INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY EIM 118

MODULE: METROLOGY
Dzanya M.T.

METROLOGY

 It is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of

units of measurement and their standards.
 It may be defined as the field of measurement in some agreed units and
reproducing the same units as standards.
 The science of measurement, the purpose of this discipline being to establish
means of determining physical quantities, such as dimensions, temperature, force,
etc.
 This field may be classified according to the field in which it is applied, therefore
when metrology is applied to engineering; it is called as Engineering Metrology.

Engineering metrology deals with the measurement of all the physical quantities which
find application in the Engineering industries like Length, Angle, Geometrical shape and
surface measurement when applied to the tooling or the manufacturing industries.

Definition of terms:

Accuracy is the agreement of the result of a measurement with the true value of the
measured quality or it can be defined as the expected ability for a system to discriminate
between two settings.
Basic Dimension-The target dimension for a part.This typically has an associated
tolerance.
Dimension - A size of a feature, either measured, or specified.
Dimensional Metrology - The use of instruments to determine object sizes shapes, form,
etc.
Error - a discrepancy between expected, and actual values.
Limits - These typically define a dimensional range that a measurement can be expected
to fall within.
Measurement - The determination of an unknown dimension. This requires that known
standards be used directly or indirectly for comparison.
Metric System - A measurement system that has been standardized globally, and is
commonly used in all modern engineering projects.
Precision - Implies a high degree of accuracy. It can also be defined as the repeatability
of a measuring process.

Repeatability - Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that during a Mechanical

cycle, a process does not stop at the same location, or move through the same spot each
time. The variation range is referred to as repeatability.
Standards - a known set of dimensions, or ideals to compare others against.
Standard Sizes - a component, or a dimension that is chosen from a table of standard
sizes/forms.
Tolerance - The allowable variation in a basic dimension before a part is considered
unacceptable

Inspection:-It is concerned with checking of a product at various stages in its manufacture

right from the raw material to the finished product and even assembled parts in the form
of machine also.

Need of inspection:
In the present state of the development of industries, the requirement of interchangeable
parts has brought in the necessity of highly accurate and precise components to be
manufactured. At the same time it is also required to ensure the accuracy of the
manufactured parts.
Therefore the basic need for the inspection has arisen for the following two reasons:
  Precision and Accuracy
 Repeatability
 Measurement:

The increasing complexity in manufacturing and the designing fields require a common
feature called the dimensional accuracy. For which the measurement is the most
important part and the physical measurement is defined as obtaining quantitative
information about a physical quantity.

Process of Measurement:
The three important factors of measurement are:
Measurand: It is the physical quantity or property like length, angle, diameter, thickness
etc… to be measured.
Reference: It is a physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons are
made.
Comparator: It means of comparing measurand with some reference.

Classification of measuring instruments:

 Length measuring instruments
 Angle measuring instruments
 Checking geometrical form instruments
 Checking surface finish instruments
 Precision and accuracy:

All these terms are associated with the measuring process. In most measurements the
precision is of greater importance. An accurate measuring instrument should fulfill
following requirements:
 It should possess the requisite and constant accuracy.
 As far as possible the error should be capable of elimination by adjustment
content within the instrument itself.
ERROR:
The error can be define as the difference between the real readings and aimed (correct
value). Thus it is the difference between the true value and the measured value.
In any measurement, there is always a degree of uncertainty resulting from measurement
error. All measuring errors may be caused due to imperfection in instrument,
environment, man and material.

The general classes of error are:

1) Bias error 2) Precision error

Bias errors (systematic errors)

These that occur the same way each time a measurement is made if a scale on an
instrument consistently 5% high, then the entire set of measurements will be biased by
+5% above the true value e.g. a micrometer not zeroed properly. Alternatively, the scale
may have a fixed offset error so that the indicated value for every reading of x is higher
than the true value by an amount xoffset

Precision (random) errors.

