = a0 + a1u + a2u2 + a3u3
• Where u is between 0 and 1 and a0, a1, a2 and a3 are (as
yet) undetermined parameters.
• We assume that the positions of n+1 control points Pk,
where k = 0, 1,…, n are given, and the 1st and 2nd
derivatives of P(u) are continuous at each interior control
point.

Why cubic?
• Undesirable wiggles and oscillations for higher orders
• The lowest order polynomials to satisfy the following conditions
Caution! Heavy math ahead!

Parameterization
Q(u )
umin u0
un
u u1 u n −1
u max
u2
A parametrically defined curve
u min = u0  u1    u n −1  u n = u max
 x (u )  (u0 , u1 ,  , u n −1 , u n )
Q (u ) = 
 y (u )  knot sequence
 z (u ) 
 knot vector
 
If ui = i, then uniform knot sequence

“Re-parameterization”
Ym (u )
Y1 (u ) Y (u )
Y0 (u )
Y2 (u )
u0 u1 u2 u3 u i u i +1 um
i i +1
Y (u ), ui  u  ui+1 non-uniform
u − ui
Yi (u ) = Y ( ), i = 0,1, 2,, n
ui+1 − ui
0  u 1

Interpolation versus Approximation
V0 V6
V1 V5
Interpolation
V3
V2 V4
Approximation V4
V3
V0
V6
V2 V5
V1

Hermite Interpolation Y5 (u )
y6
Y0 (u ) Y (u ) y3 y5
y0
y1
y2 y4

  u
u =0 1 2 3 4 5 u =6
Yi (u ) = ai + bi u + ci u 2 + d i u 3
0  u  1 i = 0,...,5
 Yi ( 0) = ai ≡ yi ai = yi

 Y (1) = a + b + c + d ≡ y
 i i i i i i +1 bi = Di
 Yi (1) (0) = bi ≡ Di ci = 3( yi +1 − yi ) − 2 Di − Di +1

 Y (1) (1) = b + 2c + 3d ≡ D d i = 2( yi − yi +1 ) + Di + Di +1
 i i i i i +1

Hermite Spline
• Say the user provides x0 , x1 , x0 , x1
• A cubic spline has degree 3, and is of the form:
x = at 3 + bt 2 + ct + d
– For some constants a, b, c and d derived from the control points, but how?
• We have constraints:
– The curve must pass through x0 when t=0
– The derivative must be x’0 when t=0
– The curve must pass through x1 when t=1
– The derivative must be x’1 when t=1

How to specify slope Di
(1) Pi +1
y i −1 Pi
yi +1
Pi −1
yi
Computing D i automatically
e.g.fitting a parabola through yi-1 , yi , and yi +1
(2)  (y i − yi −1 ) + (1 −  )( yi +1 − yi )
weighted avrage 0    1
(3) specifyingdirectly

Hermite Spline
A Hermite spline is a curve for which the user provides:
– The endpoints of the curve
– The parametric derivatives of the curve at the endpoints
• The parametric derivatives are dx/dt, dy/dt, dz/dt
– That is enough to define a cubic Hermite spline, more derivatives are
required for higher order curves

Hermite Spline
• Solving for the unknowns gives:
a = −2 x1 + 2 x0 + x1 + x0
b = 3x1 − 3x0 − x1 − 2 x0
c = x0
d = x0
• Rearranging gives:
x = x1 ( −2t 3 + 3t 2 ) or − 2 3 0 0  t 3 
 2  
+ x0 ( 2t 3 − 3t 2 + 1) −3 0 1  t 2 
x = x1 x0 x1 x0  
+ x1 (t 3 − t 2 )  1 −1 0 0  t 
+ x0 (t 3 − 2t 2 + t )   
 1 −2 1 0  1 

