RESEARCH METHODS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS:

RESEARCHING GENDER AND IDENTITY

Audy Yuliser Castañeda Castañeda

UPEL-Instituto Pedagógico de Caracas
Caracas, Venezula
audycastaneda.ucv@gmail.com

Within the context of graduate studies at Universidad Central de Venezuela,

Caracas, Applied Linguistics is of paramount importance, considering Davies’ (2007:

12) statement that “(…) all linguistic study is basically applied linguistics, with

applied linguistics seeking out and working on language problems which linguistics

responds to by idealizing and then analyzing in terms of current linguistic theory.”

Diverse research methods come into play when studying areas such as assessment,

second language acquisition, language disorders and pathologies, literacy,

multilingualism, language-minority rights, language planning and policies, language

and technology, teacher training, gender, and identity. This paper aims at describing

research on gender and identity from the perspective of AL, by: (a) defining gender

and identity; (b) briefly explaining the research methods employed to study gender

and identity; and (c) analyzing, comparing and contrasting three recent research

articles that deal with either topic in terms of several set criteria. Final remarks, as

well as some recommendations to those interested in doing research in this area, are

presented.

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Researching Gender in AL

Gender has been considered from at least two different contexts. On the one

hand, it has been seen from a biological stand, according to which nature determines

an individual’s sex, and thus, defines a person as either a man or a woman. On the

other hand, it has been conceptualized from a social viewpoint, whereby society

defines the social roles that are supposedly typical for a man or a woman, roles that

are strengthened by the specific culture the person lives in, affect attitudes and

behaviors, and may lead to stereotypes solely based on perceptions about gender

(Wieczorek-Szymanska, 2020). Gender, according to Sunderland (2018) is more “a

question of social construction of and by social, embodied individuals, in linguistic

and social (…) practices, throughout those individuals’ lifetimes, in ways which

entail both individual agency and resistance” (382). Definitely, gender is a complex

topic that goes beyond biological differences; it is a social construct mediated by

language, as Sunderland (op cit.) states; it includes and goes beyond “socially taught

and learned ‘differences’ between women and men.”

Sunderland (2018), in Chapter 29 of Paltridge & A. Phakitii’s Research

Methods in Applied Linguistics: a Practical Resource, identified six different

approaches to researching gender, drawing on Harrington et al.’s collection Gender

and Language Research Methodologies (2008), which are described in Table 1

below.
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Table 1
Approaches to researching language and gender
Approach What it is about Some iconic research studies

With the longest history of the six,

pre-dating the 1970s birth of Labov 1966;
(feminist-inspired) language and Trudgill 1972;
gender study, it has ranged from Gal 1978;
SOCIOLINGUISTIC Milroy 1980;
S
being variationist, correlational, and
quantitative to qualitative McConnell-Ginet 1992;
explorations of intersections of Holmes 2006;
gender with other social identities, Mallinson Childs 2007;
including race, class and sexuality. Mullany 2014…

Consists of quantitatively analyses

corpora of up to several million
words, of spoken or written
CORPUS language, in order to establish Johnson and Ensslin 2007;
LINGUISTICS frequencies and probabilities of Baker 2008, 2010, 2014
words or phrases of interest, often
together with demographic
characteristics of their users.
Schegloff 1997, 1998;
Concerned particularly with the Wetherell 1998;
CONVERSATION sequential organization of naturally Swann 2002;
ANALYSIS occurring, interactive talk and Kitzinger 2008;
‘accomplishments’ in that talk. Speer & Stokoe 2011;
Stokoe 2012...
Focuses on the different sorts of Edwards & Potter 1992;
things that are said, how, to what
DISCURSIVE purpose and to what effect in Billig et al. 1988;
PSYCHOLOGY interaction – including when the data Edley 2001;
is ‘elicited’, as in interviews and
focus groups. Edley & Wetherell, 2008…

Beyond examining naturally Sunderland 2004;

occurring language within a given Wodak & Meyer 2009;
CRITICAL
context, attempts to provisionally Kress 2009;
DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS identify, analyze and often evaluate van Leeuwen 2008;
the workings of discourses, including Lazar, 2005…
gendered ones.
FEMINIST POST- Concerned with the language of
STRUCTURALIST marginalized or minority speakers. Baxter 2003,
DISCOURSE Informed by social issues, focusing 2006, 2008, 2010, 2014…
ANALYSIS on instances of power(lessness).
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Researching Identity in AL

Block (2018), in Chapter 30 of Paltridge & A. Phakitii’s Research Methods in

Applied Linguistics: a Practical Resource (398) asserts that “identity has become a

key construct in the social sciences in general, and applied linguistics in particular.”

In fact, researchers in the area refer to identities (in plural), given the complexity that

its definition entails; identities are seen as “socially constructed ongoing narratives”

that “emerge during individuals’ engagements in activities with others” as a result of

the negotiation “of subject positions at the crossroads of the past, present and future”

(op cit.). Identity has been characterized as: (a) how ambivalent individuals feel about

who they are and where they belong; and (b) related to demographic categories such

as ethnicity, nationality, migration, gender, social class, language, among others.

Carrying out research on identity has typically taken either one of these ways:

(a) collecting samples of informant’s speech; or (b) implementing a multimodal

approach that includes semiotic resources such as body movements, gaze, clothing

and space.

From Theory to Practice: Three Research Articles Examined

The issues of gender and identity have sparked increasing attention among

scholars from different disciplines. What follows is a sample consisting of three

recent studies published in research journals between 2015 and 2020. Table 2

summarizes the most relevant information regarding each.


