Passive Solar Handbook PDF

United States Air Force
Passive Solar Handbook

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts
Volume I
Foreword
The United States Air Force is committed to energy efficiency
and the use of renewable forms of energy in all of its facilities
when shown to be reliable and cost effective. In its response to
the Military Construction Codification Act of 10 USC 2801,
Executive Order 12003 and Office of the Secretary of Defense
directives, the Air Force has implemented numerous policies and
procedures to significantly reduce the usage of fossil fuel derived
energy. Since the oil embargo of the early 1970’s, the Air Force
has encouraged and demonstrated the integration of a variety of
energy conserving features, including solar applications, in its
facilities. Passive solar systems represent one type of solar
application that can be used in almost all facilities to improve
their energy efficiency and to lower their energy costs.
The audience for this five-volume passive solar handbook is the

numerous Air Force personnel and others responsible for
programming, planning, designing, supervising construction,
commissioning, and operating and maintaining Air Force
commercial-type facilities worldwide. This handbook was
developed in response to MAJCOM and base needs for
information on the integration of passive solar systems into new
Air Force commercial-type facilities.
The goal of the Air Force Passive Solar Handbook series is to

integrate passive solar concepts into the Air Force planning,
programming, design, construction, and operation processes for
commercial-type facilities.
The five volumes of the Passive Solar Handbook are as follows:
Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts

Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide
Volume III: Programming Guide
Volume IV Passive Solar Design (proposed)
Volume V: Construction Inspection (proposed)
This is the first volume of the series.
Joseph A. Ahearn, Major General, USAF

Director of Engineering and Services
Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts i

Acknowledgements
This handbook was written by Architectural Energy Corporation
under contract to the United States Air Force Engineering
Directorate. We wish to acknowledge the support and technical
assistance of Refugio Fernandez, HQ USAF/LEEDE, and
Charles F. Lewis, HQ USAF/LEEDX. On their behalf, we wish to
acknowledge others throughout the United States Air Force who
reviewed earlier drafts of this handbook.
Architectural Energy Corporation staff responsible for the

research, building energy simulations, software development,
writing, graphic design, layout, proofreading and camera-ready
production include Michael J. Holtz, Claude L. Robbins, Donald
J. Frey, David N. Wortman, Peter A. Oatman, Joan M.
Gregerson, Chris Mack, Linda J. Ross, and Tracy Ashleigh. P.S.
Computer Graphics Inc. assisted with the camera-ready
production and coordinated the color separation and printing.
We would also like to thank Dr. Subrato Chandra and Dr. Ross
McCluney of the Florida Solar Energy Center for their help in
our analysis of warm-humid climates.
Michael J Holtz, A.I.A. P r e s i d e n t

Architectural Energy Corporation
Additional copies of this handbook may be obtained from:

2540 Frontier Avenue, Suite 201
Boulder, Colorado 80301 USA
(303) 444-4149 FAX (303) 444-4304
ii Volume I
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1.0 Passive Solar Concepts 1
Introduction 1
Passive Solar System Components 2
Passive Heating 4
Passive Cooling 10
Daylighting 13
Conclusions 19
2.0 Energy and Site Planning 20
Introduction 20
Site Planning For Passive Heating 21
Site Planning For Passive Cooling 25
Planning For Daylighting 28
Building Orientation and Shape 29
3.0 Energy and Buildings 32
Introduction 32
Climate and Buildings 33
Energy Responsive Buildings 37
Energy Costs 43
4.0 Suggested Additional Reading 47
5.0 Glossary of Terms 50

Appendix A: USAF Climate Regions 59
Appendix B: Building-Type Category Codes 71
Index 79
Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts iii

iv Volume I
Passive Solar Concepts 1.0
Passive solar systems use the energy from the sun to heat, cool, Introduction
and illuminate buildings. The Air Force has used passive solar
concepts in buildings since it was established in 1947 and will
continue to do so whenever possible. Figure 1-1 illustrates a
passive solar strategy used by the Air Force in 1947. Although
this form of passive heating system is no longer in use, it
illustrates the Air Force’s early commitment to the use of passive
solar systems in commercial-type buildings.
Figure 1-1: Breathing Wall. Tinker AFB, Oklahoma
The breathing wall, built in 1947, is a double layer mass wall

acting as an indirect gain solar heating system.
Solar concepts described in this handbook fall into two broad Solar Thermal Concepts
categories: (1) those that use the energy from the sun to directly Daylighting Concepts
or indirectly impact the thermal needs (heating and cooling
energy use) of the building, and (2) those that use the energy
from the sun to directly impact the lighting needs of the building.
Solar systems that heat or cool the building will be called solar
thermal systems; ones that light the building will be called
daylighting systems.
It is not anticipated that a properly designed passive solar

commercial-type building will completely eliminate the need for
the auxiliary energy systems used to heat, cool, or light the
building. Because of the size of the buildings, large internal
loads, and their diverse use patterns, it is anticipated that
passive solar systems will supplement the energy systems of the
building. However, it is possible for a combination of passive
solar concepts to reduce total energy costs by as much as 40%
and have savings-to-investment ratios (SIR) that should make
them cost effective.
Technical and solar terms used throughout all of the volumes of

Glossary
the handbook are defined in Chapter 5 of this volume.
Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts 1

1.0 Passive Solar Concepts
A total of eleven different passive concepts will be considered in

this handbook. Many other possible solar concepts were
evaluated. The ones listed below are appropriate in a wide
range of climates and building types.
(H) Direct gain with storage

(H) Indirect gain
(H) Direct gain (without storage)
(H) Sunspaces
Solar Concepts (C) Night Mechanical Ventilation
(C) Natural Ventilation
(L) Windows
(L) Skylights
(L) Sawtooth Apertures
(L) Monitor Apertures
(L) Atria
The letters (H), (C), and (L) stand for heating, cooling, and
lighting, respectively, and are used to remind you of the purpose
for each passive solar system concept.
Passive Solar Solar thermal concepts use the energy from the sun to heat or
System cool the building and usually consist of four separate
components:
Components
(1) collection
(2) storage
(3) distribution
(4) control
Collection
Storage
Distribution
Control
Figure 1-2: Components of a Passive Solar Thermal

System
2 Volume I
Daylighting concepts use the sun to light the building and

usually consist of only three components:
(1) collection
(2) distribution
(3) control
Collection
Distribution
Control
Figure 1-3: Components of a Daylighting System
In a passive solar building, the solar components are parts of the

building itself rather than separate subsystems. Therefore, the
collection component may be windows or some other type of solar
aperture; the storage component is usually the structural mass of
the building; and the distribution component is formed by the
shape, size, and location of the rooms of the building.
It is virtually impossible to separate the passive features of a

building from the building as a whole. In this regard, a passive
solar building is nonconventional; one must learn to think of
such a building as a totality rather than as a collection of
separate parts that are interchangeable depending upon
economic need. In a conventional (nonsolar) building, if a
particular heating, cooling, or lighting system is not economically
viable, it can usually be changed without impacting any other
aspect of the building design.
To change the passive features of a solar building may require a

complete redesign of the building. Therefore, it is important to
correctly identify, during the comprehensive planning stage, the
appropriate passive solar concepts that will be used in the
building.

Passive Heating Passive heating concepts use heat from the sun to offset winter
heating needs. The collection subsystem may include windows,
skylights, or some other type of solar aperture. The purpose of
the collection subsystem is to allow sunlight into the building to
Collection heat the space and, if appropriate, to heat the storage mass. The
storage subsystem usually includes parts of the floor or interior
walls of the building.
Storage The purpose of the storage subsystem is to store the collected solar
heat until it is needed by the occupants in the building. In most
cases, heat is collected during the daytime and used at night.
Stored energy is released from the storage mass and distributed
throughout the building to offset heating energy use.
Distribution Distribution is accomplished by arranging the functional spaces

of the building such that those that need heat are closest to the
storage subsystem.
The size and shape of the solar apertures (collection subsystem)

affects the quantity of heating energy available to offset auxiliary
heating energy needs. The size of the storage subsystem affects
the quantity of heat stored and the time delay between initial
collection and final use of energy. The size, shape, and location of
rooms in the building impact the optimum distribution of the
heat throughout the building.
Heat distribution is accomplished by a combination of radiation

and convection. Heat is radiated from the storage subsystem
into the rooms being heated after the collected solar energy has
passed through the storage system. Heat is convected through
the air, warming it, and thereby warming the people in the room.
Control Control of the passive heating system might be quite different

from control of an HV or HVAC system. In many passive
buildings, control is achieved through the use of shading devices,
or some other means to regulate the sunlight entering the
building. More complex passive buildings may also have
thermostats to control fans and motors that regulate the air flow
or control vents. In many passive buildings, the control
mechanisms are manual; that is, people control the building.
A balance between the size, shape, and location of each subsystem

must be achieved to ensure optimal system performance and
efficiency. If the collection subsystem is too large or too small,
then either too much energy is collected and the building is
overheated or not enough energy is collected to be effective.
Similarly, if the storage subsystem is improperly sized, then it
either holds the energy in storage too long (oversized) or not long
enough (undersized) to provide heat to the building when it is
needed. Finally, if the spaces of the building are not correctly
organized, the heat cannot be distributed in a manner that
ensures optimal auxiliary heating energy savings and comfort. In
developing this handbook, extensive analysis was done to
determine the -optimal size of different subsystems for various
climate zones and building types.
4 Volume I
When developing a knowledge of the optimal performance

characteristics of a passive heating system, it is usually the
storage component that is least understood. When a storage
surface is illuminated by sunlight, the energy enters the mass
and is stored as heat. The type of material used, its thermal
storage capacity, thermal conductance, thickness, and the room’s
temperature dictate the quantity of energy stored and the length
of time it stays in storage. For example, a 4-inch concrete wall
might store energy for 4 hours before completely releasing it as
heat. Similarly, 24 inches of concrete might store energy for 18 to
20 hours before completely releasing it. By varying the type of
building material used, and its thickness, it is possible to
substantially vary the performance characteristics of a passive
heating system. The most commonly used materials in storage
systems are concrete and masonry products.
Passive heating systems that collect and distribute the heat in 4 Prompt Systems
hours or less are called prompt systems. Ones that perform this
process and take more than 12 hours to release the heat are
called extended systems. Most passive solar heating systems are Extended Systems
designed to release their heat between 4 and 12 hours. This is
especially true of passive heating systems used in commercial-
type buildings, such as administration buildings, which are not
occupied for more than 10 to 12 hours a day.
Passive solar heating systems are often categorized by the

relationship between the solar system and the building, that is,
whether or not the solar system is part of a room being heated,
part of the building, or totally separate from the building. Using
this reasoning, there are three categories of passive solar heating
systems:
(1) direct gain systems
(2) indirect gain systems
(3) isolated gain systems
This terminology will be used to describe the four passive heating
concepts described in this handbook:
o Direct gain (without storage) (DG)
o Direct gain plus storage (D+S)
o Indirect gain (with storage)(IND)
o Sunspace (isolated gain with storage) (SUN)
There are two types of direct gain heating systems. A direct Direct Gain (DG)
gain without storage, abbreviated DG, is a prompt system that
does not include any additional interior mass in the building
(other than what would normally be available in structural
members, walls, ceilings, and floors). A direct gain system is
schematically illustrated in Figure 1-4. Figure 1-5 contains a
Direct Gain plus Storage
photograph of a direct gain system used in an airport facility.
(D+S)
Both of these figures are on the following page. A direct gain
plus storage, abbreviated D+S, includes additional internal mass
to extend the storage capacity to approximately 8 hours. This
system is schematically illustrated in Figure 1-6, and a
photograph of one is shown in Figure l-7. Both figures are on
page 7.
Figure 1-4: Direct Gain (DG) Schematic
Figure 1-5: Direct Gain. Walker Field Terminal,

Grand Junction, Colorado
The roof apertures are used to provide both heating and

daylighting. They were primarily designed to be a
direct gain heating system.
6 Volume I
Extra storage mass in floor
Figure 1-6: Direct Gain plus Storage (D+S) Schematic
Figure l-7: Direct Gain plus Storage. Air National Guard

Composite Operations and Training Facility,
Bangor, Maine
Note the illuminated mass wall on the left of the picture and the
sloped direct gain apertures in the roof.

Indirect Gain (IND) Indirect gain (IND) concepts place the collection and storage
components of the solar thermal system very close to each other
as part of the same wall. Heat is collected and stored in an
exterior wall or on the roof of a building, and distributed to the
building by passing all the way through the storage mass. For
some applications, air that passes between the aperture and the
storage mass (which are only 4 to 6 in. apart) is heated and
circulated to rooms to offset immediate heating energy needs.
Indirect gain systems are often used when extended storage
capacity is needed in a building because it is possible to make the
storage component very thick (12+ inches). In commercial-type
buildings, there were no cases where walls in excess of 8 inches
thick were needed or useful. See Figure 1-8 and 1-9.
Vents may not be

recommended for some
applications
(see Volume IV)
Figure 1-8: Indirect Gain (IND) Schematic
Figure 1-9: Indirect Gain. Shelly Ridge Girl Scout Center,

Philadelphia Area Council
Note the masonry wall construction behind the glazing. This is

the indirect gain heating system. The apertures above the wall
are used for daylighting as well as direct gain heating.
8 Volume I
Isolated gain passive solar heating systems isolate the collection Sunspaces (SUN)
and storage subsystems from the building. One special category
of an isolated gain system is a sunspace. A sunspace (SUN)
combines some features of direct gain systems with features of
indirect gain systems. A sunspace is a room attached to or
integrated with the exterior of a building in which the room
temperature is allowed to rise and fall outside the thermal
comfort zone. The space can be inhabited, thus acting like a
direct gain system. However, the walls and floor of a sunspace
are used as storage. The back walls of the sunspace allow the
heat to pass through them, much like an indirect gain system, to
heat the room adjacent to the sunspace. See Figure 1-10 and 1-
11.
Extra mass may be in the wall

and floor
Figure 1-10: Sunspace (SUN) Schematic
Figure 1-11: Sunspace. Commissary, McGuire AFB,

New Jersey
The attached sunspace can be seen on the right of the picture.

Different types of passive heating systems have been considered

to allow for design variation and to recognize the fact that some
concepts work better in some building types. In general, passive
heating systems work best in buildings: (1) with low levels of
continuous internal load (less than 1.5 w/sf), (2) that are
occupied for extended periods (more than 8 hours), and (3) are
located in climates with heating seasons in excess of 1,000 HDD.
The severity and length of the heating season are not as critical
as the internal load and occupancy schedule of the building.
Passive Cooling Passive cooling systems have the same basic components as
passive heating systems, but work in a different manner.
Whereas the purpose of passive heating systems is to draw heat
into the building, the purpose of a passive cooling strategy is to
remove or reject heat from the building, and thereby cool it.
Because the mechanisms that drive passive cooling strategies are
not fully understood, many cooling concepts are difficult to fully
evaluate during the comprehensive planning process. Therefore,
the number of cooling concepts advocated in this volume of the
handbook is limited. A more detailed discussion of passive
cooling concepts can be found in Volume IV: Passive Solar
Design.
Peak Cooling Passive cooling benefits are achieved by avoidance of the cooling
load in the building. In many commercial-type buildings, the
peak cooling requirement is directly associated with solar gains.
By avoiding solar gains, a portion of the cooling load is avoided.
This can be accomplished by shading the apertures of the
building.
Shading Shading can be achieved using the shape and form of the facade,
using low transmission glazing, or using devices inside of the
building. From a passive solar viewpoint, the most effective
method of shading is on the outside of the building using
Figure 1-12: Shading Schematic
10 Volume I
overhangs, fins, or louvers, as illustrated in Figures 1-12 and 1-

13. A less effective method is to use glazing with a low shading
coefficient.
Shading devices must be carefully designed. For passive heating

systems, shading devices should block the sun during the
summer months hut allow sunlight to enter the building during
winter. For daylighting systems, the sun is usually blocked
during the swing seasons (spring and autumn) as well as the
summer. In either case, there will be variations depending upon
the building type and internal loads.
Figure 1-13: Shading. Military Personnel Support Center,

Grissom AFB, Indiana
In this building, note how the vertical structural elements and

roof overhangs are used to shade the windows.
The analysis of passive cooling systems done for this handbook

assumed that all glazing facing south (in the Northern
Hemisphere; north in the Southern Hemisphere) is shaded from
the sun from spring through autumn.
The most successful cooling strategies reduce the internal loads of

the building. This can be achieved during the daytime by
designing for natural ventilation and at night by mechanically
ventilating (night mechanical ventilation) the building. These
two strategies have proven to be most successful in the
commercial-type buildings analyzed.
Natural ventilation (NVN) relies on the natural airflow and Natural Ventilation (NVN)
breezes to reduce the need for mechanical cooling when the
building is occupied. See Figure 1-14 on the following page. In
most cases, natural ventilation occurs simply by opening
windows when the outside air temperature is lower than the
inside air temperature. This strategy is effective primarily

during the spring and autumn (the swing seasons), thus avoiding
the intermittent use of mechanical heating and cooling
equipment. The Air Force recommends that commercial-type
buildings have operable windows when climatic conditions offer
the potential for significant energy savings. This strategy is a no-
cost change in building design and operation. It should be noted
that inappropriately opening windows as a heating control
strategy during the heating season may offset any gains achieved
by using them for natural ventilation.
Operable Windows
Figure 1-14: Natural Ventilation (NVN) Schematic
Night Mechanical Ventilation Night mechanical ventilation (NMV) reduces the temperature
(NMV) of the internal mass of the building at night so that the mass
will absorb heat during the day See Figures 1-15 and l-16. The
mass temperature is reduced by “flushing” the building with cool
(low humidity) night air. The air reduces the temperature of the
internal mass sufficiently to keep the building cool during much
of the day. This type of system uses the fan and duct components
of the HVAC or HV system to distribute the cool night air
throughout the building.
Existing Ventilation System
Figure 1-15: Night Mechanical Ventilation (NMV)

Schematic
12 Volume I
Figure 1-16: Night Mechanical Ventilation. Colorado

Mountain College, Glenwood Springs, Colorado
The vertical duct system on the right hand side of the picture is
part of the night mechanical ventilation system.
Daylighting is the use of natural light from the sky as a Daylighting

supplement for electric lighting in buildings. Traditional
daylighting systems differ in one major respect from passive
heating systems: they use the sky as a source of light and avoid
letting direct sunlight into a building. Since light from the sky is
used in lieu of direct sunlight, daylighting systems function quite
well on overcast, partly cloudy, or clear days.
Daylighting is an instantaneous use of the light from the sky.