Hermite curves in 2D and 3D
• We have defined only 1D splines:
x = f(t:x0,x1,x’0,x’1)
• For higher dimensions, define the control points in higher
dimensions (that is, as vectors)
− 2 3 0 0  t 3 
 x   x1 x1 x0    2
1
x0
 y =  y  2 −3 0  t 
   1 y0 y1 y0  
 1 −1 0 0  t 

z   z1 z0 z1 z0 
 1  
 −2 1 0 1 
Basis Functions
• A point on a Hermite curve is obtained by multiplying each control
point by some function and summing
• The functions are called basis functions
1.2
0.8
0.6 x1
x0
0.4
x'1
0.2
x'0
0
-0.2
-0.4

Hermite and Cubic Spline Interpolation
V0 V6
V1 V5
V3
V2 V4
An interpolating cubic spline
Qi (u ) = ( xi (u ), yi (u ))
Vi = ( xi , y i )

Spline Interpolation
C ( 2 ) continuity at joints (knots) Ym−1 (u )
 ym
Y0 (u ) Y (u ) yi
y0
y1 Y (u )
1
yi +1
y2
Yi −1 (1) = yi
Yi (0) = yi
4m − 4
Yi −(11) (1) = Yi (1) (0)
Yi −( 21) (1) = Yi ( 2 ) (0) 1  i  m −1
need two more Eq’s to determine all coefficients

Y0 (0) = y0 2 note : Yi (u) = ai + bi u + ci u 2 + di u 3 0  i  m − 1
Ym −1 (1) = ym
Y0( 2 ) (0) = 0
Ym( 2−1) (1) = 0
Natural Spline
Deriving Natural Cubic Splines
(4)  2ci −1 + 6d i −1 = 2ci
yi = ai + bi t + ci t 2 + di t 3
(1) Yi −1 (1) = yi ai = yi
(2) Yi (0) = yi bi = Di
1  i  m −1
(3) Yi −(11) (1) = Yi (1) (0) ci = 3( yi +1 − yi ) − 2 Di − Di +1
(4) Yi −( 21) (1) = Yi ( 2 ) (0) d i = 2( yi − yi +1 ) + Di + Di +1
(5) Y0 (0) = y0
(6) Ym −1 (1) = ym By substitution and simplification,
(7) Y0( 2 ) (0) = 0 Di −1 + 4 Di + Di +1 = 3( yi +1 − yi −1 )
1  i  m −1
(8) Ym( 2−1) (1) = 0
Applying end - conditions
From (7),
2c0 = 0
By substituti on and simplifica tion,
2 D0 + D1 = 3( y1 − y0 )
Similarly, from (8)
Dm −1 + 2 Dm = 3( ym − ym −1 ) 145

Tri-Diagonal Matrix for Natural Cubic Spline
2 1   D0   3( y1 − y0 ) 
1 4 1   D   3( y − y ) 
  1   2 0 
 1 4 1      
    
 1 4 1   =
   
 . . . .      
    
 1 4 1     3( y m − y m − 2 ) 

 1 2  Dm   3( y m − y m −1 ) 

Closed Curves Pi
P2
P0
P1 Pm
Di −1 + 4 Di + Di +1 = 3( yi +1 − yi −1 )
4 1 1   D0   3( y1 − y m ) 
1 4 1   D   3( y − y ) 
  1   2 0 
 1 4 1      
    
 1 4 1   =
   
 . . . .      
    
 1 4 1     3 ( y m − y m−2 
)
1
 1 4  Dm   3( y0 − y m −1 ) 

Examples

149
Exercise

Bezier Curves
• An alternative to splines
• M. Bezier was a French mathematician who worked for the Renault

motor car company.
• He invented his curves to allow his firm’s computers to describe the

shape of car bodies.