Table 2
From Theory to Practice: three research articles analyzed
Article 1
Ahmad & Shan (2019)
Abstract; Introduction; . Abstract; Introduction;
Review of Related
Literature; Research
Methodology; Results;
Discussion;
Structure
Conclusion;
References; Author(s)
Bio data.
Data analysis: (a)
content analysis, a
systematic study of
texts; and (b) critical
discourse analysis
(CDA), which explores
the relationship
Methodology
between linguistic
choices within the texts
and talks with regard
to particular socio-
cultural contexts in
which these texts and
talk function.
(+) By implementing
CDA, detailed
linguistic analysis is
integrated with critical
theory, to understand
how institutional
discourse serves to
both reflect and
construct unequal
Pros & Cons
power relations. This
understanding is
designed to contribute
to social change.
(-)may fall short as a
research instrument
due to its qualitative,
interpretative, or
subjective character.
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Article 2 Article 3
Rozanov (2016) Alqahtani, &
Abdelhalim (2020)
Abstract; Introduction
four sections of theory (Purpose and Questions
and research on the of the Study,
topic; Conclusion; Significance of the
References Study); Literature
Review; Methodology;
Results and Discussion;
Conclusion;
References; Author(s)
Bio data.
A theoretical overview
of existing research, A descriptive
theories, and opposing comparative study,
perspectives related to consisting of a mixed
the relationship between method approach
language and identity, (quantitative as well as
and considers qualitative), in which
complications such as the data is collected
historical russification, qualitatively and
religious influence, analyzed quantitatively
socioeconomic factors, and qualitatively, using
and education with frequencies of the
regards to the Ukrainian metadiscourse markers.
and post-Soviet context.
(+) Listing previous
studies in regards to (+) it’s possible to
language and identity in address complex
different contexts problems using more
provided a variety of sophisticated research
research methods: (a) designs drawing on and
fieldwork data; and (b) integrating both
discourse analysis. quantitative and
(-) There comes the qualitative methods.
need to look closer at (-)it is necessary to
demographic categories learn about both
such as race, ethnicity, qualitative and
gender, social class, quantitative methods
national identity and and techniques in order
others, beyond the post- to understand the best
structuralist views way to mix them
predominant in research appropriately.
studies.
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Article 1 Article 2 Article 3

Ahmad & Shan (2019) Rozanov (2016) Alqahtani, &
Abdelhalim (2020)
Results indicated
significant gender
variations between
Saudi male and female
The many EFL majors in
complications to the interactive
The research findings
relationship between metadiscourse markers
unveiled gender-biased
language and identity use. It has been proved
representations in the
have been unveiled by that females are more
textbook analyzed. The
presenting relevant status-conscious than
researchers found
theories, cases, and males. Accordingly,
evidence that shows
research. they tend to use more
how the textbook
Major There is the need to standard precise
appears to be
findings approach language and expressions such as
systematically
identity from a metadiscourse markers
manipulated in favor of
psychological angle, in their writings.
males, showing
oriented on individual It was found that there
females in
thought patterns and was a significant
comparatively
processes, and as an difference between the
dependent and inferior
addition to the two genders in terms of
positions.
predominant social making use of
focus. interactive
metadiscourse markers
namely transitions,
frame markers, code
glosses.

Final Considerations

Researching how language relates to either gender or identity, as these topics

are understood nowadays, require the implementation of combined research methods,

and also the participation of research teams. Studies often include qualitative methods

and techniques, which are time-consuming, expensive, and demand rigorous

application of diverse protocols. All in all, three considerations, by no means

pretending to be exhaustive, are listed below.

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1. Gender can be considered as including, but going far beyond, socially taught

and learned differences between males and females. This is a blurring area,

now that people have become more open to reveal their gender identity – a

recent case in question is the revelation by Hollywood actor Ellen Paige, who

now claims to be Elliot, and that now should be addressed as “HE”.

2. Gender is no longer the result of socialization of children according to

dominant gender stereotypes, but more importantly, it is a question of social

construction, which entails individual agency and resistance.

3. In regards to identity, closely related to gender as well, it can be said that it is

not only language-mediated, but more generally multimodally/semiotically

mediated.

Future studies in these areas pose incredible challenges to novice researchers.

REFERENCES

Ahmad, M., & Shah, S.K. (2019). «A Critical Discourse Analysis of Gender
Representations in the Content of 5th Grade English Language Textbook»,
International and Multidisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 1-24.
DOI: 10.17583/rimcis.2019.3989.
Alqahtani, S. N. & Abdelhalim, S. M. (2020). «Gender-based Study of Interactive
Metadiscourse Markers in EFL Academic Writing», Theory and Practice in
Language Studies, 10 (10): 1315-1325. DOI: 10.17507/tpls.1010.20.
Block, D. (2018). «Researching Language and Identity» (Chapter 30), in B. Paltridge
& A. Phakitii (Eds.), Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: a Practical
Resource. London: Bloomsbury.
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Davies, A. (2007). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. From Practice to Theory.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. https://pasca.uns.ac.id/s3linguistik/
wp-content/uploads/sites/44/2016/10/an-introduction-to-applied-
linguistics.pdf
Graddol, D. & Swann , J. (1995). «Language and gender as applied linguistics»,
Bulletin Suisse de Linguistique Appliquée 62: 75 – 88.
Rozanov, T. (2016). «Language and Identity Explored», Journal of Arts &
Humanities, 5 (6): 1-8. DOI: 10.18533/journal.v5i6.948.
Sunderland, J. (2000). «Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language
education», Language Teaching 33: 203-223. Cambridge: C.U.P.
Sunderland, J. (2018). «Researching Language and Gender» (Chapter 29), in B.
Paltridge & A. Phakitii (Eds.), Research Methods in Applied Linguistics: a
Practical Resource. London: Bloomsbury.