These errors are different for each successive measurement but have an average value of
zero e.g. mechanical friction or vibration may cause the reading of a measuring
mechanism to fluctuate about the true value sometime reading high and sometime reading
low. This lack of mechanical precision will cause sequential readings of the same
quantity to differ slightly creating a distribution of value surrounding the true value.

The sources of error are mainly of three categories, namely-

 Gauge or instrument
 Environment
 Individual person.

Gauge or Instrument error:

The gauge error may be caused due to :
 Design
  Setting or calibration
 Measuring force
 Parallax
 Temperature
 Location
 Alignment (cosine error)
 Wear.

Environmental error:
a) Temperature b) dust and dirt
c) magnetism d) vibration
e) light f) noise

Individual error:
These errors may be caused due to
a) Want of skill b) poor eye sight c) feeling

Five basic metrology elements can be composed into the acronym

SWIPE, for convenient reference which stands for

S Standard
W Work piece
I Instrument
P Person
E Environment
Repeatability:
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to give the same value every time the
measurement of a given quantity is repeated.
It is the most important factor in any measuring system as it is the characteristics of the
measuring system where by repeated trials of identical inputs of measured value produce
the same indicated output from the system.

Standards of Measurement
Standards:
A standard is defined as something that is setup and established by authority as a rule for
the measurement of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality etc… the role of standard is
to support the system which makes uniform measurement through out the world and
helps to maintain interchangeability in mass production.

Subdivision of standards:
The empirical standard yard and international prototype meter are considered to be
perfect of master standards and cannot usually be used for general purposes. The
depending upon the importance of accuracy required for the work standards are
subdivided into four grades-

Primary standards: to ensure that standard unit of length, yard or meter does not change
its value and it is strictly followed-
Second standards: secondary standards are made as nearly as possible to the primary
standard with which they are compared at intervals.
1650763.73 X 0.9144 = imperial standard yard.
Tertiary standards: tertiary standards are the first standards to be used for reference
purposes in laboratories and work shops
Working standards: working standards are necessary for use in metrology laboratories
and similar institutions. They are derived from fundamental standards
Standards of measurements:

Two standard system of linear measurement, English (yard) and metric (meter) are used
through out the world.
For linear measurements the various standard known as-
 Line standard
 End standard
 Wave length standard

Line standard:
When the length is measured as the distance between centers of two engraved lines, it is
called a line standard.
End standards:
A modern end standard consists fundamentally of a block or bar of steel hardened, whose
end faces are lapped (a method of smoothing an item by working it back and forth over
an abrasive medium so as to obtain a smooth and flat surface) flat and parallel to with in a
few millionth of a cm. By the process of lapping, its size too can be controlled very
accurately all through from time to time.

Various types of end bars have been constructed, some having flat and some spherical
faces, the flat parallel faced bar is firmly established as the most practical method of end
measurement.
End standards are available in the form of bars, slip gauges, ends of micrometer anvils
and vernier calipers.
Wave length standards:
Length is measured with the help of wavelength of Krypton 86 light. Red Cadmium light.
A meter was defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the red orange radiation
emitted by the Kr isotope 86 gas.
1 yard is equal to 0.9144 of metre. Therefore it is equal to 1509458.3 wavelengths of the
Kr86 isotope gas.

Sometimes standards are classified as:

 Reference standards: These sets are very expensive and are rarely used, their
only virtue is that they have grater accuracy on length. (used for reference
purposes)
  Calibration standards: The flatness and parallelism of this grade is maintained
to a very close tolerance; its purpose is for the calibration, under temperature
control of inspection grade gauges (used for calibration of inspection and
working standard)
 Inspection standards: For the highest accuracy standard room work, and for
calibrating sub standards provided that (used by inspectors)
 Working standards: For manufacturing purposes and production inspection and
sometimes for general use in the standards room. (used by operators)

Use and maintenance of measuring instruments

 Keep all instruments clean, treat them with care and avoid misuse.
 Return instruments to their cases or fit covers when not in use.
 Do not attempt to dismantle an instrument. If it is not functioning correctly notify
the supervisor for skilled maintenance.
 Keep the inside of the instrument case clean since it is meant to protect the
instrument.