Therefore, daylighting systems consist of collection and
distribution components and do not include a storage component
like passive heating systems. However, much like solar thermal
strategies, daylighting systems are categorized according to the
type of collection system used. Thus, there are three basic types
of daylighting systems:
(1) sidelighting
(2) toplighting
(3) core daylighting
Daylighting is the most effective passive solar strategy in almost

all commercial building types because it reduces two major
energy uses in these buildings: electric lighting and cooling.

Obviously, if daylighting is being used, the electric lighting must

be turned off. This reduces electricity consumption for lighting.
In many large buildings, the largest single component of the
cooling load is the energy needed to remove heat generated by
the electric lighting system. Therefore, turning off the electric
lighting, reduces, by as much as 40%, the energy used to
mechanically cool the building.
A total of five different daylighting systems were analyzed for

this handbook. These were:
o Windows (sidelighting) (WIN)

o Skylights (toplighting) (SKY)
o Sawtooth apertures (toplighting) (SAW)
o Monitor apertures (toplighting) (MON)
o Atria (core daylighting) (ATR)
Windows (WIN) In this volume of the handbook, sidelighting systems are limited
to windows (WIN) to illuminate the interior of a building. See
Figures 1-17 and 1-18. Additional sidelighting concepts are
discussed in Volume IV Passive Solar Design.
It is not necessary to add extensive amounts of glazing to

sidelight a building. However, there are limitations to the depth
that daylight can penetrate into a building from a window. I n
most cases, 30 feet is the maximum depth of daylight penetration
for a typical office, though a greater depth can be assumed for
tall hangars, depending on their geometry. The layout of interior
walls and furnishings can reduce this depth of daylight
penetration. Beyond this distance, either toplighting or core
daylighting systems must be used.
Figure 1-17: Window (WIN) Schematic
14 Volume I
Figure 1-18: Windows. Standard Brands Research

Center, Wilton, Connecticut
Windows are excellent daylighting apertures. Glare is being

controlled by a set of operable, blinds.
Toplighting systems bring light through the roof of the building Toplighting
to illuminate interior spaces. These systems are most effective in
one-story buildings. Three different types of toplighting systems
are considered in this handbook: (1) skylights, (2) sawtooth
apertures, and (3) monitor apertures.
Skylights (SKY), as illustrated in Figure 1-19, are horizontal Skylights (SKY)

apertures cut through the roof of a building. See Figure 1-20 for
an application of skylights in a base exchange.
Figure 1-19: Skylight (SKY) Schematic

Figure 1-20: Skylights. Base Exchange Mall, McChord

AFB, Washington
Sawtooth Apertures (SAW) Sawtooth apertures (SAW), as schematically illustrated in Figure

1-21, are a toplighting system that includes a glazed vertical
surface and a sloped roof. The name comes from the fact that a
series of these apertures look like the teeth of a handsaw. In
some literature, this type of aperture is called a roof clerestory.
Figure 1-22 illustrates sawtooth apertures in a fire station.
Figure 1-21: Sawtooth Aperture (SAW) Schematic
16 Volume I
Figure 1-22: Sawtooth Apertures. Fire Station, McEntire

A.N.G. Base, South Carolina
A series of sawtooth apertures are on the roof of the building.

They are used to provide daylight in both the equipment room
and dormitory areas of the building.
Monitor apertures (MON) were initially developed during the

19th century for use in industrial facilities that had high- and
low-bay areas side by side. See Figures 1-23 and 1-24. The high-
bay is extended beyond the roof line and glazed on two opposing
sides that extend above the roof. Both sawtooth and monitor
apertures are appropriate in almost all one-story buildings that
have large open areas, such as industrial facilities, maintenance
facilities, and warehouses.
Figure 1-23: Monitor Aperture (MON) Schematic

Figure 1-24: Monitor Apertures. Commissary,

Vandenberg AFB, California
The monitor apertures extend above the roof line of this

building, allowing daylight to be used throughout the facility.
Note the extended overhang and courtyard on the front of the
building, also passive features that shade and daylight the
building.
In multistory commercial-type buildings, the most difficult

location to daylight is the center of the building, called the
building core. An atrium (ATR) is a core daylighting concept that
opens up the center of the building so that it can he daylit. See
Figures 1-25 and 1-26. An atrium works best when the perimeter
of the building, within 15 ft of the exterior walls, is daylighted
using sidelighting techniques. An atrium can be capped with any
of the roof aperture systems previously discussed.
Figure 1-25: Atrium (ATR) Schematic
18 Volume I
Figure 1-26: Atrium. Personnel Services Building, Robins

AFB, Georgia
The center bays of this building have been raised above the roof
line to create a large atrium that allows daylight to he used to
offset electric lighting usage.
To save energy by using daylight, the electric lighting must be Automated Electric Lighting
Control
turned off when daylight can be used. This is accomplished by
an automated electric lighting control system. Different control
strategies are discussed in more detail in Volume IV: Passive
Solar Design.
If automated electric lighting control is not planned for a

particular building, it is not appropriate to assume that energy
savings will result from daylighting the building.
A large number of passive solar concepts can be applied to Conclusions

commercial-type buildings. The ones presented in this chapter
are appropriate for most cases. However, other passive solar
systems may be appropriate under special circumstances, for
particular building types, or for a particular climate region.
During the comprehensive planning process, it may he enough to
know that passive solar heating and/or cooling, and/or
daylighting, are appropriate in a building. When more detailed
analysis is needed during the design process, it can be done
following the procedures found in Volume IV: Passive Solar
Design.
For those interested in learning more about passive solar Additional Reading
systems, additional reading material is listed in Chapter 4.

2.0 Energy and Site Planning
Introduction Energy-conserving planning and passive solar design begins with
site selection. If the base has implemented a B a s e
Comprehensive Plan (BCP), then energy requirements are
specified in the plan, Section II-J. The BCP may require certain
building types a n d f u n c t i o n s t o o c c u r i n s p e c i f i c
Base Comprehensive Plan interrelationships with other existing buildings. These
restrictions are critical to good base planning and have minimal
adverse impact on site planning for solar buildings. Frequently,
their impact is supportive of solar planning techniques and
objectives. See Figure 2-1.
Solar buildings should be located and designed so that they

interact with climate in a positive manner. To do this, it is
necessary to understand which aspects of climate are important
to a particular passive solar system and building type.
Site planning requirements are slightly different depending upon

whether the building is using a passive heating, cooling, or
daylighting strategy, or a combination of these. The decision to
site plan for one strategy over another is dependent upon the
primary energy uses in the proposed building and the most
effective passive solar system. Site planning is an interactive
process, beginning with defining the overall goal for energy use
and cost in the proposed building, determining the most effective
solar concepts to achieve this goal, and using that information to
determine how to site plan for the building.
Areas where passive solar

consideration impacts the site
selection process
Figure 2-1: Site Selection Process
The site selection process must follow the guidelines set down by
the Base Comprehensive Plan (BCP) in terms of working within
the overall land use goals and objectives for the base. Based
upon the needs, constraints, and opportunities afforded by the
20 Volume I
Energy and Site Planning 2.0
BCP, it is possible to identify several possible sites appropriate

for the proposed building. From these sites, it is possible to pick
a site that achieves all or most of the needs and goals of the
project, including any site planning constraints caused by the use
of passive solar systems. Energy issues will typically not be the
dominant factor in site selection. However, all other things being
equal, if a site has better access to the sun and sky, then it should
be given some priority over other sites.
Site planning for passively heated buildings involves ensuring Site Planning For
that the solar collection facades of the building have access to the
sun. Since not all facades of any building have ‘access’ to the Passive Heating
sun, site planning for solar access typically involves consideration
of one, or possibly two, key facades. The most important facade
usually is the south facade (north facade in the Southern
Hemisphere). Next, usually, is the east facade, although
protecting the solar access of this facade is not as critical as it is
with the primary solar facade.
The primary method of site planning for passive heating in Solar Envelope
commercial-type buildings is a concept called the solar envelope.
A solar envelope is defined as the boundaries of a three-
dimensional volume, on the site, having unobstructed access to
the sun during a certain time period over the year, as shown in
Figure 2-2. The method for delineating the solar envelope is
presented in Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
It is not the purpose of this volume of the handbook to teach how

to generate solar envelopes, which are discussed in Volume IV,
but to demonstrate the underlying principles of the process, so
that when site selection is being made, you can quickly judge if a
site has a reasonable solar access. The underlying principle of
the solar envelope concept is to ensure that a portion of the site,
as represented by a three-dimensional volume, has access to the
sun so that passive heating systems can function properly. In
addition, a solar envelope helps to ensure that adjacent buildings
are not shaded from the sun.
The solar envelope establishes a volume on a site that has

unobstructed access to the sun during a certain time period over
the year. An appropriate envelope can be constructed for any site
and any time frame. The final envelope does not represent the
shape of the proposed building, but the three-dimensional
volume within which the building should be constructed. Solar
envelopes can be simple or complex depending upon the
surrounding buildings, topography, and the ingenuity of the
planner. Figure 2-2, on the following page, illustrates a typical
site which looks fairly constrained. Figure 2-3 illustrates the
solar envelope for that site. The final building form may be
different than the solar envelope, but must fit within the
boundaries established by it to obtain proper solar access.

Existing Buildings
Proposed Site
Figure 2-2: Constrained Site
Proposed Solar Envelope
Figure 2-3: Solar Envelope For Constrained Site
22 Volume I
The solar envelope is determined from the volume created by the

range of sun movement during the operating schedule of a
building over the year. For example, suppose a building has an
operating schedule of 0800 to 1700h year-round, and the site
constraints allow the sun in during the winter between 0900h
and 1500h, and in the summer between 0700h and 1700h. The
sun locations in winter (December 21st) and summer (June 21st)
can be plotted for these times and converted to a three
dimensional volume, as in Figures 2-4 and 2-5. This establishes
the solar envelope within which the building is designed.
Summer sun angle
Winter sun angle
Summer AM angle extended

to site limit
(b) Summer PM angle extended
to site limit
Site boundary limits
Winter AM angle extended to

(c) site limit
Winter PM angle extended to
site limit
Figure 2-4: Establishing Solar Envelope Boundaries

(a) time constraints, (b) setting summer limits, (c) setting winter limits

Figure 2-5: The Final Solar Envelope

(a) final boundaries, (b) solar envelope within boundaries
A solar envelope can be established for a parcel of land even if

the entire parcel is not going to be developed at one time. Each
phase of construction is designed to fit within the confines of the
overall solar envelope. This is illustrated in Figure 2-6.
Phase I Construction
Phase II Construction
Phase III Construction
Figure 2-6: Phased Development Within A Single

Solar Envelope
24 Volume I
Figure 2-7: Solar Envelope. B-1B Bomber Hangar,

Dyess AFB, Texas
Note how the shape of the roof conforms to the solar envelope
used to design the building.
Buildings designed within the solar envelope may sometimes be

different from current architectural practice. See Figure 2-7.
Commercial-type buildings will be lower, where possible, and fill
more of the site than do present day buildings. However, the
inability to “fit” a solar envelope to a site, or to fit the functional
spatial needs of a building to the solar envelope, does not negate
the possible use of passive solar systems in the building.
Buildings larger than the solar envelope still have access to the
sun; however, they block access to surrounding buildings or
undeveloped sites.
Passive cooling of commercial-type buildings relies on cooling Site Planning For

load avoidance and ventilation to reduce dependency on
mechanical cooling energy. Site planning for passive cooling Passive Cooling
should only be done for building types in which cooling is an
important requirement and in climates where passive cooling
strategies can be effective.
If no passive cooling strategies are appropriate, there is no need

to go through a detailed site planning process for passive cooling.
In addition, none of the cooling strategies are as effective as
either the heating or daylighting strategies. Therefore, site
planning for passive cooling may be a secondary consideration.

The most important factors to be considered when planning for a

passive cooling system are:
(1) high humidity (60%+) levels

(2) air movement over and through the site
(3) solar gains through glazing
Solar gains (through glazing) and air movement can be handled

through a combination of site planning and building design.
High humidity (60% +) levels during occupied hours are a given
in many locations that ma.y limit the effective use of passive
cooling.
High Humidity Humidity is a critical consideration for two reasons. First, high
humidity levels can create physical discomfort even if the air
temperature is comfortable. One of the purposes of mechanical
cooling systems is to maintain a reasonable humidity level inside
a building so that it is a comfortable work environment. The
second reason that humidity is a critical design element has to do
with the energy needed by a mechanical cooling system to remove
humidity and moisture from a building. In warm and humid
climates, opening a window for an hour may require a constant
24 hours of mechanical cooling to remove the moisture from the
building that enters through the window and permeates the
structure. Obviously, trading off 1 hour of “free” natural cooling
for 24 hours of mechanical cooling is not cost effective.
Keep in mind that the site planning process and the building
comprehensive planning process are interactive. For a given
building type in a given climate region, one may have already
determined that all, some, or none of the recommended cooling
strategies are appropriate.
Air Movement Air movement, in the form of adequate ventilation, is perhaps the
most important aspect of passive cooling. Air movement as low
as 2.3 miles per hour can reduce the effective air temperature in
a building by as much as 5°F.
Site planning for natural ventilation requires knowledge of the

prevailing wind directions and speeds, and being able to
determine what parts of a site are most favorable for ventilation.
Rapid changes in slope, dense vegetation, and tall surrounding
buildings can effectively block the prevailing breezes, even
though they may be useful to shade the sun from the building.
See Figure 2-8 on the following page.
Solar Gains Solar gains represent an important part of the cooling load of a
large building. Reducing solar gains reduces energy use, peak
demand, and mechanical cooling equipment size. W h e n
considering a site and trying to judge what the implications of
site planning are on solar gains, you should be looking for trees
and surrounding buildings that can shade the proposed
building.
26 Volume I
Impact of tall buildings on air

movement
(negative impact)
Impact of tall buildings on air

movement
(positive impact)
Figure 2-8: Site Considerations For Natural Ventilation
Of the two cooling strategies recommended in this handbook,

only one of them, natural ventilation (NVN), requires special site
planning consideration. The second, night mechanical
ventilation (NMV), is not usually affected by most normal site
conditions.

Planning For Site planning for daylighting is different from site planning for
solar thermal systems. Daylighting systems use the light from a
Daylighting clear or overcast sky to illuminate the interior of buildings. In
most cases, direct sunlight is avoided. Therefore, it is not
necessary to protect a specific facade (such as the south or east
facade) as in a passive thermal system. In general, any facade
can be used to daylight the interior of a building. When site
planning for daylight, the following simple rules can be applied:
Protect any two opposite facades of a building.
Protect any facade and the roof of the building.
Site planning to “protect” a facade of a building means to keep it

free of major obstructions, such as adjacent buildings and large
trees. For a daylighted building, this means a space adjacent to
the daylighted facade(s) equal to one-half of the building height
must be left relatively free of obstructions to ensure that light
from the sky can reach the facade(s). This type of daylight access
requirement is far less constraining than most requirements for
passive heating systems.
For example, if the north and south facades of a building are

being used to daylight the building and the building is 40 feet
tall, then a space 20 feet wide must be left clear adjacent to the
daylighted facades of the building. See Figure 2-9. Similarly, if
the site already has a building 60 feet tall, no new buildings
should be built within 30 feet of it, assuming the new buildings
are less than 60 feet tall. All of the values used in these examples
represent minimum protection zones. Good design sense and the
scale of the building will also help determine the size and shape
of the protected zone. Daylight planning tools are explained in
more detail in Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
Protected Zones:
A) Single Aperture
B) Entire Wall
Dependent upon building height
or height of the surrounding
buildings.
Figure 2-9: Site Planning For Daylighting
28 Volume I
No special protection or site planning is needed for toplighting

and core daylighting concepts because they typically have an
unobstructed view of the sky.
When looking at possible building sites and attempting to

determine whether a site is appropriate for a daylit building, it is
helpful to have some sense of the proposed building’s overall size
and volume so that an estimate of the space needed to protect the
daylighting facades can be made. If the building is also going to
use a passive heating system, the space surrounding the solar
envelope must be protected.
Most building sites are adjacent to streets or alleyways. Facades

facing these are usually relatively easy to protect. Sites used for
low (one-story, low-bay) buildings that are surrounded by tall
high-bay buildings should consider the use of toplighting
concepts, assuming these concepts are appropriate for the
building type and climate.
Daylighting is the most appropriate passive system for all

building types in all climate regions. Therefore, site planning for
daylighting will be a routine part of the comprehensive building
planning process. Fortunately, it is also the easiest system to
accommodate.
In general, passive solar buildings which take advantage of the Building

climate are less tolerant to changes in orientation and shape than
are climate rejecting buildings. However, sites do not have to be Orientation and
ideal for passive solar strategies to be appropriate. This does not Shape
negate the need for site planning; it just helps keep the site
planning process, as applied to large passive solar commercial-
type buildings, in its proper perspective. The impact of building
orientation on site selection is discussed in more detail in
Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
Internal loads (people, equipment, lighting, and so forth) have a

major impact upon the importance of orientation and shape in
site planning. The importance of internal loads and their impact
on site planning can best be illustrated by looking at several
examples. The first is a large administration building located in
the northeastern United States. This example building is three
stories tall with 10,000 sf of floor area per story. The annual
energy costs (1987) are $36,900 per year, or about $1.23 per
square foot per year. The building is oriented such that the four
facades face north, south, east, and west. The building site plan
is illustrated in Figure 2-10 and energy costs are shown in Table
2-l. Both of these are on the following page.