Bezier Approximation
How to provideR1 and R4 ? P2 P3
R1 R4
P4 P4
P1 P1
Instead of providingR1 and R4 , providetwo additionalcontrol points ! ! !
P2 and P3
 Approximation

Bezier curves
• Typically, cubic polynomials
• Similar to Hermite interpolation
– Special way of specifying end tangents
• Requires special set of coefficients
• Need four points
– Two at the ends of a segment
– Two control tangent vectors

Bezier curves
• Control polygon: control points connected to each other
• Easy to generalize to higher order

– Insert more control points
– Hermite – third order only

De Casteljau algorithm
• Can compute any point on the curve in a few iterations
• No polynomials, pure geometry
• Repeated linear interpolation
– Repeated order of the curve times
• The algorithm can be used as definition of the curve

Third order, u=0.75




De Casteljau Algorithm
P1 1− t t P2
t
1− t 1− t
t 1− t t
t
1− t
P3
P0 P0
1− t
(1− t ) P0 + tP1 1− t
t (1− t ) 2 P0 + 2(1− t )tP1 1− t (1− t ) 3 P0
P1 1− t t +t 2 P2 + 3(1− t ) 2 tP1
(1− t ) P1 + tP2 t + 3(1− t )t 2 P2

1− t
t (1− t ) 2 P1 + 2(1− t )tP2 +t 3P3
P2 1− t t +t 2 P3
3
 3
t
(1− t ) P2 + tP3  
  
i =0  i 
(1− t ) i
t 3−i
P3

Now,
 −1 3 3 1  P1 
 3 0  P2 
3
 3 i

Q (t ) = t 3 t2 t 
1
−6 3
 
i
i =0  
 t (1 − t ) 3− i
=1
− 3 3 0 0  P3 
  
 1 0 0 0  P4 
What does it mean ?
= T  M b  Gb
1 (1 − t ) 3
Q (t ) = (1 − t ) P1 + 3t (1-t ) P2 + 3t (1-t ) P3 + t P4
3 2 2 3 t3
3t (1-t ) 2
3
 3 i
=    t (1 − t ) 3−i Pi , 0  t 1
i =0  i  3t 2 (1-t )
(t + (1 − t )) 3
0 1

Examples

Bezier Polynomial Function
P(t)= σ𝑛𝑖=0 𝐶𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)
n! n −i
Bin (t ) = .t .(1 − t )
i
i!(n − i )!
Ai is the control points (xi, yi)

Parametric equations for x(t),y(t)
n
x (t ) =  xi .Bin (t )
i =0
n
y (t ) =  yi .Bin (t )
i =0

Numerical problem
Question: Generate a Bezier curve using the following control points: (2,0), (4,3),
(5,2), (4,-2), (5,-3), (6,-2)
Solution: Control points =6 ,Therefore n=5
P(t)= σ5𝑖=0 𝐴𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)
= σ5𝑖=0 𝐴𝑖 𝑛 𝐶𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 (1-t) n-i
X(t) =σ5𝑖=0 𝑥𝑖 5 𝐶𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 (1-t) 5-i

Y(t)= σ5𝑖=0 𝑦𝑖 5 𝐶𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 (1-t) 5-i

Some Bezier Curves

Bezier Curves - properties
• Not all of the control points are on the line
– Some just attract it towards themselves
• Points have “influence” over the course of the line
• “Influence” (attraction) is calculated from a polynomial expression
• (show demo applet)

Convex Hull property
P2
P4
P1
P3
Bezier Curve Properties
• The first and last control points are interpolated
• The tangent to the curve at the first control point is along the line joining the
first and second control points
• The tangent at the last control point is along the line joining the second last
and last control points
• The curve lies entirely within the convex hull of its control points
– The Bernstein polynomials (the basis functions) sum to 1 and are everywhere positive
• They can be rendered in many ways
– E.g.: Convert to line segments with a subdivision algorithm

Disadvantages
• The degree of the Bezier curve depends on the

number of control points.
• The Bezier curve lacks local control. Changing

the position of one control point affects the entire
curve.