Measuring and marking out.

Measuring must be accurate. The instruments are precision made, but the results will only
be accurate if they are correctly used to maintain their accuracy. Measuring instruments
must be used only for the purposes intended, and they must be well cared for.

There are three main categories of measuring instruments and these are:
 Direct measuring instrument are those that are graduated and the reading is
deduced from the graduations on the instrument.
 Indirect (transfer) measuring Instruments: are those that have no graduations
on them and the reading is found by transferring the measurement found by the
measuring instrument to a direct measuring instrument.
 Comparison instruments: are those that are used to compare side of a
component e.g. checking the concentricity of a cylindrical object using a dial
testing indicator.
COMMON DIRECT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

STEEL RULE
A line measuring device and is the simplest instrument used in inspection. It works on the
basic measuring technique of comparing an unknown length to the one previously
calibrated.
The steel rule consists of hardened steel having line graduations etched or engraved at
interval of fraction of a standard unit of length. Various possible combinations of scales
are found depending upon whether the scale is graduated either on both sides and both
edges or on one edge only.

VERNIER CALIPER:
Construction:
The vernier caliper consists of two scales; one is fixed and other is movable. The fixed
scale, called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The
movable scale called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a movable jaw.
The movable jaws as well as the fixed jaw carries measuring tip. When two jaws are
closed the zero of vernier scale coincides with the zero of main scale. A lock nut is
provided to lock the sliding scale on the fixed main scale.
Principle of vernier:
The principle of vernier is based on the difference between two scales or divisions which
are nearly, but not quite alike for obtaining small difference.

Least count of vernier instruments:

The least count of the vernier is the difference between the value of main scale division
and vernier scale division.
Thus, least count of a vernier instrument = (value of the smallest division on the main
scale) – (the value of the smallest division on the vernier scale)
For example,
49 main scale division are divided into 50 vernier scale divisions
value of 1VSD= 49/50 mm least count = 1MSD – 1 VSD
= 1 – 49/50
= 1/50 =0.02 mm.
The statement for reading the measured value of vernier caliper is given as followings:
The n' th number of MSD that the zero of the vernier scale has crossed
+ the n' th number of the VSD coinciding with the MSD X ( the least
count of the instrument)
Use:
Vernier calipers are employed for depth, internal and external measurements. It is
generally used by closing the jaws on to the work surface.
Precautions:
Ensure the line of measurement coincide with the line of scale. Ensure the vernier is held
straight and view it perpendicularly.

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE:

Vernier height gauge is similar to vernier caliper but in this instrument the graduated bar
is held in a vertical position and it is used in conjunction with a surface plate.

Construction:
A Vernier height gauge consists of a finely ground and lapped base. The base is massive
and robust in construction to ensure rigidity and stability. It consists of the following:
A vertical graduated beam supported on a massive base.
Attached to the beam is a sliding vernier head carrying the vernier scale and clamping
screw.
An auxiliary head which is also attached to the beam above the sliding vernier head. It
has fine adjusting and clamping screw. A scriber attached to the front of the sliding
vernier.

Uses:
The vernier height gauge is designed for accurate measurements and marking of vertical
height above a surface plate. It can also be used to measure differences in heights by
taking the vernier scale readings at each height and determining the difference by
subtraction.

Precautions:
When not in use the height gauge should be kept in its case. It should be tested for
straightness, squareness and parallelism of the working faces of the beam, measuring jaw
and scriber.
MICROMETER:-

Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of measuring instrument
for precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy. Micrometer with 0.001 mm accuracy is
also available. Micrometers can be classified as

a. Outside micrometer d. Screw thread micrometer

b. Inside micrometer e. Groove micrometer

c. Depth gauge micrometer

Principle of micrometer:
Micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut. We know that one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. If the
circumference of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say n, its rotation
through one division will cause the screw to advance through (pitch / n), length. Thus, the
minimum length that can be measured by such arrangement will be (pitch/n).