Building Footprint
Changes in Orientation
Figure 2-10: Building Used In Orientation Analysis
Change in Orientation, from South
30° 45° 60°

($/yr) ($/yr) ($/yr)
Energy Savings
Heating 29 26 36
Cooling 58 15 0
Lighting 0 0 0
HVAC 53 38 23
Total 140 79 59
Table 2-1: Energy Cost Impact of Changing Orientation
30 Volume I
If the building is reoriented such that the primary facades are

rotated 30°, 45°, and 60° east of due south, the greatest savings
occur when the building is rotated 30°. This results in a $140 per
year savings, considerably less than one-half of 1% of the annual
energy costs. Rotating the building 45° or 60° results in even
smaller savings of $79.00 per year or $59.00 per year,
respectively. Clearly, the orientation of this building has little
effect on the energy consumption. It is not sensitive to climate,
and its energy use is determined by internal loads.
Elongated shapes, such as (b) and (c) in Figure 2-11, are Elongated Shapes
beneficial for all kinds of passive solar buildings, but especially
daylighted buildings. An elongated building can have as much
as a 15-25% reduction in energy use over a compact building of
the same size, due to its greater ability to use daylight.
Portion of building not

daylighted
Figure 2-11: Changes in Building Shape (Aspect Ratio)
The buildings in Figure 2-11 are assumed to have the same floor
area, occupancy, and internal loads. The building with the 1:1
aspect ratio has a total energy use of 62,000 Btu per square foot
per year (Btu/sf-yr). The building with the 3:1 aspect ratio has
an energy use of 50,000 Btu/sf-yr and the building with the 5:1
aspect ratio has an energy use of 46,000 Btu/sf-yr. The shape of
these buildings has a major impact on energy use. This example
is for Denver, Colorado. In most cases it will be easier to daylight
a building that is 45 feet deep (5:1 aspect ratio) as opposed to one
that is 100 feet deep (1:1 aspect ratio). Energy savings can vary
from site to site, depending upon the climate region and the
building type.

3.0 Energy and Buildings
Introduction A total of 18 different commercial-type buildings were analyzed
for this handbook. A listing of these building types, in the order
they appear in various charts and appendices throughout the
handbook, is as follows:
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF
B. ADMIN, >5000 SF
C. ADMIN, MULTISTORY
D. ADMIN, COMPUTER FACILITY
E. DINING FACILITY
F. DORMITORY
G. FIRE STATION
H. INDUSTRIAL FACILITY
I. MAINTENANCE, <5000 SF
J. MAINTENANCE, HIGH-BAY
K. MAINTENANCE, AIR CONDITIONED
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW -BAY
M. TRAINING, AUDITORIUM
N. TRAINING, <5000 SF
O. TRAINING, >5000 SF
P. TRAINING, MULTISTORY
Q. TRAINING, GYMNASIUM
R. WAREHOUSE
These building types represent general categories of commercial-
type buildings and do not describe specific buildings as found in
the USAF building type category codes. For example, a law
< = less than office, building code 610-112, would be an administrative
> = greater than building, but it could be <5000 sf, >5000 sf, or multistory.
Appendix B lists all of the USAF building-type category codes

and the building type they represent. An example of Appendix B
is shown in Table 3-1.
Building-Type Code Used In

This Handbook
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF
B. ADMIN, >5000 SF
E. DINING FACILITY
F. DORMITORY
G. FIRE STATION
K. MAINTENANCE, HVAC
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW-BAY
R. WAREHOUSE
NC. NO CURRENT BUILDING TYPE Table 3-1: Appendix B: Building Type Category Codes
32 Volume I
Energy and Buildings 3.0
Climates are typically characterized as rainy, sunny, hot, cloudy, Climate and
humid, cold, and so forth. However, subjective characterizations
such as these are inadequate when concerned with building Buildings
energy performance because: (1) they may not be an indicator of
building energy use, and (2) comparing subjective
characterizations often leads to error. For example, the following
statement would widely be considered true: “It rains more in
Seattle than in Boston.” Two questions should be asked: (1) is
rainfall usually an indicator of building energy use?, and (2) does
it really rain more in Seattle than Boston? The answer to both
questions is no.
Weather represents the momentary condition of the atmosphere Weather

with respect to temperature (hot or cold), moisture (wet or dry),
wind (calm or storm), sky (clear or cloudy), and pressure (high or
low). Climate represents the average long-term condition of the Climate
atmosphere. Therefore, climate variables are often used to
categorize regions that have similar characteristics. In general,
different climate variables are used to analyze the energy use of a
building depending upon whether the building is residential or
nonresidential.
The climate variables that usually influence commercial-type

building energy use are:
0 outside air temperature

0 humidity
0 solar radiation
Climate regions group different geographic locations according to Climate Regions

specific sets of climate variables. Climate regions that are
indicators of building energy use commonly use heating degree
days (HDD) and cooling degree days (CDD) as a way to establish
regional boundaries. These have previously been used by the
Air Force to establish building climate regions and are discussed
in Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Energy Budget Figures. Engineering Technical Letter
(ETL): Energy Budget Figures
Heating and cooling degree days are not sufficient to analyze
complex commercial-type passive solar buildings for two basic
reasons: (1) they do not encompass the latent cooling load (that
is, the moisture load) common in nonresidential buildings, caused
by a high occupancy density, and (2) they do not include some
form of solar (or daylighting) variable to properly analyze passive
solar commercial-type buildings.
To determine the energy use in this handbook, four climate

variables were used to establish climate regions:
(1) Heating Degree Days (HDD) Climate Variables Used to

(2) Cooling Degree Days (CDD) Establish Climate Regions
(3) Latent Enthalpy Hours (LEH)
(4) Cloudiness Index (RAD)

Heating Degree Days (HDD) The number of Heating Degree Days (HDD) in a single day is
determined by subtracting the average (maximum - minimum)
temperature for that day from a reference temperature: 65°F in
the United States and 60°F in the United Kingdom. The average
temperature must be less than 65°F for heating degree days to
occur. Heating is assumed to be required under these conditions.
For days when the average temperature is greater than 65°F, see
the discussion on Cooling Degree Days (CDD) beginning on the
next page.
The number of heating degree days for a month or year is

determined by summing all of the daily values for a month or
year, respectively. Heating Degree Days (HDD) are considered a
good indicator of heating energy use and are often used to
determine the total climate related heating energy use of a
building located on a given air base or in a given climate region.
Cold climates have HDD values for a year in excess of 6,000;
extremely cold climates have HDD values greater than 10,000.
Warm climates may have HDD values for a year less than 2,000,
while tropical climates may have no heating degree days, that is,
HDD equals 0. The range of HDD annual values for the free
world is from 20,264 (Barrow, Alaska) to 0 (several locales,
including such places as Honolulu and Wake Island).
As you might suspect, a wide range of HDD values exists in a

country as large as the United States. For example, for air bases
located near Fort Wayne, Indiana, Sacramento, California, or
Apalachicola, Florida, the HDDs would be 6208, 2842, and 1361,
respectively. Each of these locales would have a different need
AFM 88-29 Facility Design for heating and the appropriate passive solar system to meet a
and Planning: Engineering part of this need would therefore be quite different in concept and
Weather Data capacity.
Information about specific HDDs characteristics of any air base

can be found in AFM 88-29 (TM 5-784, NAVFAC P-89) Facility
Fort Wayne, IN
Sacramento, CA
Apalachicola, FL
Figure 3-2: Heating Degree Day (HDD) Example
34 Volume I
Cooling Degree Days (CDDs) are quite similar to HDDs except Cooling Degree Days (HDD)
they represent a cooling condition rather than a heating
condition. Therefore, the number of Cooling Degree Days in a
single day is determined by subtracting the reference
temperature from the average temperature for the day. Since this
is a cooling condition, it is assumed that the average temperature
is greater than the reference temperature (65°F).
If an air conditioning system is used to cool a building, then

CDDs provide some information about the climate related cooling
load. Since the CDD is an indicator of cooling needs, values are
low in cold climates, which have little cooling, and high in
climates which are warm. The range of CDD annual values for
the free world is from 0 (several locales, such as Barrow, Alaska)
to 7576 in Khartoum in the Sudan. Fort Wayne, Sacramento,
and Apalachicola have values of 747, 1157, and 2662,
respectively.
Information about specific CDDs characteristics of any air base

can be found in AFM 88-29 (TM 5-784, NAVFAC P-89) Facility
Design and Planning: Engineering Weather Data.
Sacramento, CA
Fort Wayne, IN
Apalachicola, FL
Figure 3-3: Cooling Degree Day (CDD) Example
In commercial-type buildings, or even large residences such as Latent Enthalpy Hours (LEH)
dormitories or apartments, a great deal of energy is expended
removing moisture from the building during the cooling season.
This type of energy use is more important in large buildings than
in detached houses. To determine the impact of this type of
energy use, called latent energy use, on buildings, a new climate
measure has been developed called a Latent Enthalpy Hour
(LEH).

Latent Enthalpy Hours (LEH) Latent Enthalpy Hours are a measure similar in format to a
degree-day. An LEH is defined as the number of hours in
which the energy requirement for removing moisture from the
air is greater than the energy requirements to maintain the
moisture content of the air equal to the upper extremes of the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) thermal comfort zone. Arid, high altitude
climates (such as Denver, Colorado) may have LEH values less
than 100 and tropical climates (such as Honolulu, Hawaii) may
have LEH values in excess of 25,000. Because this is a new
climate measure, little worldwide data exists to establish the
upper boundary For the cities of Fort Wayne, Sacramento, and
Apalachicola the LEH values are 4156, 50, and 11052,
respectively.
Information about the specific LEH characteristics of a

particular air base cannot be found in any current AFM. T h e
concept of an LEH is new and not currently published for USAF
locales.
Sacramento, CA
Fort Wayne, IN
Apalachicola, FL
Figure 3-4: Latent Enthalpy Hour (LEH) Example
Radiation and Daylight (RAD) Daylighting and passive solar heating potential are considered
Index through a cloudiness index, also known as a radiation and
daylight (RAD) index. The RAD index varies from 0.0 to 1.0 and
is defined as the ratio of monthly mean values of daily global
horizontal radiation divided by the available radiation at the
edge of the atmosphere (called the extraterrestrial radiation
constant). The RAD value is a term commonly used to express
solar radiation in combination with cloud cover. Knowing
something about radiation is critical for the passive thermal
strategies, while knowing something about cloud cover is
important for analyzing the performance characteristics of
daylighting systems.
36 Volume I
Although RAD values can range from 0.0 to 1.0, the lowest
recorded value is 0.339 in Adak, Alaska, while the highest is
0.713 in Lovelock, Nevada. In Fort Wayne, Sacramento, and
Apalachicola, the values are 0.45, 0.64, and 0.52, respectively.
Clear locales have values of 0.6 or higher, while cloudy locales
have values less than 0.5.
Sacramento, CA
Fort Wayne, IN
Apalachicola, FL
Figure 3-5: Radiation and Daylight (RAD) Example
Information about specific RAD characteristics of any air base

cannot currently be found in any Air Force manual. However,
data for major cities in the United States can be found in the
Insolation Data Manual, published by the Solar Energy Research
Institute (SERI), SERI/SP-755-789.
Climate Regions
Using these four climate variables results in 12 climate regions,
worldwide, for use in planning commercial-type buildings.
These regions are illustrated by the data in Table 3-2 on the
following page.
Appendix A: USAF
A set of maps showing each climate region and the air bases in Commercial-Type Building
the region can be found in Appendix A. Climate Regions, Worldwide
Energy Responsive
For the most part, buildings do not use energy, people do.
Heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation adjustments are made Buildings
in response to people’s needs and desires. Those needs vary
depending upon the activity being performed and the climate in
which the building is located.

Region HDD CDD LEH RAD Example

(range) (range) (range) (range) (Air Force Base)
1 7,000 0 0 0.35
to to to to Eielson, AK
21,000 50 100 0.50
2 4,750 500 2,500 0.40

to to to to Grissom, IN
11,000 1,250 10,000 0.60
3 1,250 0 0 0.40
to to to to McChord, WA
6,000 2,250 3,000 0.70
4 4,500 0 0 0.50
to to to to USAF Academy, CO
10,000 1,500 1,000 0.70
5 1,000 250 5,000 0.60

to to to to Kirtland, NM
6,000 2,250 15,000 0.75
6 1,750 650 10,000 0.45

to to to to Arnold, TN
5,000 2,500 20,000 0.60
7 1,500 1,750 15,000 0.45

to to to to Lackland, TX
4,000 3,500 27,500 0.60
8 0 2,500 17,500 0.40

to to to Hickam, HI
5,000 30,000 0.60
9 1,500 0 0 0.40
to to to to Croughton, UK
4,000 500 500 0.55
10 4,000 0 500 0.40

to to to to Ramstein, FRG
7,500 1,000 2,000 0.55
11 2,000 1,000 1,000 0.45

to to to to Comiso, IT
6,500 2,500 7,500 0.60
12 0 2,250 15,000 0.45

to to to to Tyndall, FL
1,750 4,500 27,500 0.55
Table 3-2: USAF Commercial-Type Building Climate Regions, Worldwide
38 Volume I
Energy use is usually divided into several energy end use

components for detailed analysis. In this handbook, energy end
use is divided into the following categories: Energy End Use Categories
(1) heating
(2) cooling
(3) lighting
(4) ventilation
(5) process loads
Energy Use Per Unit
Energy use by each end use category can be measured in terms of Of Floor Area: Btu/sf-yr
total energy, such as 450,000,000 Btu’s per year, or it can be
considered in terms of energy use per unit of floor area, such as
45,000 Btu’s per square foot per year. Throughout this handbook,
energy use per unit of area will be used as a measure of energy
use in different building types, sizes, and climate regions.
For a passive solar system to be effective in a commercial-type

building, it must address an actual energy need of the building.
Actual energy needs may vary considerably from preconceived
notions about how buildings use energy. Figure 3-6 illustrates a
comparison of the energy use for a house and an administration
building, each about 2,000 square feet in size, located in Denver,
Colorado (Climate Region 4). The differences are quite striking;
note the differences in heating and lighting energy use.
Compare Heating and

Lighting Energy Use
Figure 3-6: Commercial vs. Residential Building

Energy Use, Denver, CO

An appropriate passive solar system for the house will be quite

different from the appropriate passive solar solutions for the
administration building of the same size.
Commercial-type buildings range in size from small (1,000 sf) to

quite large (100,000 sf) and range in use from administration
facilities to warehouses, from dormitories to fire stations.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the range of possible solutions
to the energy needs of these different building types will also be
quite varied. In buildings of such varied size and use, the
application of solar technologies is termed “making the building
climate adapted,” that is, making the building more responsive
to the energy savings associated with using the climate to best
advantage. Climate adapting a building can include such
diverse concepts as shading the building from the sun, using the
sun for heat and light, or using the prevailing breezes to cool the
building. Any or all of these solutions might be appropriate
depending upon the building type, its size, and climate region.
This handbook encourages the planning, design, and construction

of climate adapted commercial-type buildings and discourages
Climate Adapted Buildings the development of climate rejecting buildings. A climate
rejecting building isolates the building energy use from
interaction with the surrounding environment. It uses
Climate Rejecting Buildings mechanical systems to heat, cool, and light the building,
regardless of the possibilities of using the environmental
conditions to best advantage.
The concepts of climate adapted or climate rejecting buildings

represent the extremes of possible solutions: one uses the
climate, while the other isolates the building from it. In reality,
solutions to real building energy problems lie somewhere
Climate Rejecting Climate Adapted
Figure 3-7: Climate Rejecting vs. Climate Adapted
40 Volume I
Energy use and energy economics may make some passive

concepts attractive and others impractical when considered
within the constraints of a project’s needs, fuel availability, and
budgetary requirements. Therefore, some compromise is
expected, and the planner or designer should keep in mind that
the final solution may be a combination of climate adapted and
rejecting concepts.
Two primary characteristics of each building type have a major

impact upon the overall energy use:
(1) envelope loads

(2) internal loads
Envelope Loads
Envelope loads are associated with energy transfer through the
building shell. In some building types, such as single family
detached housing or a warehouse, envelope loads are the single
dominant energy transfer.
Internal Loads
Internal loads can be divided into two subcategories: (1) those
due to occupancy, and (2) those due to lighting and process
energy use. It is primarily the variation in internal load
characteristics that determines which passive solar systems will
be most effective in commercial-type buildings.
Each building type has specific occupancy characteristics that

can be expressed in terms of people loads, period of operation,
hours of operation, and schedules. The people load is an estimate
of the number of people in the building. This varies considerably
from one building type to another. For example, an
administration building is assumed to house one person per 65
square feet, while a warehouse typically has one person per 4,000
square feet. The period of operation is a designation of whether
the building is open during the daytime, at night, or both. An
administration building is usually open only during the day,
while a warehouse may be used day and night. The hours of
operation are the average number of hours per day that the
building is occupied, while the schedule is the number of days per
week the building is occupied. An administration building is
typically occupied 10 hours a day, 5 days a week, while a
warehouse may be occupied 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Energy use associated with lighting and process loads (coffee

pots, vending machines, etc.) make up the second major internal
load category. In most commercial-type buildings, these loads are
assumed to be continuous during the occupied period of each day.
For example, a continuous lighting load is one in which the
electric lights are turned on in the morning and off at night and
stay on all day long. It is the continuous nature of these internal
loads that make them so critical to the overall energy use and
costs of the building.
A fair amount of variation exists in these internal load

characteristics; however, each of the building types typically

functions within a particular range of occupancy and schedule.