Invariance
• Translational invariance means that translating the control points
and then evaluating the curve is the same as evaluating and then
translating the curve
• Rotational invariance means that rotating the control points and
then evaluating the curve is the same as evaluating and then
rotating the curve
• These properties are essential for parametric curves used in
graphics
• It is easy to prove that Bezier curves, Hermite curves and
everything else we will study are translation and rotation invariant

Longer Curves
• A single cubic Bezier or Hermite curve can only capture a small class of
curves
– At most 2 inflection points
• One solution is to raise the degree
– Allows more control, at the expense of more control points and higher degree
polynomials
– Control is not local, one control point influences entire curve
• Alternate, most common solution is to join pieces of cubic curve together into
piecewise cubic curves
– Total curve can be broken into pieces, each of which is cubic
– Local control: Each control point only influences a limited part of the curve
– Interaction and design is much easier

Piecewise Bezier Curve
P0,1 P0,2
“knot”
P0,0
P1,3
P0,3
P1,0
P1,2
P1,1

Continuity
• When two curves are joined, we typically want some degree of continuity
across the boundary (the knot)
– C0, “C-zero”, point-wise continuous, curves share the same point where they join
– C1, “C-one”, continuous derivatives, curves share the same parametric derivatives where
they join
– C2, “C-two”, continuous second derivatives, curves share the same parametric second
derivatives where they join
– Higher orders possible
• Question: How do we ensure that two Hermite curves are C1 across a knot?
• Question: How do we ensure that two Bezier curves are C0, or C1, or C2
across a knot?

Achieving Continuity
• For Hermite curves, the user specifies the derivatives, so C1 is achieved
simply by sharing points and derivatives across the knot
• For Bezier curves:
– They interpolate their endpoints, so C0 is achieved by sharing control points
– The parametric derivative is a constant multiple of the vector joining the first/last 2
control points
– So C1 is achieved by setting P0,3=P1,0=J, and making P0,2 and J and P1,1 collinear, with J-
P0,2=P1,1-J
– C2 comes from further constraints on P0,1 and P1,2

Bezier Continuity
P0,1 P0,2
P0,0
P1,3
J
P1,2
P1,1
Disclaimer: PowerPoint curves are not Bezier curves, they are
interpolating piecewise quadratic curves! This diagram is an
approximation.

Problem with Bezier Curves
• To make a long continuous curve with Bezier segments requires
using many segments
• Maintaining continuity requires constraints on the control point
positions
– The user cannot arbitrarily move control vertices and automatically
maintain continuity
– The constraints must be explicitly maintained
– It is not intuitive to have control points that are not free

Bezier Basis Functions for d=3
1.2
0.8 B0
B1
0.6
B2
0.4 B3
0.2

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Introduction to CAD/CAM

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 1

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 2

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 3

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 4

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 5

The Manufacturing Process

NC, CNC, DNC

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 6

The main sub-processes that constitute the design process are:

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 7

Definition translator Drafting and

Design phase Required CAD tools

Design evaluation Dimensioning; tolerances; BOM; NC.

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 9

Process planning Packaging

Process planning CAPP techniques; cost analysis;

Inspection CAQ; and Inspection software

Assembly Robotics simulation and

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 11

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 12

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 13

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 14

Mfg tools + Computer Software (CAD; NC;

Mfg tools Design tools

Design and Software

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 19

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 20

Production Batch production

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 21

Job shop production •Numerical control, computer numerical control

Most of the automated production systems implemented today make use of

To emphasize the differences in scope between automation and CAD/CAM,

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 23

T2 & T3 become very important in job shop

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 25

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 26

• Computer graphics plays an important role in the product

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 27

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 28

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 29

To rotate a line or polygon, we must rotate each of

To rotate point (x1,y1) to point (x2,y2) we observe: B

From the illustration we know that: (0,0)

sin (A + B) = y2/r cos (A + B) = x2/r

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 30

Substituting: y2/r = (y1/r)cosB + (x1/r)sinB

Therefore: y2 = y1cosB + x1sinB

We have x2 = x1cosB - y1sinB

(x2) (cosB -sinB) (x1)

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 31

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 32

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 33

Scaling with a fixed point

Scale a line between (2, 1) (4,1) to twice its length.

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 35

(1) (1) Afte r

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 36

(2 0 -2) (2)= (2)

IITK ME 761A Dr. J. Ramkumar 37

(1 0 x) (cosø -sinø 0)(1 0 -x) (cosø -sinø -xcosø + ysinø + x )

You rotate the box by rotating each vertex.

Original Data y Shear x Shear