Least count of micrometer:

Least count is the minimum distance which can be measured accurately by the
instrument. The micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch. With a thimble graduated in 50
divisions to provide a direct reading of
(Pitch/n)=0.50/50
=0.01 mm
Thus, least count of micrometer= pitch of the spindle screw / no. of division on the
spindle.

Precautions;

1. Ensure the spindle engages with nut and moves freely

2. The backlash should be removed between the spindle screw and nut

Parts of a Micrometer
1. U-shaped steel frame: ~The outside micrometer has, U, shaped or, C, shaped frame. It
holds the micrometer parts together .The frame is generally made of steel, malleable cast
iron or light alloy. The gap of the frame permits the maximum diameter of the job to be
measured.

2. Anvil and spindle: ~ The micrometer has a fixed anvil protruding 3 mm from the left
hand side of the frame. The diameter of the anvil is the same as that of the spindle.
Another movable anvil is provided on the front of the spindle. These are also available
with tungsten carbide faces. The spindle engages with the nut. It should run freely and
smoothly. There should be no backlash between the spindle screw and nut.

3. Lock nut: ~ a lock nut is provided on the micrometer spindle to lock it when the
micrometer is at its correct reading.

4. Sleeve or barrel: ~ the sleeve is accurately divided and clearly marked in 0.5 mm
division along its length which serves as a main scale. It is chrome plated and adjustable
for zero setting.
5. Thimble: ~ the thimble can be moved over the barrel. It has 50 equal divisions around
its circumference. Each division having a value of 0.01 mm.

Cross sectional view of an Outside Micrometer

Inside micrometer:
This type of micrometer are used to measure a bore from 50 mm to 600 mm, when
measuring bores the micrometer must played in for the longest value when measuring flat
the micrometer must be played in for the smallest value.

Micrometer with jaws:

When using this type of instrument great care must be exercised because excessive
leverage forces can be produced by the jaws in conjunction with the screw movement
which can easily result in measuring errors as well as serious damage to the instrument.

A two pin Inside Micrometer

Inside Micrometer with 3 pins :

Measuring with this micrometer is easier than internal micrometer where contacts are
only on two points. When taking very accurate measurements turn the ratchet 3 or 4 times
to ensure the measuring pressure
Uses:
It is used where the measurement to be taken is in such a depth where the other types of
micrometer can not enter. It may also be preferred to take very precise and accurate
dimensions.
Least count:
This instrument works on the same principle as that of the other inside micrometers.
Therefore the least count may also be obtained in the same way. Instruments with 0.002
mm least count are available

Micrometer depth gauge

Depth Micrometer:

It is used to measure the depth of holes, slots and recessed areas. Its shoulder acts as
reference surface. While measuring, the base of the instrument is to be held firmly on the
reference surface. The reference surface should be satisfactorily true, flat and square.

Extension rods in steps of 25 mm are available which are used for measuring longer
range depths. The measuring faces of the base and rods are hardened. The scale of depth
micrometer is to be calibrated in a reverse manner
Indirect measuring instruments

Outside calipers: Have two legs that are curved inwards towards the points. They are
used for measuring outside measurements
Inside calipers: Has legs that are straight, and in turn outwards towards the points. They
are used for inside measurements
ANGULARITY MEASUREMENTS

Measuring Angularity with a Sine Bar / Plate (indirect):-

The principle of a sine bar is that the two cylinders and their distance apart form a
hypotenuse of a right triangle.
A specific gauge block stack under one end of the sine bar forms the opposite side of a
right triangle.