Those commonly found in Air Force commercial-type buildings
are shown in Table 3-3.
Operational Internal Load Thermal

Characteristics System
Day- Hr/ Days/ Light Process
Night Day Week (w/sf) (w/sf)
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC

B. ADMIN, >5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
C. ADMIN, MULTISTORY D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
D. ADMIN, COMPUTER FACILITY D 10 5 2.5 2.0 HVAC
E. DINING FACILITY D+N 14 7 1.3 2.8 HVAC
F. DORMITORY D+N 24 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
G. FIRE STATION D+N 24 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
H. INDUSTRIAL FACILITY D 10 5 1.7 2.0 HV
I. MAINTENANCE, <5000 SF D 10 5 1.0 0.5 HV
J. MAINTENANCE, HIGH-BAY D 10 5 2.1 1.0 HV
K. MAINTENANCE, AIR COND D 10 5 1.7 1.0 HVAC
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW-BAY D 10 5 1.7 1.0 HV
M. TRAINING, AUDITORIUM D+N 8 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
N. TRAINING, <5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
O. TRAINING, >5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
P. TRAINING, MULTISTORY D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
Q. TRAINING, GYMNASIUM D 10 7 1.7 0.0 HV
R. WAREHOUSE D 10 7 1.7 0.0 HV
Table 3-3: Internal Load Variables For Each Building Type
The interrelationship between envelope and internal loads is

critical to understanding which passive concepts are appropriate
for a particular building type and climate region. Figure 3-8
illustrates the importance of envelope or internal loads, as a
fraction of total energy use, for the different climate regions.
Figure 3-8 shows that as internal loads increase, there is a
corresponding decrease in the importance of envelope loads.
When the envelope load is a larger fraction of the total energy use
than the internal loads, the building is usually dominated by
heating energy use. When the internal load is larger than the
envelope load, the building is typically dominated by lighting
and cooling energy use. See Figure 3-8 on the following page.
Buildings that are clearly envelope dominated can use passive

heating concepts to best advantage. Buildings that are clearly
internal load dominated can use daylighting strategies to best
advantage. Buildings in which the envelope and internal loads
are close to each other are very complex to analyze and may be
able to use heating, cooling, and daylighting strategies to
advantage.
None of the commercial-type buildings analyzed for this

handbook are clearly envelope dominated. Some, such as
42 Volume I
warehouses or dormitories, have an almost equal balance

between envelope and internal loads. Others, such as
administration buildings and dining facilities, are dominated by
their internal loads. This means that many of the traditional
passive heating concepts associated with the phrase “passive
solar” are not going to be effective in these buildings.
Recognizing that commercial-type buildings are complex and
respond differently to the environment than do more simple
buildings (such as houses), makes it easier to find the
appropriate passive solution to the energy needs of the building.
Envelope vs. Internal Loads
Figure 3-8: Internal vs. Envelope Loads
Energy costs represent another way to consider the impact of Energy Costs
energy use in buildings. The impact of different fuels used for
heating (such as electricity, natural gas, or fuel oil) as well as the
costs of electricity for cooling and lighting a building can provide
another important clue as to what kinds of passive concepts are
most effective in commercial-type buildings.
In this handbook, energy costs are considered in terms of costs

(in dollars) per square foot of building area per year. Thus, an
energy cost of $1.00/sf-yr in a 10,000 sf building would mean
that the building costs $10,000 per year to heat, cool, light, and
so forth. Using a cost per unit of area measure allows one to
compare the energy costs of different building types or different
sizes of the same building type.
In large nonresidential buildings, no direct link between energy

use and energy costs exists. Put another way, saving energy is
not directly proportional to saving energy costs. This is a
startling revelation to many people who are not familiar with

energy costs in commercial-type buildings. For example, Figure

3-9 illustrates the energy use and energy cost for a 2,000 square
foot administration building in Climate Region 4. Although
heating is 13% of the energy use, it is only 4% of the costs.
Cooling, which was 26% of the energy use, is 44% of the energy
costs.
Energy Use
Energy Costs (1987)
Figure 3-9: Energy Use vs. Energy Costs in a 2,000 SF

Administration Building, Climate Region 4
In general, no direct link exists between energy use and energy

costs because of the way different fuels are priced. Fuels that
are predominantly used for heating, such as natural gas, fuel oil,
or diesel oil, are priced on a consumption basis; fuel used is fuel
paid for. Electricity, on the other hand, is priced on a
consumption and demand basis; that is, electricity costs are
based upon use (consumption) and the rate of use (demand). A
charge for the rate of use, more commonly called peak demand
charges, adds another dimension to the overall energy cost of a
building.
44 Volume I
Peak demand charges can be found in more than 80% of all

utility company rate schedules in the United States, and close to
100% of all utilities outside the United States. Peak demand
charges represent the costs associated with building and
maintaining generation plants, distribution networks, and
transformers used by utilities to provide electricity.
The impact of peak demand charges varies greatly from one

utility to another. For example, Table 3-4 illustrates the energy
use and cost (1987) for a 60,000 sf administration building
located near Denver, Colorado. Based upon the local utility rate
structure, it can be seen that peak demand represents $0.89 per
square foot of the total $1.21 per square foot energy costs.
Ignoring the impact of peak demand on costs would be
overlooking 74% of the total energy costs of the building.
Consumption Demand Total

Energy End Elec Gas
Use Category ($sf-yr) ($/sf-yr) ($/sf-yr) ($/sf-yr)
Heating 0.0070 0.0070

Cooling 0.0501 0.2791 0.3291
Lighting 0.2374 0.5708 0.8082
Other 0.0138 0.0047 0.0425 0.0655
TOTAL 0.03015 0.0117 0.8924 1.2055
Table 3-4: Annual Energy Costs (1987) For A 60,000 SF

Administration Building, Climate Region 4
A good analogy for understanding the importance of peak

demand charges is to consider the costs of owning a car. There
are two types of costs associated with owning a car: variable costs
and fixed costs. Variable costs include gasoline, oil, tires, and so
forth, and vary depending upon the amount of usage the car gets.
Fixed costs include such things as insurance and loan payments.
These costs occur regardless of whether the car is driven or not.
Costs associated with producing electricity can vary from month
to month for a utility and are reflected in the cost per kWh of
electricity purchased. The fixed costs of providing electricity
service associated with electricity production are billed to the
customer as demand or capacity charges.
How the peak demand for a building is determined can also vary
from one utility to another, but, in general, it is based upon the
largest need for electricity during a billing period. Thus, peak
demand represents the maximum rate of energy use, and peak
demand costs, in dollars per kW, represent a charge for the
largest (peak) rate of energy use.

The rate of electrical energy use, in kW, is different than the

consumption of electricity, in kWh. An analogy for understanding
the concept of peak demand as representative of the rate of
energy use is to consider using either a fire hose or a garden hose
to fill a 5-gallon water bucket. Using either hose, the total
quantity of water in the bucket is eventually 5 gallons, that is,
the water “consumed” is 5 gallons. However, the “rate of
consumption” for a 3/ 4-inch garden hose is quite a bit less than
the rate for a 3-inch fire hose. Thus, for either hose, the total
quantity of water in the bucket is 5 gallons, however, the fire
hose fills the bucket much faster than the garden hose.
Suppose two identical buildings consume 20,000 kWh of

electricity in a month. However, one building has a peak demand
of 5 kW and the other a peak demand of 500 kW. It is clear that
the utility has to be able to maintain a power plant that has the
capacity to produce 505 kW of electricity to be able to meet the
needs of the two buildings, regardless of the fact that they are
both consuming 20,000 kWh. If the utility rate structure is $0.10
per kWh for electricity and $10.00 per kW for peak demand, then
the building with a 5 kW peak demand has a monthly utility bill
of $2,050. The building with the 500 kW peak demand has a
utility bill of $7,000. Although the two buildings consume the
same quantity of energy (20,000 kWh), their monthly bills are
quite different.
A properly designed passive solar building is one that saves both

Save energy and energy cost energy use and energy costs. However, a primary purpose of this
handbook is to save energy costs. The possibility of saving
energy costs without reducing energy use or by increasing energy
use will also be considered. Saving energy costs without
reducing energy use can occur if the peak demand for a building
can be reduced. For example, in the previous example, suppose
the demand were reduced from 500 kW to 250 kW. Then the
energy costs would be reduced from $7,000 to $4,500 even if there
is no reduction in energy usage (it is still 20,000 kWh).
Saving energy costs by increasing energy use can occur in two

ways. First, by decreasing the peak demand but simultaneously
increasing the consumption of electricity, it is possible to reduce
the overall cost of energy in a building. For example, suppose the
500 kW building could have the peak demand reduced to 100 kW
if it “costs” an additional 10,000 kWh. Thus, the total electricity
costs would be based upon 30,000 kWh and 100 kW. Total
electricity costs would be $4,000, down from $7,000.
The second way to reduce energy costs by increasing energy use

is to switch fuel, that is, change from a more costly fuel to a less
expensive fuel. A good example of this is to use natural gas
instead of electricity to heat a building. Even though natural gas
heating is less efficient than electric heating, the cost differential
associated with the two fuels usually makes it cheaper to use
natural gas rather than electricity. Although special
circumstances may make it difficult or impossible to trade off one
fuel for another, it is a viable alternative that should be
considered during the comprehensive planning process.
46 Volume I
Suggested Additional Reading 4.0
The following are a selection of books and Air Force documents Introduction
that are suggested as additional reading to better understand
passive solar energy systems. The books range from
nontechnical to engineering texts.
Concepts and Practice of Architectural Daylighting, Fuller Daylighting

Moore, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985. ISBN 0-442- and
26439-9.
Lighting
Daylighting Design and Analysis, Claude L. Robbins, New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986. ISBN 0-442-27949-3.
Illuminating Engineering Society Handbook, Volumes 1

and 2, Editor: J. Kaufman, New York: Illuminating
Engineering Society, 1985.
Illumination Engineering: From Edison’s Lamp to the

Laser, Joseph B. Murdoch, New York: Macmillan, 1985. ISBN 0-
02-948580-0.
Interior Lighting for Environmental Designers, James L.

Nuckolls, New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1976. ISBN 0-471-
65163-X.
The Lighting of Buildings, Hopkinson and Kay, London: Faber

and Faber. 1972.
Recommended Practice of Daylighting, Illuminating

Engineering Society, New York: Illuminating Engineering
Society, 1979. PR-5.
Sunlight as Formgiver for Architecture, William Lam, New

York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1986. ISBN 0-442-25941-7.
The Passive Solar Energy Book (Expanded Professional

Edition), Edward Mazria, Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1979. Passive Solar
ISBN 0-87857-238-4. Thermal
Passive Solar Heating Analysis, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York:
ASHRAE, 1985.
T h e S o l a r C o o l i n g H a n d b o o k , Editor: Harry Miller,

Proceedings of the Passive Cooling Workshop, Amherst MA,
1981.

4.0 Suggested Additional Reading
Solar Envelope Concepts: Moderate Density Building

Applications, Knowles and Berry, U.S. Department of Energy,
Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute, 1980. SERI/SP-
98155-1.
Buildings ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of

Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, New
and York: ASHRAE. 1985.
Energy
ASHRAE Systems Handbook, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York:
ASHRAE, 1984.
The Design of Energy Responsive Commercial Buildings,

Ternoey, Bickle, Robbins, Busch, and McCord, New York: Wiley
and Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-471-80463-0.
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings, 7 t h

Edition, McGuinness, Stein, and Reynolds, New York: Wiley and
Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-471-58432-0.
Small Office Building Handbook, Burt-Hill-Kosar-Rittelmann

Associates, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985. ISBN 0-442-
21126-0.
Sun, Wind, and Light: Architectural Design Strategies, G .

Brown, New York: Wiley and Sons, 1985. ISBN 0-471-82063-6.
United States Base Comprehensive Planning, Land Use Planning Bulletin:

HQ USAF/LEEVX.
Air Force
Documents Engineering Weather Data, AFM 88-29.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Energy Efficient

Equipment.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Normal Passive Solar

Applications.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Unique Passive Solar

Applications.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Solar Applications in

Medical Facilities.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Computer Energy

Analysis.
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Energy Budget Figures.
48 Volume I
Suggested Additional Reading 4.0
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Energy Management

and Control Systems (EMCS).
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL): Solar Applications.
Installation Design, AFM 88-43.
Insolation Data Manual, Knapp, Stoffel, and Whitaker. U.S. Other Sources of
Department of Energy, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research
Institute, 1981. SERI/SP-755-789. Information
Renewable Energy Technology Handbook for Military

Engineers, Golden CO: Solar Energy Research Institute, 1981.
Solar Energy Dictionary, V. Hunt, New York: Industrial Press,

1982. ISBN 0-8311-1139-9.

5.0 Glossary of Terms
A Altitude (solar). One of two angles used to specify the sun’s

position at any given time; altitude is the angle of the sun above
the horizon. It is measured positively from the horizon to the
zenith, from 0 to 90 degrees. See also azimuth (solar) a n d
zenith.
Ambient. The surrounding atmosphere; encompassing on all

sides. The environment surrounding a building. See also
ambient air, ambient lighting, and ambient temperature.
Ambient air. The outdoor air in the vicinity of a building.
Ambient lighting. Interior light, natural or man made,

throughout an area that produces general illumination. See also
task lighting.
Ambient temperature. The natural temperature of the

atmosphere surrounding a particular location or building.
Aperture. The rough opening in the surface of a building that

admits heat, air, and light. The aperture opening may or may
not account for framing or glazing.
ASHRAE. Acronym for the American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers.
Aspect ratio. The ratio of the length to width of a building.
Atrium (pl. atria) (ATR). An interior, covered, open area in

the center of a building that can be used for passive solar
heating, cooling, and daylighting. One of five daylighting
strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also monitor aperture,
sawtooth aperture, skylight, and windows.
Auxiliary energy. Purchased energy to operate heating,

cooling, and lighting systems plus the energy required to operate
blowers, pumps, and other devices.
Auxiliary energy (sub)system. Equipment using

conventional energy to supplement the output of the passive
heating, cooling, or daylighting system.
Azimuth (solar). One of two angles used to specify the sun’s

position at any given time; azimuth is the angle between south
and the point on the horizon directly below the sun. South is 0
degrees and the angles east or west of due south are described as
0 to 180 degrees (-0 to -180° if west). See also altitude.
B Base load. The minimum amount of electrical power that a

utility must supply in a 24-hour period. See also peak load and
peak demand.
50 Volume I
Glossary of Terms 5.0
Beam daylighting. The intentional use of the direct

(sunlight) component of daylight to illuminate a building.
Billing demand. The peak electrical demand, measured by a

utility, on which peak demand charges are based. See metered
demand.
Btu. See British thermal unit.
British thermal unit (Btu). The amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree F under
standard conditions of pressure and temperature.
CBD. See Commerce Business Daily. C

CDD. See Cooling Degree Day.
Clear sky (daylighting). A reference cloudless sky condition

used in daylighting calculations. See also overcast sky.
Clear sky (weather). A sky that has less than 30% cloud
cover; the sun is unobstructed. See also cloudy sky, partly
cloudy sky, and overcast sky.
Clerestory. An aperture in a wall above one’s line of vision (7

feet) used for light, heat gain, and ventilation. Used in the
Handbook to describe a daylighting aperture.
Climate. Prevailing or average weather conditions of a

geographic region or city, as shown by meteorological changes
over a period of years.
Climate adapted building. A building that makes use of the

natural environment, as much as possible, for heating, cooling,
and lighting, to help reduce auxiliary energy usage. See also
climate rejecting building.
Climate rejecting building. A building that relies totally on

mechanical means for heating, cooling, and lighting. There is no
use of the natural environment to help reduce auxiliary energy
use. See also climate adapted building.
Cloudiness index (RAD). The fraction of horizontal incoming

solar radiation transmitted through the atmosphere. It is a
measure of cloudiness and other atmospheric conditions which
attenuate solar radiation at a given location.
Cloudy sky (weather). A sky having between 30 and 70%

cloud cover, with the sun obstructed.
Coincident peak demand. The largest peak demand,

occurring simultaneously, from all electrical uses in a building.
Often used to determine the billing demand for a building.

Collection. The process of trapping energy for use as heat

(passive solar thermal system) or light (daylighting system).
Commerce Business Daily. A daily publication of the U.S.

Department of Commerce listing all goods and services to be
purchased by the U.S. government.
Commercial-type buildings. A term used by the United

States Air Force to describe all nonresidential, institutional, and
industrial buildings.
Control. That part of a passive solar thermal or daylighting

system used to manage temperatures, air movement, or the
quantity of light in a space.
Conventional building. The name given a building that does

not use any passive solar strategies to reduce energy use and
energy costs.
Cooling Degree Day (CDD). A measure of the need for

cooling. The number of cooling degree days in a single day is
determined by subtracting the reference temperature from the
average temperature for the day. See Heating Degree Day.
D D+S. See direct gain plus storage.
Daylight. The light from the sun and (clear or overcast) sky
used to illuminate the interior of buildings.
Daylighting. The use of natural lighting from the sun and

(clear or overcast) sky as a supplement to electric lighting in
buildings.
DD Form 1391. The form used by the Department of Defense

entitled “Military Construction Project Data” to specify a facility
requirement, including estimated costs.
Degree Day. See heating degree day and cooling degree day.
Design Instructions (DIs). Provide authority to the design

manager, through the AFRCE, to initiate the facility design
process.
DG. See direct gain.
DI’s. See design instructions.
Direct gain (DG). A passive system where the sun heats the
floor or walls of the building directly, through appropriately
placed apertures. The building does not have any additional
internal mass beyond normal construction practices. One of four
passive heating strategies analyzed in the handbook. See direct
gain plus storage, indirect gain, and sunspace.
52 Volume I
Direct gain plus storage (D+S). A passive system where the

sun heats the floor or walls of the building directly through
appropriately placed apertures. The building has additional
internal mass beyond normal construction practices for a given
building type. One of four passive heating strategies analyzed in
the handbook. See direct gain, indirect gain, and sunspace.
Distribution. Moving heat, air, and daylight to where they

are needed in a building.
Energy budget. The quantity of energy, usually in Btu’s per

square-foot per year (Btu/sf-yr), allocated to a building or end use E
category.
Energy end use. The amount of energy used by a specific end

use category of the building. In this handbook, end use
categories are heating, cooling, lighting, process, a n d
ventilation.
Envelope loads. The heating and cooling energy use

associated with the energy gains and losses through the shell
(envelope) of the building.
Erg. The CGS (centimeter-gram-second) unit of work equal to

the work done by a force of one dyne acting through a distance of
one centimeter. Equal to approximately 1,050 Btu’s.
Facade. The front of a building; any face of a building given

special architectural consideration. F
fc. See footcandle.
Fenestration. Arrangements, proportions, and design of

windows in a building.
Footcandle (fc). The non-SI unit of measure of illuminance.