When the correct combinations are put together, the surface of the bar is precisely
inclined at the selected angle.
To check the angle of a taper hole:
Fig. below shows the arrangement for checking the internal taper of a taper ring gauge
using two precision balls of different sizes. The taper ring gauge is placed on a surface
plate and a small ball of radius ‘r1’ is inserted in the hole close to the small end of the
taper.
Two piles of slip gauges of equal heights are then placed on the surface plate on either
sides of tapered ring gauge. A depth micrometer is then used to determine the distance
from the top face of the gauge blocks to the surface of the precision ball. Then, a bigger
ball of radius r2 is placed in the hole near the big end of taper, and the distance from the
top face of the gauge blocks to the surface of the bigger precision bal is determined with
the depth micrometer. From Fig. below
 O2O1S = q /2
Where q = angle of tapered hole
Sin q/2 = 02S
O1O2

= r2 - r 1
centre distance of balls (O1O2)

= r 2 - r1 = r2 - r1
h2 – r2 -h1 + r1 h2 – h1 – r2 + r1

COMPARISON INSTRUMENTS (COMPARATORS)

Surface gauge
This is an instrument used to indicate variations between high and low regions of a
surface or the movement of one component relative to the other but not the actual linear
dimensions.

Dial testing indicators

A simple comparator with graduations mainly used to compare dimensions of one
component to another and the transfer of dimensions from one component to another.

Manufacture of machinery such as machine tools, automobiles, I.C engines, aircrafts,

etc., requires thousands of components which are identical. In such large scale
production, each component should fit in its place exactly during assembly, without using
any hand finishing operation. Further, any component in a machine should be replaceable
by another one, designed to do the same job. Parts which satisfy these requirements are
called interchangeable parts. The manufacture of interchangeable parts requires precision.
Precision is the degree of accuracy, to ensure proper functioning of a part. However,
experience shows that is impossible to make parts economically to the exact dimensions.
This may be due to:
 Inaccuracies of machines and tools,
 Inaccuracies in setting the work to the tool, and
 Error in measuring.
The workman therefore has to be given some allowable margin so that he can produce a
part, the dimensions of which will be between the acceptable limits, a maximum and a
minimum. The system in which a variation is accepted is called the limit system and the
allowable deviations are called tolerances. The relationships between the mating parts
are called fits.

Limit system
The following are some of the terms used in limit system:
 Tolerance: The permissible variation of a size is called tolerance. It is the difference
between the maximum and minimum permissible limits of the given size.
 Limits: The two extreme permissible sizes between which are actual size is contained
are called limits. The maximum size is called the upper limit and the minimum size,
the lower limit.
 Allowance: It is the dimensional difference between the maximum material limits of
the mating parts, intentionally provided to obtain the desired class of fit.
 Actual size: is the measured size.
 Norminal size: is the size by which a component is referred to as a matter of
convenience.
 Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a size (actual, maximum, etc.) and
the corresponding basic size. The algebraic difference between the maximum limit of
the size and the corresponding basic size is called the upper deviation and the
difference between the minimum limit of the size and the corresponding basic size is
called the lower deviation. The algebraic difference between the actual size and the
corresponding basic size is called the actual deviation.
 Basic size: The size in relation to which all limits of size are fixed, and will be the
same for both male and female parts of the fit. It is determined solely from design
calculation. If the strength and stiffness requirement need a 50 mm diameter shaft,
then 50 mm is the basic shaft size. The limit corresponding to the basic size is called
the zero line or line of fundamental deviation.
 Design size: It is that size, from which the limits of size are derived by the application
of tolerances. If there is no allowance, the design size is the same as the basic size. If
an allowance of 0.05 mm for clearance is applied say, to a shaft of 50 mm diameter,
then its design size is (50 – 0.05) = 49.95 mm. a tolerance is then applied to this
dimension. The actual size is the size obtained after manufacture.
 Maximum metal condition (MMC): This is the maximum limit of an external feature;
for example a shaft manufactured to its high limits would contain the maximum
amount of metal. It is also the minimum limit on an internal feature; e.g. a component
which has a hole bored in its lower limit of size would have had the minimum of
metal removed and remain in maximum metal condition.

TOLERANCES
Tolerance is the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension from the specified
value. In order to maintain economic production and facilitate the assembly of
components it is necessary to allow a limited deviation from the design size. The primary
purpose of tolerances is to permit variation in dimensions without degradation of the
performance beyond the limits established by the specification of the design. Ideal
conditions would call for parts without any dimensional variation, but in actual practice it
is impossible due to errors measurements.

Fundamental tolerances
Tolerance is denoted by two symbols, a letter symbol and a number symbol called the
grade. The fundamental tolerance is a function of the nominal size and its unit is given by
the empirical relation,
Standard tolerance unit, i = 0.45 X √3 D + 0.001D

Thus the fundamental tolerance values for different grades (IT) can be calculated as
illustrated below

Example: To calculate the tolerance for grade 8 for the size range 80 to 120 mm
For the step 80 to 120 mm, the geometric mean is given, by,
D = √(80 X 120) = 98

Grade IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16
Multiple 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 10i 250i 400i 640i 1000i
of units

Where, IT is the fundamental tolerance of grade obtained from Table 4.1.

i = (0.45 X (98)1/3) + (0.001 X 98) = 2.172 microns

For grade 8 as per table the value of tolerance is:

25i = 25*2.172
 = 54microns

The symbols used for the fundamental deviations for the shaft and the hole are as
follows

Hole Shaft
Upper deviation (E' cart superior) ES es
Lower deviation (E' cart inferior) EI ei

Thus: Shaft, ei = -IT

Holes, EI = ES-IT

Method of placing limit dimensions

There are three methods used in industries for placing the limit dimensions or tolerance
individual dimensions.
Method 1
 In this method, the tolerance dimension is given by its basic value, followed by a
symbol, comprising of both a letter and a numeral
 Method 2
In this method, the basic size and the tolerance values are indicated above the dimension
line, the tolerance values being in a size smaller than that of the basic size and the lower
deviation value being indicated in line with the basic size
 Method 3
When assembled parts are dimensioned, the fit is indicated by the basic size common to
both the components followed by the hole tolerance symbol first and then by the shaft
tolerance symbol.
Fit Types and categories

There are thee categories of fits namely clearance, transition and interference.

Clearance fits can be subdivided into running or sliding fits. Running applies to a shaft
rotating at a speed within a journal whereas sliding can be represented by slow
translation, typically of a spool valve. Running and sliding fits are intended to provide a
similar running performance with a suitable lubrication allowance throughout a range of
sizes.

Transition fits are used for location purposes. Because of the difference in sizes they
will either be low clearance fits or low interference fits. They are intended to provide
only the location of mating parts they may provide rigid or accurate location as with
interference fits or provide some measure of freedom in location as in small clearance
fits.
Interference fits are normally divided into force or shrink fits. If the difference between
the hole and the shaft sizes is negative before assembly, an interference fit is obtained.
The idea of interference is to create an internal stress that is constant through a range of
sizes because the interference varies with diameter. The resulting residual stress caused
by the interference will be dictated by the functional performance situation.

Hole basis and shaft basis system

In working out the limit dimensions for the three classes of fits, two systems are in use,
viz., the hole basis system and shaft basis system.
Hole basis system: In this system, the size of the shaft is obtained by subtracting the
allowance from the basic size of the hole. This gives the design size of the hole.
Tolerances are the applied to each part separately. The lower deviation of the shaft is
zero. The letter symbol for this situation is H.

 With the hole basis system, the lower limit of the hole is equal to its basic size.
e.g. Lower limit of the hole = 40.00 mm
Obtain the maximum limit of the shaft, by subtracting the minimum clearance, from
the lower limit of the hole.
Upper limit of the shaft = 40.00 – 0.10 = 39.90 mm

To obtain the lower limit of the shaft, subtract the tolerance on the shaft from the
upper limit of the shaft.

Lower limit of the shaft = 39.90 – 0.05 = 39.85 mm. Thus, the limits of the shaft are
39.90 and 39.85 mm
Upper limit of the hole = 30.00 + 0.025 = 30.025 mm

Proof
The tolerance on the hole and the shaft together should be equal to the difference between
the maximum and minimum clearances.