One footcandle is equal to one lumen per square foot. See
illuminance and lux.
Form 254 (Standard Form 254). U.S. government form

entitled “Architect-Engineer and Related Services Questionnaire”
used to record the experience and capabilities of architectural
and engineering firms.
Form 255 (Standard Form 255). U.S. government form

entitled “Architect-Engineer and Related Services Questionnaire
for Specific Project” used to record the experience and
capabilities of architectural and engineering firms on a specific
project.

G Glare. The sensation produced by luminance within the visual

field that is sufficiently greater than the luminance to which the
eyes are adapted to cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss of visual
performance and visibility.
Greenhouse. See sunspace.
H HDD. See Heating Degree Day.
Heat storage. See storage.
Heating Degree Day (HDD). A measure of the need for

heating. The number of heating degree days in a single day is
determined by subtracting the average temperature from the
reference temperature for the day.
Heating-Ventilating system (HV). A mechanical system

designed for heating and ventilating only; no mechanical cooling
capability. This type of system is commonly used in industrial
and maintenance facilities.
Heating-Ventilating-Air Conditioning system (HVAC). A

mechanical system designed for heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning a building. For example, this type of system is
commonly used in administration facilities.
HV. See heating-ventilating system.
HVAC. See heating-ventilating-air conditioning system.
IES. Acronym for the Illuminating Engineering Society.

I
Illuminance. The density of the luminous flux incident on a
surface, in lumens per unit of area. See footcandle and lux.
Illumination. The act of being illuminated.
IND. See indirect gain solar system.
Indirect gain (IND) solar system. Passive heating system in

which the collection and storage components are part of the same
building element, wall or roof. The sunlight passes through the
collector aperture to heat the storage component. Conduction
through the storage component brings the heat to the inside
surface where it is distributed to the space by radiation and
convection. One of four passive heating strategies analyzed in
the handbook. See also direct gain, direct gain plus storage, and
sunspace.
54 Volume I
Internal gains. Combined heat release from all heat sources

(including lighting, people, and process loads) in a building other
than its heating system.
Internal loads. The heating, cooling, lighting, ventilation,

and process loads of a building associated with the interior
spaces. See envelope loads and internal gains.
Irradiance. The density of the radiant flux incident on a

surface, in Btu’s per square foot or watts per square meter.
Isolated solar system. See sunspace.
Joule (J). The absolute SI unit of work or energy that equals J

10 7 ergs. See erg.
Kilowatt (kW). A unit of power equal to 1,000 watts. The rate K

of flow of energy into a building. See peak demand.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh). The time rate of flow of electricity in

one hour. Equal to 3,413 Btu’s.
kW. See kilowatt.
kWh. See kilowatt-hour.
Latent Enthalpy Hour (LEH). The number of hours in

which the energy requirement for removing moisture from the air L
is greater than that for the upper extremes of the ASHRAE
thermal comfort zone.
LEH. See Latent Enthalpy Hour.
Light. Radiant energy that is capable of exciting the retina of

the eye and producing visual sensation. Radiation in the
spectrum of 380 nanometers to 780 nanometers, where a
nanometer is 10-9 meters.
Light court. An uncovered, interior, open area in the center of

a building. See also atrium.
lm. See Lumen
Lumen (lm). The SI and non-S1 unit of luminous flux, that is,
the visible energy exitant a light source.

Lux (lx). The SI unit of measure of illuminance. One lux is

equal to one lumen per square meter. See illuminance a n d
footcandle.
lx. See lux.
M Metered demand. The measured total coincident electrical

demand in a building. See also billing demand.
MON. See monitor aperture.
Monitor aperture (MON). A raised portion of the roof of a

building which has apertures on opposing surfaces. Commonly
used in passive heating and daylighting systems. One of five
daylighting strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also
atrium, sawtooth aperture, skylight, and windows.
N Natural light. See daylight.
Natural ventilation (NVN). The unassisted movement of air

through a building. Can be caused by pressure or temperature
differences between the outside and inside air. One of two
passive cooling strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also
night mechanical ventilation.
Night mechanical ventilation (NMV). The mechanical

ventilation of the mass of the building at night to help reduce
daytime cooling loads and cooling peak demand. One of two
passive cooling strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also
natural ventilation.
NMV. See night mechanical ventilation.
NVN. See natural ventilation.
O Operating schedule. The portion of the workday that a

building is typically occupied.
Orientation. The relationship of a building surface with

respect to compass heading. Usually expressed as either a
compass heading or a degree heading.
Overcast sky (daylighting). A sky with 100% cloud cover.

The sun is obstructed and clouds extend to the horizon in all
directions. See also clear sky, cloudy sky, and partly cloudy sky.
56 Volume I
Partly cloudy sky (weather). A sky that has intermittent P

clouds in which the sun is alternately obstructed and
unobstructed. See also clear sky, cloudy sky, and overcast sky.
Passive solar system. A heating, cooling, or daylighting

system that operates without mechanical devices to collect, store,
and distribute energy in a building.
Peak cooling. The peak cooling load in a building; measured

in Btu’s or kW’s. See peak demand.
Peak demand. The maximum rate of electricity usage by a

utility customer during a 15 or 30 minute time period. See also
billing demand.
Project book. A document containing data, criteria,

functional requirements, and cost information to support
programming and design of Air Force facilities.
RAD. See Cloudiness Index. Q, R
Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR). Used by the Air Force S

to determine the economic viability of passive solar energy
systems.
SAW. See sawtooth aperture.
Sawtooth aperture (SAW). A roof aperture system in which

the glazing is placed on the short, usually vertical, surface of a
series of roof serrations. One of five daylighting strategies
analyzed in the handbook. See also atrium, monitor aperture,
skylight, and windows.
Shading. An effective way to keep a building comfortable

through cooling load avoidance. Shading is primarily used on
apertures to avoid excessive solar gains, but can also be used on
facades to keep walls from being exposed to the sun.
Shading coefficient. The ratio of the solar heat gain through

a specific glazing system under a given set of conditions, to the
total solar heat gain through a single layer of clear, l/S-inch
thick, double-strength glass under the same conditions.
Sidelighting. The use of daylight apertures in the walls of a

building. See windows and clerestories.
SIR. See savings-to-investment ratio.
SKY. See skylight.

Skylight (SKY). A roof aperture, typically horizontal, used to

illuminate the interior zones of low-rise buildings. One of five
daylighting strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also
atrium, monitor aperture, sawtooth aperture, and windows.
Solar envelope. A solar envelope is a three-dimensional

volume, covering that part of a site that is buildable, within
which a building has access to the sun without blocking direct
sunlight to adjacent buildings or property.
Standard Form 254. See Form 254
Standard Form 255. See Form 255
Storage. Using the mass in the walls or floor of a building to

collect heat during the day for use at night or on cloudy days.
Sunspace. A usable space attached to a building that has

glazing on two or more sides. Air temperatures are allowed to
vary more than in the building proper. Sometimes called a
solarium, winter garden, or greenhouse. One of four passive
heating strategies analyzed in the handbook. See also direct
gain, direct gain plus storage, and indirect gain.
Toplighting. The use of daylight apertures on the roof of a

T, U building. See monitor apertures, sawtooth apertures, a n d
skylight.
V Ventilation. The atmospheric air that is purposely allowed to

enter an interior space to cool or freshen it.
W Watt (W). The absolute SI unit of power that equals one (1)
absolute joule per second.
WIN. See window aperture.
Window aperture (WIN). An aperture in a wall of a building.

One of five daylighting strategies analyzed in the handbook. See
also atrium, monitor aperture, skylight, and sawtooth aperture.
Zenith. The point at the top of a hemispheric sky dome.

X, Y, Z
58 Volume I
CLIMATE REGION 1 Appendix A
Climate Characteristics U.S. Air Force Bases

CLEAR
HDD (Range) 7,000 to 21,000
EIELSON
CDD (Range) 0 to 50 ELMENDORF

KING SALMON
LEH (Range) 0 to 100 SHEMYA
SONDRESTROM
RAD (Range) 0.35 to 0.50
THULE

CHANUTE KUNSAN OTIS
HDD (Range) 4,750 to 11,000 ELLSWORTH LORING PEASE
FAIRCHILD MALMSTROM PLATTSBURGH
CDD (Range) 500 to 1250
GRAND FORKS MCGUIRE WILLOW GROVE
LEH (Range) 2,500 to 10,000 GRIFFISS MINOT WRIGHT- PATTERSON
GRISSOM MISAWA WURTSMITH
RAD (Range) 0.40 to 0.60 HANSCOM OFFUTT YOKOTA
K. I. SAWYER OSAN

BEALE NORTON
HDD (Range) 1,250 to 6,000
CASTLE ONIZUKA
CDD (Range) 0 to 2,250 GEORGE TRAVIS

MARCH VANDENBERG
LEH (Range) 0 to 3,000 MATHER
MCCLELLAN
MCCHORD

FALCON PETERSEN
HDD (Range) 4,500 to 10,000
F.E. WARREN USAF ACADEMY
CDD (Range) 0 to 1,500 HILL
INDIAN SPRINGS
LEH (Range) 0 to 1,000 LOWRY
MOUNTAIN HOME
NELLIS

CANNON WILLIAMS
HDD (Range) 1,000 to 6,000
DAVIS-MONTHAN WOOMERA
CDD (Range) 250 to 2,250 EDWARDS
HOLLOMAN
LEH (Range) 5,000 to 15,000 KIRTLAND
LUKE
REESE

ALTUS EAKER SEYMOUR JOHNSON
HDD (Range) 1,750 to 5,000
ANDREWS LANGLEY SHAW
CDD (Range) 650 to 2,500 ARNOLD LITTLE ROCK TINKER
BOLLING MCCONNELL WHITEMAN
LEH (Range) 10,000 to 20,000 CHARLESTON POPE WHITEMAN
DOBBINS ROBINS SHAW
DOVER SCOTT WHITEMAN

BERGSTROM KELLY
HDD (Range) 1,500 to 4,000
BROOKS LACKLAND
CDD (Range) 1,750 to 3,500 CARSWELL LAUGHLIN

COLUMBUS MAXWELL
LEH (Range) 15,000 to 27,500 DYESS RANDOLPH
GOODFELLOW SHEPPARD
GUNTER VANCE

ANDERSON
HDD (Range) 0 ASCENSION (EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC OCEAN - Not Shown)
CDD (Range) 2,500 to 5,000 CLARK

DIEGO GARCIA
LEH (Range) 17,500 to 30,000 HICKAM
HOWARD
WHEELER

ABINGDON GREENHAM COMMON WETHERSFIELD
HDD (Range) 1,500 to 4,000
ALCONBURY HIGH WYCOMBE WOODBRIDGE
CDD (Range) 0 to 500 BENTWATERS LAKENHEATH
CHICKSANDS MILDENHALL
LEH (Range) 0 to 500 C.N.A. (SOESTERBURG) MOLESWORTH
CROUGHTON SCULTHORPE
FLORENNES UPPER HEYFORD

BITBURG RHINE ORDINANCE
HDD (Range) 4,000 to 7,500
HAHN SEMBACH
CDD (Range) 0 to 1,000 HESSISCH-OLDENDORF SPANGDAHLEM
KAPAUN VOGELWEH
LEH (Range) 500 to 2,000 LANDSTUHL WERSCHEIM
RAMSTEIN
RHEIN MAIN
Azores

ANKARA IZMIR
HDD (Range) 2,000 to 6,500
AVIANO LAJES FIELD
CDD (Range) 1,000 to 2,500 COMISO SAN VITO
CRETONE TORREJON
LEH (Range) 1,000 to 7,500 HELLENIKON ZARAGOZA
INCIRLIK
IRAKLION

BARKSDALE MACDILL
HDD (Range) 0 to 1,750
EGLIN MOODY
CDD (Range) 2,250 to 4,500 ENGLAND PATRICK
HOMESTEAD TYNDALL
LEH (Range) 15,000 to 27,500 HURLBURT
KADENA
KEESLER
BUILDING-TYPE CATEGORY CODES Appendix B
Building USAF Building

Code Category Description
Code
A,B,C,D 100-000 C31 FACILITY

I,J,K,L 111-000 ACFT OPS/MAINT FACILITY
A,B,C 120-000 POL OPS FACILITY
A,B 121-111 PETROLEUM OPS BUILDING
NC 121-120 QUICK-TURN FACILITY
G 130-142 FIRE STATION
A,B,C 130-833 CENTRAL SECURITY CONTROL
A,B,C 130-835 SP OPERATIONS
D 131-111 TELECOMM CENTER
D 131-118 DIGITAL FACILITY
D 131-132 SATCOM GROUND TERMINAL
D 131-134 AIR COMM FACILITY
D 131-136 AIR COMM RELAY FACILITY
D 131-138 RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER FACILITY
D 131-139 MICROWAVE RELAY STATION
D 131-143 RADAR FACILITY
NC 134-XXX REMOTE CONTROL AND GROUND CONTROL FAC
NC 134-375 RAPCON
A,B,C 140-000 COMMAND POST
A,B,C 140-453 MOBILITY READINESS FACILITY
A,B,C 140-454 ORDINANCE CONTROL
NC 140-459 CREW READINESS/COMBAT CONTROL FAC
A,B,C 140-461 USAF COMMAND POST
A,B,C 140-753 SQ OPERATIONS
A,B,C 140-763 INTEGRATION SUP FAC
A,B 141-000 COMMAND POST
R 141-132 STORAGE FACILITY
G 141-165 EXPLOSIVE ORDINANCE DISPOSAL
J 141-181 AIRCRAFT SHELTER
D 141-383 AUDIO-VISUAL FACILITY
NC 141-389 TV PRODUCTION FACILITY
A,B 141-451 COMPUTER FACILITY
A,B,C 141-453 BASE OPERATIONS
BUILDING TYPE CATEGORY LIST

A Administration, < 5000 SF J Maintenance Facility, High-Bay
B Administration, > 5000 SF K Maintenance Facility, with HVAC
C Administration, Multistory L Maintenance Facility, Low-Bay
D Administration, Computer Facility M Auditorium, Cinema, Theatre
E Dining or Food Service Facility N Training Facility, School, < 5000 SF
F Dormitory O Training Facility, School, > 5000 SF
G Fire Station Training Facility, Multistory
H Industrial Facility Q Gymnasium
I Maintenance Facility, < 5000 SF R Warehouse, Storage Facility
NC No current building type category
71

Code
D 141-454 MOBILITY READINESS FACILITY

A,B 141-455 ORDINANCE CONTROL
NC 141-626 CONTROL TOWER
NC 141-629 WEATHER OBSERVATION FACILITY
NC 141-743 BASE PHOTO LAB
NC 141-745 COMBAT TARGET CTR
NC 141-747 PPIF FACILITY
NC 141-748 PASSENGER TERMINALS
A,B,C,D 141-750 TECH OPERATIONS FAC
NC 141-766 CHEMICAL LABORATORY
R 141-782 AIR FREIGHT TERMINAL
R 141-783 AIR FREIGHT TERMINAL PART (ONLY)
NC 141-784 AIR PASSENGER TERMINALS
NC 149-962 TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER
D 171-152 COMBAT MANEUV INSTRU FACILITY
N,O,P 171-158 BAND CTR
N,O,P 171-211 FLYING TRAINING CLASSROOM
D 171-212 FLIGHT SIMULATOR TRAINING
N,O,P 171-213 FLIGHT TRAINING UNIT
N,O,P 171-214 PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAINING
A,B,C 171-356 HISTORICAL RESEARCH CENTER
A,B,C 171-445 SQUAD OPS FACILITY
R 171-472 RANGE SUPPLY AND EQUIPMENT STORAGE
L,R 171-473 RANGE TARGET STORAGE AND REPAIR
NC 171-475 INDOOR SMALL-ARMS RANGE
NC 171-476 SMALL-ARMS MARKSMANSHIP TRAINING
D 171-611 SCIENTIFIC FACILITY
N,O,P 171-618 FIELD TRAINING FACILITY
A,B,C,D 171-620 COMBAT LOGISTICS SUPPORT FACILITY
D 171-621 TECH TRAINING FACILITY
N,O,P 171-623 TECH TRAINING LAB/SHOP
N,O,P 171-623 AVIONICS ACADEMIC CLASSROOMS
NC 171-625 LIQ FUELS TRAINING FAC
J 171-625 HIGH-BAY TECH TRAINING FAC
N,O,P 171-712 TARGET INTELLIGENCE TRAINING
D 171-810 RADAR BOMB-SCORE FACILITY

Administration, < 5000 SF J Maintenance Facility, High-Bay
Administration, > 5000 SF K Maintenance Facility, with HVAC
Administration, Multistory L Maintenance Facility, Low-Bay
Administration, Computer Facility M Auditorium, Cinema, Theatre
Dining or Food Service Facility N Training Facility, School, < 5000 SF
Dormitory O Training Facility, School, > 5000 SF
Fire Station P Training Facility, Multistory
Industrial Facility Q Gymnasium
Maintenance Facility, < 5000 SF R Warehouse, Storage Facility
72