Aggregate tolerance = 0.025 + 0.050 = 0.075 mm

Maximum clearance = upper limit of hole – lower limit of the shaft
= 40.025 – 39.850 = 0.175 mm
Minimum clearance = min.size of the hole-max of the shaft
= 40.00 – 39.90 = 0.10 mm
Max clearance-Min clearance = 0.175-0.10
= 0.075mm
Shaft basis system : this is a system whereby the size of the hole is obtained by adding
the allowance to the basic size of the shaft. This gives the design size of the hole.
Tolerances are then applied to each part. The upper deviation of the shaft is zero. The
letter symbol for this situation is h.
In the shaft basis system, the upper limit of the shaft is equal to the basic size of the shaft.
Upper limit of the shaft = 40.00 mm
The lower limit of the hole may be obtained by adding the minimum clearance to the
basic size of the shaft.
Lower limit of the hole = 40.00 + 0.10 = 40.10 mm. To obtain the maximum limit of the
hole add the tolerance on the minimum limit of the hole.

Upper limit of the Hole = 40.100 + 0.025 =40/125mm.

Thus the limits of the hole are 40.125 and 40.100mm. To obtain a lower limit of the shaft,
subtract the on the shaft from the basic size.

Lower limit of the shaft = 40.00-0.05 = 39.95mm

Thus, the limits on the shaft are 40.00 and 39.95mm

Proof
Maximum clearance = upper limit of hole-lower limit of the shaft
= 40.125-39.950=0.175mm
Minimum clearance = lower limit of the hole- upper limit the shaft
=40.10-40.00=0.10mm
Maximum clearance – minimum clearance = 0.175-0.001=0.075( the aggregate
tolerance)
Tolerance grades- hole basis system
 The hole basis system is preferred in most of the cases, since standard tools like drills,
reamers, broachers, etc., are used for making a hole.
 The method of obtaining and the use of various grades of the unilateral hole H from
H5 to lH11 are given below :

Tolerance grades- hole basis system

H5 - by precision boring, fine internal grinding or honing.

H6 - by precision boring, fine internal grinding or honing or by hand reaming
H7 - by grinding, broaching or careful reaming
H8 - by boring or machine reaming
H9 - by boring and reaming and is used mostly for non-circular fits.
H10 - This grade is not used for cylindrical fits. It is only used for milled widths and
Unimportant holes of drilled parts.
H11 - This grade is not used in fits. It is used for coarse drilled or punched holes.
Type of fit Symbol Example of application
of fit
Interference fit
Shrink fit H8/u8 Wheel sets, tyres, bronze crowns on worm wheel
Heavy drive fit H7/s6 bubs, couplings under certain conditions, etc.
Press fit H7/r6 Coupling on shaft ends, bearing bushes in hubs,
Medium press fit H7/p6 valve seats, gear wheels.
Transition fit
Light press fit H7/n6 Gears and worm wheels, bearing bushes, shaft and
Force fit H7/m6 wheel assembly with feather key.
Push fit H7/k6 Parts on machine tools that must be changed
Easy push fit H7/j6 without damage, e.g., gears, belt pulleys, couplings,
fit bolts, inner ring of ball bearings.
Belt pulleys, brake pulleys, gears, and couplings as
well as inner rings of ball bearings on shafts for
average loading conditions.
Parts which are to be frequently dismantled but are
secured by keys, e.g., pulleys, hand-wheels, bushes,
bearing shells, pistons on piston rods, change gear
trains.
Clearance fit
Precision sliding fit H7/h6 Sealing rings, bearing covers, milling cutters on
Close running fit H7/g6 milling mandrels, other easily removable parts.
Normal running fit H7/f7 Spine shafts, clutches, movable gears in change
Easy running fit H8/e8 gear trains, etc.
Loose running fit H8/d9 Sleeve bearings with high revolution, bearings on
Slack running fit H8/c11 machine tool spindles, etc.Sleeve bearings with
medium revolution, grease lubricated bearings of
wheel boxes, gears sliding on shafts, sliding blocks.
Sleeve bearings with low revolution, plastic
material bearings.
Oil seals (Simmering) with metal housing (fit in
housing and contact surface on shaft), spline shafts.
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