Code
N,O,P 171-813 SAFETY EDUCATION FACILITY

N,O,P 171-815 NCO PME CENTER
N,O,P 171-851 LEADERSHIP DEV COMPLEX
N,O,P 171-873 AERIAL PORT
N,O,P 171-875 MUNITIONS LOAD-REW TRAINING FAC
NC 179-475 SMALL ARMS TRAINING
I,J,K,L 200-000 ACFT MAINTENANCE & MGMT FAC
I,J,K,L,R 210-000 MUNI MAINTENANCE/STORAGE FAC
I,K,L 210-000 MUNITIONS MAINT FAC
L 211-XXX LOW-BAY INSTRU/ELECT EQUIP MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 211-000 MAINTENANCE COMPLEX
J 211-111 HANGAR
NC 211-111 FUEL SYSTEMS MAINT DOCK
NC 211-133 FUEL ACCESSORIES TEST FACILITY
I,K,L,R 211-147 AIRCRAFT WEAPONS CAL SHELTER
I,J,L 211-152 ACFT MAINTENANCE
NC 211-152 LOW-BAY
J 211-152 MAINTENANCE HANGAR
NC 211-153 NDI LAB
J 211-154 HIGH-BAY FACILITY
I,J,K,L 211-157 GENERAL PURPOSE/NDI/ACFT ORG MAINT SHOP
J 211-159 CORROSION CONTROL FAC
J 211-159 CORROSION CONTROL FACILITY
I,J,K 211-179 FUEL SYSTEMS MAINT FACILITY
NC 211-179 FUEL SYST MAINT FACILITY
NC 211-183 SOUND-SUPPRESSOR SUP FAC
NC 211-254 CONSOLIDATED FUEL CONTROL FACILITY
NC 211-271 DEPOT INSTRUMENT OH SHOP
I,J,K,L 211-271 DEPOT INSTN OVERHAUL SHOP
R 212-213 MUNITIONS MAINT AND STORAGE
L,R 212-213 MUNITIONS MAINTENANCE/STORAGE
I,J,K,L 212-216 MISSILE MAINTENANCE SHOP
I,J,K,L 213-XXX TACTICAL MISSILE/GUIDE WEAPON MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 213-636 MARINE MAINT SHOP
N C 214-425 VEHICLE MAINTENANCE FACILITY

Dormitory 0 Training Facility, School, > 5000 SF
73

Code
I,J,K,L 214-425 VEHICLE MAINT SHOP

R 214-425 VEHICLE OPERATION HEATED-PARKING SHED
I,J,K,L 215-XXX WEAPONS & MUNITIONS MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 216-642 AMMO MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 217-000 VEHICLE MAINT FAC
NC 217-000 MAINT/STORAGE AND VEH PARKING FAC
K 217-712 AVIONICS REPAIR FAC
I,J,K,L 217-713 AIRCRAFT EQM POD SHOP
I,J,L,R 217-713 POD SHOP AND STORAGE
K 217-713 HAVAIDS COMM MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 217-735 ENGINEERING TEST FAC
I,J,K,L 217-812 EW MAINT FAC
I,J,K,L 218-712 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT SHOP
A,B,C,D 218-712 ACFT SUP EQUIP FAC
L 217-762 HVACAIDS COMM MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 218-852 PARACHUTE-EGRESS FACILITY
NC 218-868 PRECISION MEASUREMENT LAB
I,J,K,L 219-000 BCE COMPLEX
I,J,K,L 219-900 BCE MAINT COMPLEX
I,J,K,L 219-943 BCE MAINT SHOP
H 220-XXX PRODUCTION
D 310-916 COMPUTER SERVICE CTR
NC 310-921 BIOCOMMUNICATIONS LAB
NC 310-922 OPTICAL SYS LAB
NC 310-926 MICROWAVE LAB
A,B,C,D 311-173 ACFT SYS ENG FAC
I,J,K,L 311-174 TEST & EVALUATION FAC
I,J,K,L 315-236 GUIDED WEAPON & EVAL FAC

G Fire Station P Training Facility, Multistory

Code
I,J,K,L 317-311 ELECT TEC/RESEARCH LAB

I,J,K,L 317-315 SYS MGT ENG FAC
I,J,K,L 317-932 AVIONICS RESEARCH LAB
I,J,K,L 318-612 ACFT FIRE PROT/EXPL RES FAC
R 318-612 PROPANE LAB STORAGE
I,J,K,L 319-946 HAZARDOUS-MATTER EVAL FAC
NC 319-951 TEST TRACK FACILITY
A,B,C 400-000 COMMAND POST, SUPPORT
NC 411-135 HYDRANT FUEL SYSTEM AND STORAGE
R 411-628 TOOLING SHED
R 422-250 OPS/MUNITIONS STORAGE FAC
R 422-258 MUNITIONS STORAGE FACILITY
R 422-264 MUNITIONS STORAGE IGLOOS
R 422-275 MUNITIONS PRELOAD COMPLEX
R 441-758 DEPOT WAREHOUSE
R 442-000 RRR EQUIPMENT STORAGE
NC 442-257 BASE HAZARDOUS-MATERIAL STORAGE
NC 442-275 ANCILLARY EXPLOSIVE COMPLEX
NC 442-515 MEDICAL STORAGE
NC 442-750 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT COMPLEX
J,R 442-758 AIRCRAFT WAREHOUSE/RRR EQUIP STORAGE
R 442-765 TROOP SUBSISTENCE WAREHOUSE
R 442-768 FORMS/PUBLICATIONS WAREHOUSE
R 442-769 HOUSING SUPPLY/STORAGE FACILITY
NC 510-XXX HOSPITAL BUILDING
NC 510-001 DENTAL CLINIC
NC 510-411 DISPENSARIES
NC 510-713 MEDICAL LOGISTICS FACILITY
NC 530-XXX LABORATORIES
NC 550-XXX DISPENSARIES
A,B,C 610-000 CONSOLIDATED SUPPORT CENTER/LOG FAC
A,B,C,I 610-100 ACFT MAINTENANCE MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-111 AREA DEFENSE OFFICE
A,B,C 610-112 LAW OFFICE

75

Code
A,B,C 610-119 FAMILY-HOUSING MGMT OFFICE

A,B,C 610-121 VOA
A,B,C 610-122 BSA
A,B,C 610-127 BASE ENGINEERING ADMIN
A,B,C 610-128 BASE PERSONNEL OFFICE
A,B,C 610-129 WEAPONS SYS MUNITIONS MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-142 TRAFFIC MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-144 MUNITIONS MAINT ADMIN
A,B,C 610-200 CONSOLIDATED SUP FAC
F 610-241 ORDERLY ROOM, DORMATORY
A,B,C 610-243 AEROMED EVAC AIRLIFT SQ/ACB FAC
A,B,C 610-249 WING HEADQUARTERS
D 610-281 COMPUTER FACILITY
A,B,C 610-282 SUPPORT OFFICE
A,B,C 610-284 RECRUITING GROUP FAC
A,B,C 610-285 COMBAT CONTROL OFFICE
A,B,C 610-286 AIR DIV HEADQUARTERS
N,O,P 610-287 INSTRUCTIONAL FAC
A,B,C 610-675 SUPPORT CENTER
A,B,C 610-915 OSA BUILDING
F 720-000 UPH
E,F 721-215 DINING HALL IN DORMITORY
F 721-311 RECRUITS DORMITORY
F 721-312 AIRMEN PERMANENT PARTY/PCS-STUDENT DORM
F 721-315 VISITING AIRMEN QUARTERS DORM
E 722-351 AIRMEN DETACHED DINING HALL
E 722-356 OFFICERS DINING HALL
NC 723-XXX KITCHEN
F 724-415 UOPH
F 724-417 TRANSIENT BILLETING
F 730-xXx CONFINEMENT FACILITY (STOCKADE)
G 730-142 FIRE STATION/CRASH RESCUE OFFICE
NC 730-182 BREAD BAKERY
NC 730-186 PASTRY BAKERY
N,O,P 730-441 EDUCATION CENTER

76
BUILDING-TYPE CATEGORY CODES

Code
NC 730-443 POST OFFICE
NC 730-717 CLOTHING STORE
NC 730-771 CHAPEL
N,O,P 730-772 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CENTER
N,O 730-772 CHAPEL CENTER
N,O 730-774 HOSPITAL CHAPEL
E 730-781 DEPENDENT BOARDING SCHOOL DINING HALL
NC 730-782 DEPENDENT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
F 730-782 DEPENDENT BOARDING FACILITY
NC 730-785 DEPENDENT HIGH SCHOOL
NC 730-821 MATERIAL PROCESSING DEPOT
A,B,C 730-832 SECURITY POLICE CONTROL & IDENT
A,B,C 730-833 SP CENTRAL CONTROL
A,B,C 730-835 SP CENTRAL OP
NC 730-836 RESERVE FIRE TRAINING FAC
D 730-838 MASTER SURVEILLANCE & CONTROL FAC
A 730-839 GUARD HOUSE
NC 730-842 SECURITY POLICE KENNEL SUPPORT
A,B,C 740-000 CONSOLIDATED PERSONNEL SUP CTR
A,B,C 740-155 CREDIT UNIONS
A,B,C 740-153 BRANCH BANKS
A,B,C 740-171 RED CROSS OFFICE
A,B,C 740-253 FAMILY SERVICES CENTER
NC 740-255 THRIFT SHOP
NC 740-266 STORE
K 740-266 COMMISSARY STORE
K 740-269 BASE PACKAGE STORE
E 740-315 ROD AND GUN CLUB
E 740-316 RECREATION CENTER
E 740-317 AERO CLUB
NC 740-379 BX AMUSEMENT TR
E 740-381 BX CAFETERIA AND SNACK BAR
NC 740-382 BRANCH BASE EXCHANGE
I,J,K,L 740-385 BX MAINT SHOP
A,B,C 740-386 BX ADMIN

77

Code
NC 740-388 BASE EXCHANGE

K 740-389 SERVICE OUTLET
F 740-443 TLF
E 740-615 CONSOLIDATED OPEN MESS
E 740-617 OFFICERS CLUB
E 740-618 NCO CLUB
E 740-62X AIRMEN OPEN MESS
E 740-732 RESTAURANT
E 740-735 BASE RESTAURANT
N,O 740-644 ARTS & CRAFTS CTR
L 740-665 AUTO HOBBY SHOP
F 740-666 RECREATION SITE LODGING
NC 740-668 MISCELLANEOUS RECREATION BLDG
A,B,C 740-669 COMPOSITE RECREATION BLDG
Q 740-673 FIELD HOUSE
Q 740-674 GYMNASIUM
A,B,C 740-675 LIBRARY
NC 740-677 INDOOR SWIMMING POOL
M 740-873 BASE THEATRE
NC 740-883 YOUTH CLUB
N,O,P 740-884 CHILD CARE CENTER
NC 760-XXX MUSEUMS AND MEMORIALS
H 890-XXX OTHER

Index
This index is a cross-reference for the information in the first
three volumes of the Passive Solar Handbook. For each entry, the
volume number is shown in parentheses, followed by the page
number in that volume upon which the information is located. If
the information is found in more than one volume, semicolons are
used to separate volumes. For instance, for the entry Air
movement: (I) 26; (II) 5, information about air movement is
contained in Volume I on page 26 and in Volume II on page 5.
A-E firm: (III) 13 A

evaluation factors: (III) 14, 19
AFRCE: (III) 6
Air
movement: (I) 26; (II) 5
temperature: (II) 5
ATR: see atrium
Atrium (ATR): (I) 14, 18
Automated electric lighting controls: (I) 19
Base comprehensive plan (BCP): (I) 20; (II) 1 B

BCP: see base comprehensive plan
Building
climate adapted: (I) 40; (II) 9
climate rejecting: (I) 40; (II) 9
conventional: (II) 14
elongated shape: (I) 31; (II) 6
energy responsive: (I) 37
multistory: (II) 25
orientation: (I) 29; (II) 4, 6
passive: (II) 34
period of operation: (II) 10
redesign: (I) 3
schedule: (II) 10
shape: (I) 29; (II) 4, 6
target energy use: (II) 14
type: (I) 32; (II) 13, 18, 21, 24
type codes (USAF): (I) 32; (II) 8, 13
CBD: see Commerce Business Daily

CDD: see cooling degree day C
Climate: (I) 33
Climate adapted building: (I) 40; (II) 9
Climate regions: (I) 32; (II) 12, 18, 21, 33
special cases: (II) 23
Climate rejecting building: (I) 40; (II) 9
Climate variables: (I) 33

Index
Cloudiness index: see radiation and daylight

Collection
daylighting: (I) 3
passive solar thermal: (I) 2, 4
Commerce Business Daily (CBD): (III) 13
announcement: (II) 32; (III) 1
Comprehensive planning: (III) 2
Control
daylighting: (I) 3
passive solar: (I) 2, 4
Conventional building: (II) 14
Cooling degree day (CDD): (I) 33, 35
Cooling peak demand calculation: (II) 18
Core daylighting: (I) 13
Credit Union: (II) 18, 30, 42
D D+S: see direct gain plus storage

Daylight
planning rules: (II) 5
protected zone: (II) 5
site planning: (II) 6
with passive solar heating: (II) 6
Daylighting
atrium (ATR): (I) 14, 18
concepts: (I) 1
core: (I) 13
monitor apertures (MON): (I) 14, 17
sawtooth apertures (SAW): (I) 14, 16
sidelighting: (I) 13, 14
site planning: (I) 28
skylights (SKY): (I) 14
toplighting: (I) 13, 15
windows (WIN): (I) 14
DD Form 1391: (II) 32; (III) 1, 16
five year plan: (III) 2, 16
Item 9: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2,4,5, 16
35% design submission: (III) 2,5
Design agent: (III) 6
Design guidance: (III) 6
Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
80 Volume I
Index
Tab K: (III) 6
Design instructions (DI’s): (III) 1, 12, 18
Design manager: (III) 12, 13
Detailed building energy data: (II) 17
DG: see direct gain
DI’s: see design instructions
Direct gain systems: (I) 5
direct gain (DG): (I) 5, 6
direct gain plus storage (D+S): (I) 5, 7
Distribution
daylighting: (I) 3
passive solar thermal: (I) 2
Electric lighting: (II) 39 E

automated controls: (I) 19
Elongated shape, building: (I) 31
Energy costs: (I) 43; (II) 10
cost calculation: (II) 38
cost per unit of area: (II) 10
determine costs: (II) 37
vs. energy use: (I) 44
Energy responsive buildings: (I) 37
Energy use
annual energy use calculation: (II) 23
end use: (II) 15, 19, 21
end use calculation: (II) 17, 38
end use categories: (I) 39
percent energy savings calculation: (II) 36
priority: (II) 15, 19, 21
vs. energy costs: (I) 44
Envelope loads: (I) 41; (II) 9
vs. internal loads: (I) 43
Evaluation factors, A-E firms: (III) 14, 19
Extended systems, passive heating: (I) 5
Five year plan: (III) 2, 16 F, G
HDD: see heating degree day H

Heating degree day (HDD): (I) 33, 34
Heating, ventilating, air conditioning (HVAC) systems: (II) 24
analysis: (II) 40
plant size: (II) 41
with night mechanical ventilation (NMV) systems: (I) 12
Hours of operation: (II) 10
HQ USAF/LEE: (III) 6

Index
Humidity: (I) 26
HVAC: see heating, ventilating, air conditioning systems
I, J, K Indirect gain systems: (I) 5

indirect gain (IND): (I) 5, 8
IND: see indirect gain.
Internal loads: (I) 41; (II) 9, 10
energy use: (II) 10
occupancy characteristics: (II) 10
variables: (I) 42
vs. envelope loads: (I) 43
Isolated gain systems: (I) 5, 9
sunspaces: (I) 5, 9
Item 9: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2, 4, 5, 16
L Latent enthalpy hour: (I) 33, 35

LEH: see latent enthalpy hour
M MAJCOM
MON: see monitor aperture
Monitor aperture (MON): (I) 14, 17
Multistory buildings: (II) 25
N Natural ventilation (NVN): (I) 11; (II) 4

Night mechanical ventilation (NMV): (I) 12; (II) 4
NMV see night mechanical ventilation
NVN: see natural ventilation
O Operable windows: (I) 12

Orientation, building: (I) 29; (II) 4, 6
Passive building
P, Q energy use: (II) 34
peak demand: (II) 34
Passive heating: (I) 4
direct gain systems: (I) 5
extended systems: (I) 5
indirect gain systems: (I) 5
82 Volume I
Index
isolated gain systems: (I) 5

prompt systems: (I) 5
Passive solar systems
combinations: (II) 44
components: (I) 2
PDC screen: (III) 13
Peak demand: (I) 45; (II) 16, 18, 19, 21
calculation: (II) 36
cooling: (I) 10; (II) 18
costs: (I) 45
passive building: (II) 34
People load: (II) 10
Period of operation: (II) 10
Project book: (III) 1, 6, 16
Project description: (III) 19
Project designer: (III) 6
Project support data: (III) 6
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab O: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
Prompt systems, passive heating: (I) 5
Protected zone, daylighting: (I) 28
RAD: see radiation and daylight R

Radiation and daylight (RAD): (I) 33, 37
Roof clerestory: (I) 16. see also sawtooth aperture
Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR): (I) 1; (II) 1

SAW see sawtooth aperture S
Sawtooth aperture (SAW): (I) 14, 16; (II) 31, 39
Schedule, building: (II) 10
Shading: (I) 10
coefficient: (I) 10
daylighting: (I) 11
Shape
building: (II) 4, 6
elongated: (II) 6
Sidelighting: (I) 13, 14
SIR: see savings-to-investment ratio
Site planning
daylighting: (I) 28
passive cooling: (I) 25
passive heating: (I) 21
Site selection process: (I) 20
SKY: see skylights

Index
Skylights (SKY): (I) 14, 15

Solar concepts: (I) 2
Solar envelope: (I) 21; (II) 2
phased development: (I) 24
Solar gains: (I) 26
Solar PA: see solar program amount
Solar program amount (Solar PA): (III) 12, 18
Solar thermal concepts: (I) 1
Standard Form 254: (III) 14, 15
Standard Form 255: (III) 13, 14, 15
Steps in comprehensive process: (II) 12
Step 1: (II) 12
Step 2: (II) 13
Step 3: (II) 12
Step 4: (II) 16
Step 5: (II) 27
Step 6: (II) 27, 29
Step 7: (II) 34
Step 8: (II) 37
Step 9: (II) 40
Step 10: (III) 1
Storage, passive solar thermal: (I) 2, 4
SUN: see sunspaces
Sunspaces (SUN): (I) 5, 9. see also isolated gain systems.
T Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab K: (III) 6
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab O: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
Target building energy use: (II) 14
Thirty-five percent design submission: (III) 2
Toplighting: (I) 13, 15
U USAF building type codes: (II) 8
84 Volume I
Index
Ventilation: (II) 5 V
Warehouse: (II) 21, 32, 46 W, X, Y, Z

Weather: (I) 33
WIN: see windows
Windows (WIN): (I) 14; (II) 36


Comprehensive Planning Guide
Volume II
Foreword
energy. Since the oil embargo of the early 1970’s, the Air Force


Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts

Volume IV: Passive Solar Design (proposed)
This is the second volume of the series.

Comprehensive Planning Guide i

Acknowledgements

Michael J Holtz, A.I.A. P r e s i d e n t


(303) 444-4149 FAX (303) 444-4304
ii Volume II
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1.0 Energy and Site Planning 1
Introduction
Base Comprehensive Plan
Site Planning For Passive Heating
Site Planning For Passive Cooling
Planning For Daylighting
Building Orientation and Shape
2.0 Energy and Buildings 8

Introduction 8
Climate and Buildings 8
Energy Responsive Buildings 9
Energy Costs 10
3.0 Facility Energy Use 12
Introduction 12
Step 1: Determine Climate Region 12
Step 2: Establish Building Type 13
Step 3: Conventional Building Energy Use
and Priority 13
Step 4: Determine Peak Demand 16
Detailed Building Energy Use, Priority and
Peak Demand Information 16
Example 1: A Credit Union 18
Example 2: A Warehouse 21
Special Cases 23
4.0 Choosing Passive Solar Systems 27
Introduction 27
Step 5: Choosing Solar Energy Systems 27
Step 6: Match Energy Use and Solar Energy
System 29
5.0 Passive Solar System Performance 34
Introduction 34
Step 7: Determine Passive Building Energy Use
and Peak Demand 34
Step 8: Determine Energy Costs 37
Step 9: HVAC System Analysis 40
Combinations Of Passive Solar Systems 44
Comprehensive Planning Guide iii

Table of Contents (Continued)
Appendix A: USAF Climate Regions 49
Appendix B: Commercial-Type Building Codes 61
Appendix C: Energy Use Data 69
Appendix D: Energy Cost Data 81
Appendix E: Detailed Energy Use Data 93
Index 165
iv Volume II
Passive solar systems use the energy from the sun to heat, cool, Introduction
and illuminate buildings. A properly designed passive
commercial-type building will not completely eliminate the need
for auxiliary energy systems for heating, cooling, or lighting.
Building size, large internal loads, and diverse building use
patterns will cause continual reliance on conventional auxiliary
energy sources. However, it is possible, through a combination
of passive solar concepts, to reduce total energy costs by as much
as 40% while maintaining positive savings-to-investment ratios
(SIR).
It is virtually impossible to separate the passive solar design

features of a building from the building as a whole. In this
regard a passive solar building is nonconventional; one must
learn to think of such a building and the site as a totality, not as
a collection of separate, interchangeable parts. In a conventional
(nonsolar) building, if a particular heating, cooling, or lighting
system is not economically viable then it usually can be changed
without influencing any other aspect of the building design. T o
change the passive features of a solar building may require a
complete relocation and/or redesign of the building. Therefore, it
is important to choose correctly, during the planning stage, the
appropriate site and passive solar concepts.
For additional information about passive solar systems, see

Volume I: Introduction to Passive Solar Concepts.
Energy-conserving planning and passive solar design begins with Base

site selection. If the base has implemented a B a s e
Comprehensive Plan (BCP), then energy requirements are Comprehensive
specified in the plan, Section II-J. The BCP may require certain Plan
b u i l d i n g t y p e s a n d f u n c t i o n s t o o c c u r i n specific
interrelationships with other existing buildings. These
restrictions are critical to good base planning and have minimal
adverse impact on site planning for solar buildings. Frequently,
their impact is supportive of solar planning techniques and
objectives. See Figure l-l on the following page.
The site selection process generally follows the guidelines set

down by the BCP in terms of working within the overall land use
goals and objectives for the base. Based on the needs,
constraints, and opportunities afforded by the BCP, it is possible
to identify several possible sites appropriate for the proposed
buildings. From these sites, it is possible to pick out one site that
achieves all or most of the needs and goals of the project,
including any site planning constraints caused by the use of
passive solar systems. It is not anticipated that energy issues
will dictate site selection. However, all other things being equal,
if one site has better access to the sun and sky, then it should
receive a higher priority than other sites.
Comprehensive Planning Guide 1

Remember:
Passive Solar
Considerations
Figure 1-1: Site Selection Process
Site Planning For Site planning for passively heated buildings involves ensuring
that the solar collection facades of the building have access to the
Passive Heating sun. Since not all facades of any building have ‘access’ to the
sun, site planning for solar access typically involves consideration
of one, or possibly two, key facades. The most important facade
usually is the south facade (north facade in the Southern
Hemisphere). Next, usually, is the east facade, although
protecting the solar access of this facade is not as critical as it is
with the primary solar facade.
Solar Envelope The primary method of site planning for passive heating in
commercial-type buildings is a concept called the solar envelope.
A solar envelope is defined as the boundaries of a three-
dimensional volume, on the site, having unobstructed access to
the sun during a certain time period over the year. The solar
envelope is explained in more detail in Volume I; the methods for
delineating one are presented in Volume IV.
The solar envelope concept offers an approach to providing solar

access that is potentially useful to any Air Force base,
irrespective of changing economic or technological factors or the
specific solar-related use. The solar envelope concept was
developed specifically for use in urbanized areas, in which other
buildings surround the site.
Solar envelopes can be simple or complex, depending upon the

surrounding buildings, topography, and the ingenuity of the
planner. Figure 1-2, on the following page, illustrates the solar
envelope for a site. The final building form may be quite
different from the solar envelope but must fit within the three
dimensional boundaries established by the envelope.
2 Volume II
Buildings designed within the solar envelope, such as the one

shown in Figure 1-3, may sometimes be different from current
architectural practice. Passive commercial-type buildings will
be lower, where possible, and fill more of the site than do most
present day buildings. However, the inability to “fit” a solar
envelope to a site, or to fit the functional spatial needs of a
building to the solar envelope, does not negate the possible use of
passive solar systems in the building. Buildings larger than the
solar envelope still have access to the sun; however, they block
access to surrounding buildings or undeveloped sites.
Existing Buildings
Solar Envelope
Figure 1-2: Solar Envelope
Figure 1-3: B-1B Bomber Hangar, Dyess AFB, Texas

Note expression of the solar envelope
in the architectural form.

Site Planning For Passive cooling of commercial-type buildings relies on cooling

Passive Cooling load avoidance and ventilation to reduce dependency on
mechanical cooling equipment. Site planning for passive cooling
should only be done for building types in which cooling is an
important requirement and in climates where passive cooling
strategies can be effective.
If no passive cooling strategies are appropriate, there is no need

to go through the detailed site planning process for passive
cooling. None of the passive cooling strategies are as effective as
either the passive heating or the daylighting strategies.
Therefore, site planning for passive cooling may be of secondary
importance.
Natural Ventilation Of the two cooling strategies recommended in this handbook,

Night Mechanical Ventilation only one of them, natural ventilation (NVN), requires special site
planning consideration. The second, night mechanical
ventilation (NMV), as illustrated in Figure 1-4, is not usually
affected by most site conditions. Other site considerations that
impact cooling energy use include building orientation and
shape.
Figure 1-4: Night Mechanical Ventilation. Colorado

Mountain College, Glenwood Springs, Colorado
The vertical duct system on the right hand side of the picture is
part of the night mechanical ventilation system.
4 Volume II
Adequate ventilation is perhaps the most important aspect of

passive cooling. Air movement as low as 2.3 miles per hour can
reduce the effective air temperature in a building by as much as
5°F. Site planning to allow for ventilation should focus on
prevailing wind directions and speeds and a knowledge of what
parts of a site are most favorable for ventilation. Rapid changes
in slope, dense vegetation, tall surrounding buildings, and the
design of the building facades can effectively block prevailing
breezes even though the same features may be useful in shading
the building from the sun.
Site planning for daylighting is different from site planning for Planning For
solar thermal systems. Daylighting systems use the light from a Daylighting
clear or overcast sky to illuminate the interior of buildings. In
most cases, direct sunlight is avoided. Therefore, it is not
necessary to protect a specific facade (such as the south or east
facade) as in a passive thermal system. In general, any facade
can be used to daylight the interior of a building. When site
planning for daylight, the following simple rules can be applied:
Protect any two opposite facades of a building.
Protect any facade and the roof of the building. Daylight Planning Rules
Site planning to “protect” a facade of a building means to keep it

free of major obstructions, such as adjacent buildings and large
trees. For a daylighted building, this means a space, adjacent to
the daylighted facade(s) equal to one-half of the building height
must be left relatively free of obstructions to ensure that light
from the sky can reach the facade(s). This type of daylight access
requirement is far less constraining than most requirements for
passive heating systems.
Protected zones.
A) single aperture
B) entire wall
Dependent upon building
height or height of the
surrounding buildings.
Figure 1-5: Site Planning For Daylight

For example, if the north and south facades of a building are

being used to daylight the building and the building is 40 feet
tall, then a space 20 feet wide must be left clear adjacent to the
daylighted facades of the building. See Figure 1-5. Similarly, if
the site already has a building 60 feet tall, no new buildings can
be built within 30 feet of it, assuming the new buildings are less
than 60 feet tall. All of the values used in these examples
represent minimum protection zones. Good design sense and the
scale of the building will also help determine the size and shape
of the protected zone. Daylight planning tools are explained in
more detail in Volume IV Passive Solar Design.
No special protection or site planning is needed for toplighting

and core daylighting because they typically have an unobstructed
view of the sky.
Daylighting When looking at a possible building site and attempting to

plus determine whether the site has appropriate space for daylighting,
Passive Thermal it is helpful to have some sense of the building’s overall size and
volume so that an estimate of the space needed to protect the
daylighting facades can be made. If the building is also going to
use passive solar heating systems, then the space surrounding
the solar envelope must be protected.
Most building sites are adjacent to streets or alleyways. Facades

facing these usually are relatively easy to protect even if the
surrounding buildings are tall. Sites used for low (one-story,
low-bay) buildings which are surrounded by tall or high-bay
buildings should consider the use of toplighting concepts,
assuming these concepts are appropriate for the building type
and climate.
Daylighting is the most appropriate passive system for all

building types in all climate regions. Therefore, site planning for
daylighting will be a routine part of the comprehensive building
planning process. Fortunately, it is also the easiest to
accommodate.
Building In general, passive solar buildings which take advantage of the

climate are less tolerant to changes in orientation and shape than
Orientation are climate rejecting buildings. However, sites do not have to be
and Shape ideal for passive solar strategies to be appropriate. This does not
negate the need for site planning; it just helps keep the site
planning process, as applied to large passive solar commercial-
type buildings, in its proper perspective. The impact of building
orientation on site selection is discussed in more detail in
Volumes I and IV.
Elongated shapes Elongated shapes, such as (b) and (c) in Figure 1-6, are effective
in all kinds of passive solar buildings, but especially daylighted
buildings. An elongated building can have as much as a 15-25%
6 Volume II
reduction in energy use over a compact building of the same size,

due to its greater ability to use daylight.
Portion of building not

daylighted
Figure 1-6: Changing the building aspect ratio
The buildings in Figure l-6 are assumed to have the same floor
area, occupancy, and internal loads. The building with the 1:1
aspect ratio has a total energy use of 62,000 Btu per square foot
per year (Btu/sf-yr). The building with the 3:1 aspect ratio has
an energy use of 50,000 Btu/sf-yr and the building with the 5:1
aspect ratio has an energy use of 46,000 Btu/sf-yr. This example
is for Climate Region 5 (Denver, Colorado). In most cases it will
be easier to daylight a building that is 45 feet deep (5:1 aspect
ratio) as opposed to one that is 100 feet deep (1:1 aspect ratio).
Energy savings can vary from site to site, depending upon the
climate region and the building type.

Introduction A total of 18 different commercial-type buildings were analyzed

for this handbook. A listing of these building types, in the order
they appear in various charts and appendices throughout the
handbook, is as follows:
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF
B. ADMIN, >5000 SF
E. DINING FACILITY
F. DORMITORY
G. FIRE STATION
K. MAINTENANCE, AIR CONDITIONED
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW-BAY
R. WAREHOUSE
These buildings represent general categories of commercial-type

buildings and do not describe specific buildings as found in the
USAF building-type category codes. For example, a law office,
building code 610-112, would be an administrative building, but
it could be less than 5000 square feet (<5000 sf), greater than
5000 square feet (>5000 sf), or multistory.
Appendix B: Appendix B lists all of the USAF building-type category codes
USAF Building-Type Codes and the building types they represent.
Climate and To determine the energy use in commercial-type buildings, four

Buildings climate variables are used to establish climate regions:
o Heating Degree Days (HDD)

o Cooling Degree Days (CDD)
o Latent Enthalpy Hours (LEH)
o Cloudiness Index (RAD)
Using these four climate variables results in twelve climate

regions, worldwide, for use in planning commercial-type USAF
Appendix A: buildings. These variables are discussed in more detail in
USAF Climate Regions Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts, and the charts
presented in Appendix A.
8 Volume II
This handbook guides the planning and design of “climate Energy Responsive
adapted” buildings, as opposed to “climate rejecting” buildings. A
climate rejecting building isolates the building energy use from Buildings
interaction with the surrounding environment. It uses large
mechanical and electrical systems to heat, cool, and light the
building, regardless of the possibilities of using the
environmental conditions to best advantage.
The concept of climate adapted or climate rejecting buildings Climate Adapting

Climate Rejecting
represents the extremes of possible solutions: one uses the
climate while the other isolates the building from it. In reality,
solutions to real building energy problems lie somewhere
between the two. Energy use and energy economics may make
some passive concepts attractive and others impractical when
considered within the constraints of real project needs, fuel
availability, and budgetary requirements. Therefore, some
compromise is expected and the planner should keep in mind
that not all passive systems will work in all buildings, and the
final solution may be a combination of climate adapted and
rejecting concepts.
Rejecting Adapted
Figure 2-1: Climate Rejecting vs. Climate Adapted
Commercial-type buildings have two categories of loads:
(1) envelope loads

(2) internal loads
Envelope loads are associated with energy transfer through the

Envelope Loads
building shell. In some building types, such as single family
detached housing or a warehouse, envelope loads are often the
single dominant energy use.

Internal Loads Internal loads can be divided into two subcategories: (1) those
due to occupancy, and (2) those due to lighting and process
energy use. It is primarily the variation in internal load
characteristics that determines which passive solar systems will
be most effective in commercial-type buildings.
Occupancy Characteristics: Each building type has specific occupancy characteristics that can
People load be expressed in terms of people loads, period of operation, hours
Period of operation of operation, and schedules. The people load is an estimate of the
Hours of operation number of people in the building. This varies considerably from
Schedule one building type to another. For example, an administration
building is assumed to house one person per 65 square feet while
a warehouse typically has one person per 4,000 square feet. The
period of operation is a designation of whether the building is
open during the daytime, at night, or both. An administration
building is usually open during the day, while a warehouse may
be used day and night. The hours of operation are the average
number of hours per day that the building is occupied, while the
schedule is the number of days per week that the building is
occupied. An administration building is typically occupied 10
hours a day, 5 days a week, while a warehouse may be occupied
24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Energy use associated with lighting and process loads (coffee

pots, vending machines, etc.) makes up the second major internal
load category. In most commercial-type buildings, these loads
are assumed to be continuous during the occupied period of each
day. One example of a continuous lighting load is the electric
lights which are turned on in the morning and off at night and
stay on all day long. It is the continuous nature of these internal
loads that make them so critical in impacting the overall energy
use and costs for the building.
Energy costs represent another way to consider the impact of

Energy Costs energy use on buildings. The impact of different fuels used for
heating (such as electricity, natural gas, or fuel oil), as well as
the costs of electricity for cooling and lighting a building, can
provide another important clue as to what kinds of passive
concepts are most effective in commercial-type buildings.
Cost per unit of area: In this handbook, energy costs are considered in terms of dollars
$/sf per square foot of building area per year. Thus, an energy cost of
$1.00/sf-yr in a 10,000 sf building would mean that the building
spends $10,000 per year on energy. Using a cost-per-unit-of-area
measure allows one to easily compare the energy costs of
different building types, or different sizes of the the same
building type.
10
In large commercial-type buildings, no direct link exists between

energy use and energy costs. Put another way, saving energy is
not directly proportional to saving energy costs. This is a
startling revelation to many people who are not familiar with
energy costs in commercial-type buildings. For example, Figure
2-2 below illustrates the energy use and energy cost for a small
administration building. Although heating is 28% of the energy
use, it is only 7% of the costs. Cooling, which was 22% of the
energy use, is 48% of the energy costs.
By knowing these data, building users and managers can make

informed decisions about how the building should be designed
and where it should be sited. For a more detailed explanation see
Volumes I and IV.
Energy Use
25.50%
Energy Costs (1987)
Figure 2-2: Energy Use vs. Energy Costs

3.0 Facility Energy Use
Introduction The remaining chapters of this volume present a step-by-step

procedure for considering passive solar systems in the
comprehensive planning process for commercial-type buildings.
Steps in the comprehensive The comprehensive planning process for passive solar facilities
planning process for passive consists of ten steps:
solar facilities.
Step 1. Determine Air Force base climate region.
Step 2. Establish building type to be planned.
Step 3. Determine conventional building energy use
and energy use priority.
Step 4. Determine conventional building
Volume II electricity peak demand.
Step 5. Choose appropriate passive solar systems.
Step 6. Match energy use to passive solar systems.
Step 7. Determine passive building energy use
and peak demand.
Step 8. Determine energy costs of conventional
Volume III and passive solar building.
Step 9. Determine HV or HVAC system size.
Step 10. Complete appropriate documentation.
Steps 1 through 4 are discussed in this chapter; steps 5 and 6

are presented in Chapter 4; and steps 7 through 9 are presented
in Chapter 5. Step 10 is presented in Volume III: Programming
Guide.
Step 1: The climate region for a major air base is determined using
Appendix A. The appropriate climate region for any facility not
Determine listed in Appendix A can be determined using a procedure
Climate Region discussed later in this chapter (page 23). Once the climate region
has been established, only data for that climate region is used
throughout the planning process. An example of Appendix A is
shown in Figure 3-l.
Geographic areas in
climate region
Major USAF bases

in region
Climate characteristics
Figure 3-1: Appendix A, Climate Region 2
12 Volume II
Facility Energy Use 3.0
Select the appropriate building type from Appendix B. The Step 2:

building codes used in this handbook represent general
categories of commercial-type buildings and do not represent Establish
specific buildings as found in the USAF building-type category Building Type
code. For example, a law office, USAF building-type code 610-
112, would be an administrative building type in this handbook,
but could be <5000 sf, >5000 sf, or multistory; that is, building
types A, B or C, respectively. Multiuse buildings are not
analyzed in this handbook. Figure 3-2 is an example page from
Appendix B.
Building-Type Code Used In

This Handbook
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF
B. ADMIN, >5000 SF
E. DINING FACILITY
F. DORMITORY
G. FIRE STATION
J. MAINTENANCE, HIGH BAY
K. MAINTENANCE, HVAC
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW BAY
P. TRAINING. MULTISTORY
Q. TRAINING; GYMNASIUM
R. WAREHOUSE
NC. NO CURRENT BUILDING TYPE
Figure 3-2: Appendix B, Building-Type Category Codes
The conventional building is defined as the proposed building Step 3:

before any passive solar systems are considered. It is the nonsolar
building against which the performance of the solar building will Conventional
be compared to ascertain whether the solar building is more (or Building Energy
less) energy efficient and saves energy costs. Figure 3-3, on the
following page, illustrates an energy data sheet for Climate Use and Priority
Region 2. A complete set of similar data sheets for all twelve
climate regions can be found in Appendix C. A more detailed
explanation of energy use, by building type, can be found in
Appendix E.
The Appendix C data sheet contains the following information

needed to complete Steps 3 and 4:
o Climate region and building type

o Energy end use priority
o Building energy use and peak demand

Climate Region
(Step 1)
Building Type
(Step 2)
Energy Use Priority

(Step 3)
Energy Use
(Step 3)
Peak Demand
(Step 4)
Energy End Use Code
Figure 3-3: Appendix C: Building Energy Data Sheet.
W/O Solar = conventional Energy use and peak demand data include both a conventional
(W/O Solar) and a solar value for each building type. The
conventional building value represents the performance of a
typical building of the type being considered. For example, from
Figure 3-4 on the following page, for an ADMIN, <5000 SF, the
w/o solar energy use value is 90; that is, 90,000 Btu’s per square
foot per year. This means that most administration buildings of
this size, in this climate region, use about 90,000 Btu/sf-yr of
energy for all end uses combined. Specific real buildings may use
more or less, but this is the average energy use value.
With Solar = target The target value for the same building is 70, or 70,000 Btu’s per
square foot per year. The target value represents the best
performance achieved from any of the passive solar strategies
analyzed. This gives you some initial idea of the range of
possible performance that can be expected from a passive
14 Volume II
solar thermal or daylighting system. This information is useful if

the planner is required to suggest or document an energy goal for
a project. Values for both the nonsolar and solar building have
been rounded to the nearest 5000 Btu’s (per sf-yr). See Figure 3-
4. See Volume III for more details on how to use this information
to document a proposed project.
Energy use priority data provides a rank ordering of energy use Energy Use Priority
by end use category. Five end use categories are considered:
o Heating
o Cooling
o Lighting
o Ventilation
o Process
These are rank ordered from largest energy end use category (1)
to the smallest (5). For example, the small administration
building (<5000 sf) in Figure 3-4 has the following energy use
priority: (1) lighting, (2) heating, (3) cooling, (4) ventilation, and
(5) process. This means that of the 90,000 Btu’s per square foot
per year for the nonsolar case energy use, lighting is the largest
single end use, followed by heating, cooling, ventilation, and
process loads, respectively Chapter 5 of this volume illustrates
how to quantify the amount of energy use by end use category.
Some variation in energy use exists between building types in a

climate region, or for one building type across several climate
regions. Therefore, it is important to select the correct climate
region and building energy use tables.

Step 4: Peak demand is the maximum instantaneous and simultaneous

usage of electricity by all end uses in the building. It is often
Determine used in calculating the electrical energy costs for a building.
Peak Demand Reducing peak demand may be an important reason to use some
passive solar concepts. Peak demand is explained in more detail
in Volume I: Introduction to Passive Solar Concepts.
Conventional (w/o solar) and solar building peak demand values

are provided. These represent an average conventional building
and best case, or target, solar solution. Values are in watts per
square foot. Therefore, a value of 9.0 equals 9 watts per square
foot. Values are rounded to the nearest half of a watt. This
information allows you to document peak demand targets as
part of the overall energy savings goals for a particular project.
For many projects, the simplified determination of the nonsolar

Detailed building total energy use, and the rank ordering of energy end
Building Energy use categories determined in Steps 3 and 4, is sufficient for this
phase of the comprehensive planning process. However, for some
Use, Priority, and projects, the simplified information found in Appendix C will not
Peak Demand be sufficient. In these cases, Appendix E can be used for a more
detailed description of the energy use, energy cost, and peak
Information demand characteristics of both conventional and solar buildings.
An example of Appendix E for Climate Region 2 is shown in
Figure 3-5 on the following page.
Appendix E is the key technical appendix for this handbook. It is

Appendix E used for detailed analysis of all nonsolar and solar buildings and
is subdivided into four groups of data:
o Energy Use
o Energy Costs
o HVAC System Size
o Peak Demand
To calculate detailed energy use, energy priority, and peak

demand targets, information from the sections entitled “Energy
Use” and “Peak Demand” are used. The other portions of this
chart will be explained in subsequent chapters of this volume as
well as in Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
In Figure 3-5, twelve lines of data are included for each building
type. The top line of data, corresponding to the heading ADMIN,
<5000 SF, represents the conventional nonsolar building.
Subsequent lines of data represent different solar options for that
particular building type. The only row of data needed to
determine energy use for the conventional nonsolar building is
the top line for each building type.
16 Volume II
For example, for a typical small administration building, the Energy Use Peak Demand
total building energy use is (Step 3) (Step 4)
87,635 Btu/sf-yr
This is determined from the ENERGY USE category of data
under the heading “Bldg (Btu/sf-yr).” This is a more exact
determination of the total energy use, per unit of area, for this
type of building than that found in Appendix C. In the same
data category is detailed information about the end use priority.
Under the headings “QHeat (%)”, “QCool (%)”, and so on, is the
percentage of the total energy use for each end use category. For
example, heating is 29.0% of the total for the conventional
nonsolar building.
To determine the average energy use by end use category,
multiply the end use category percent, as a fraction, by the
building total energy use. That is:
End Use Energy Calculation
End Use Energy = End Use Fraction x Bldg. Energy Use
For this example these values would be:
QHeat = 0.290 x 87,635 = 25,414 Btu/sf-yr

QCool = 0.242 x 87,635 = 21,208 Btu/sf-yr
QLite = 0.326 x 87,635 = 28,569 Btu/sf-yr
QVent = 0.084 x 87,635 = 7,361 Btu/sf-yr
QProc = 0.058 x 87,635 = 5,083 Btu/sf-yr
87,635 Btu/sf-yr
In this way a more detailed calculation of energy use by end use

category can be determined.
Peak Demand Similarly, the simultaneous peak demand can be determined

from the category entitled “Peak Demand.” For this example the
conventional building peak demand is 8.8 watts per square foot.
This is the maximum use of electricity, per square foot, for the
building. The peak demand consists of three components:
(1) lighting load

(2) process load
(3) HVAC cooling load
These can be broken out of this total, if needed.
The lighting and process load portion of the total can be

determined from Table 3-3 on page 42 of Volume I. For a small
administrative building (<5000 sf), these values are 2.5 and 0.5
watts per square foot, respectively. The cooling portion of the
simultaneous peak demand is:
Cooling Peak Demand Cooling Peak = Total Peak - (Lighting Peak + Process Peak)
Calculation
For this example the cooling peak is:
Cooling Peak = 8.8 - (2.5 + 0.5) = 5.8 watts/sf
This information may be critical if peak demand is a major part

of the electricity costs for an air base. The information is also
important for sizing HVAC systems as discussed in Volume IV.
Example 1: In the remainder of this chapter, two examples will be presented

A Credit Union to demonstrate how to apply Steps 1 through 4 of the passive
solar building comprehensive planning process. In this section a
credit union will be analyzed; in the following section a
warehouse will be analyzed. These two building types were
chosen because they are quite different and will require different
passive solar design solutions. Both examples will also be
analyzed in Chapters 4 and 5.
Step 1: Climate Region The example credit union (USAF code: 740-155) has a total
usable floor area of 10,000 square feet. The shape of the
Step 2: Building Type building is not critical, and would not normally be known during
this part of the comprehensive planning process. It is also
assumed that the building is located on an unobstructed site on
an air base in Climate Region 2. This data is sufficient to begin
the planning process.
Energy information necessary to establish the conventional

(nonsolar) case energy use pattern can be determined from
either Appendix C or E for Climate Region 2. A copy of Appendix
C is shown in Figure 3-6.
18 Volume II
Figure 3-6: Credit Union Example (Admin, >5000 sf)
The example credit union building falls into the category entitled Step 3:
“B. ADMIN, >5000 SF” From Figure 3-6 it can be determined Energy Use
that the conventional (w/o solar) energy use is approximately Energy Use Priority
70,000 Btu/sf-yr and the best savings from any of the passive
solar systems would reduce it to about 50,000 Btu/sf-yr (Step 3).
For this example the energy use priority is lighting, heating,
cooling, ventilation, and process loads, respectively (also Step 3).
This means that lighting is normally the largest energy end use,
followed by heating and cooling.
The typical peak demand would be 7.5 w/sf, or 75 kW (75,000 w) Step 4:

for the 10,000 sf building. It can be reduced to approximately Peak Demand
4.0 w/sf, or 40 kW. All of this information could be included in
the descriptive material used in DD Form 1391, as discussed in
Volume III: Programming Guide.
If more detail is desired or requested, this can be determined

from Appendix E; a copy of the appropriate section is shown in
Figure 3-7. Under the section entitled “ENERGY USE” can be
found a breakdown of energy use by subcategory,
For an administration building that is 10,000 sf, the total

building energy use is:
o Bldg 70,708 Btu / sf-yr

The various energy end use categories are the following percent
of the total:
o heating 22.7%
o cooling 22.2%
o lighting 40.6%
o ventilation 7.3%
o process 7.3%
By multiplying the percent, as a fraction, by the building total, it

is possible to determine the energy use by end use category; that
is:
o heating = 0.227 x 70708 = 16,051 Btu/sf-yr

o cooling = 0.222 x 70708 = 15,697 Btu/sf-yr
o lighting = 0.406 x 70708 = 28,707 Btu/sf-yr
o ventilation = 0.073 x 70708 = 5,162 Btu/sf-yr
o process = 0.073 x 70708 = 5,162 Btu/sf-yr
o Building total = 70,779 Btu/sf-yr
The small difference (1%) between the total from the chart
(70708) and the total from the above calculations (70779) is due
to rounding error in the percent of energy in each end use
category.
Figure 3-7: Credit Union Detailed Energy Use
Volume II
The example warehouse has a total usable floor area of 5,000 sf Example 2:
and is used as a range supply and equipment storage facility. It
is assumed that this building is also located in Climate Region 2. A Warehouse
Step 1: Climate Region
Energy information necessary to establish the nonsolar building
energy use pattern can be determined from either Appendix C or Step 2: Building Type
E for Climate Region 2.
This example building obviously falls into the category entitled Step 3: Energy Use
“WAREHOUSE.” From Figure 3-8, the average conventional Energy Use Priority
building energy use is 25,000 Btu/sf-yr, and the best savings from
any of the passive solar systems would reduce it to about 20,000
Btu/sf-yr. For this example, the order of the energy use priorities
is heating, lighting, and ventilation, respectively. This means that
heating is normally the largest energy use category, followed by
lighting and then ventilation. Note that there are only three
categories of energy end use rather than the five categories listed
for the first example. This is because a warehouse normally does
not have a cooling system and does not have any major process
loads.
Step 4: Peak Demand
It can be seen in Figure 3-8 that the normal peak demand would
be 1.0 w/sf, or 5 kW (5,000 w) for the 5,000 sf warehouse. This
can be reduced to approximately 0.5 w/sf, or 2.5 kW.
Figure 3-8: Warehouse Example

As in the previous example, if more detail is desired or

requested, this can be determined from Appendix E. An example
page from Appendix E is shown in Figure 3-9. Under the section
entitled “ENERGY USE” can be found a breakdown of energy use
by subcategory.
Figure 3-9: Warehouse Example, Detailed Energy Use
For a warehouse, the total building energy use is:
o Bldg 25,127 Btu/sf-yr
The various energy end use categories are the following percent
of the total:
o heating 63.9%
o cooling 0.0%
o lighting 28.2%
o ventilation 7.9%
o process 0.0%
22 Volume II
By multiplying the percent by the building total, the energy use

by end use category is:
o heating = 0.639 x 25127 = 16,056 Btu/sf-yr

o cooling = 0.000 x 25127 = 0 Btu/sf-yr
o lighting = 0.282 x 25127 = 7,086 Btu/sf-yr
o ventilation = 0.079 x 25127 = 1,985 Btu/sf-yr
o process = 0.000 x 25127 = 0 Btu/sf-yr
o Building total = 25,127 Btu/sf-yr
In this example, there is no rounding error.
It is also possible to estimate the total annual energy use using

the building total energy use and the building area; that is:
Annual Energy Use = Building Energy Use x Building Area Annual Energy Use
Calculation
In this example the annual energy use would be:
Annual Energy Use = 25,127 (Btu/sf-yr) x 5000 (sf)
= 125,635,000 Btu/yr
= 1.26 x 108 Btu/yr
This calculation can be done for any building or end use category
given the area and annual energy use.
The extended list of building types in Appendix B should enable Special Cases
you to plan a wide range of building types. However, special
cases always exist. A few of these cases include:
o Air Force base on the border between two regions.

o A building type not listed in the tables.
o The building type with / without an HVAC system.
o Multistory building.
o Excessive equipment loads.
A great deal of care was taken to see that no major air base was Climate Region
located close to the border between two climate regions.
However, if this handbook is used to plan buildings for the Air
National Guard, the possibility exists that a locale will be close
to the border between two regions.
To determine the climate region in which a particular locale

should be placed, the following methods should be considered:
o Known HDD, CDD, LEH, RAD.

o An air base listed in Appendix A is within 50 miles.
o Similar climate.
o Best judgment.

If the HDD, CDD, LEH, and RAD values for a particular locale
are known, then it is possible to use Table 3-2, page 38 in Volume
I, to determine which climate region is appropriate to use.
Methods for calculating the LEH values are discussed in Volume
IV: Passive Solar Design.
If an Air Force base listed in Appendix A is within 50 miles of

the locale, then it is reasonable to assume that the locale being
considered is in the same climate region. If more than one base
is within 50 miles of the locale, and they are in different climate
regions, then pick the one with the most similar climate.
If there are no other air bases within 50 miles of the locale, then
consider the climate characteristics of air bases within 100 miles,
150 miles, 200 miles, and so on, and find one with a similar
climate. Air bases selected should be in the same or adjacent
climate regions.
If none of the above procedures seem to work, then use your best
judgment to select the climate region in which the locale should
be placed. Check the detailed data in Appendix E for the
particular building being planned. In some cases, for a specific
building type, the variation in energy performance of the same
building in two geographically adjacent climate regions is small.
Regardless of the method used to ascertain the climate region of a

locale, it is important to document the choice so that future
planning decisions are consistent.
Different Building Types Many building types are not included in the eighteen studied for
this handbook. Some of them have performance characteristics
similar to buildings analyzed, others are quite different. The key
consideration is usually the internal loads. If the building has
internal loads similar to those listed for a building type in Table
3-1 on the following page, then use the data for that building
type. For example, neither an Officers Club nor an NCO Club are
specifically included in the eighteen building types. However,
both function quite similarly to a DINING FACILITY and that
category could be used to represent either of them. Similarly, a
BOQ is not listed, but the category DORMITORY is similar.
Check Appendix B to see if the building type has already been
given a designation. Internal loads can be determined from
Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
In order to use a building type listed in Table 3-1, at least two of

the three occupancy characteristics must be similar. In addition,
both lighting and process loads must be less than or equal to
those listed. Unless both of these conditions are met, none of
the information in this handbook can be used.
HVAC Systems In addition to matching internal loads, it is important to have the

same set of thermal comfort systems, whether heating and
ventilation (HV) or HVAC, which includes air conditioning. If
the building type normally has an HVAC system, and the
24 Volume II
proposed building only has an HV system, then this handbook

can be used. However, you will have to assume that the cooling
load is zero, and reduce the energy use and energy cost
accordingly. The magnitude of the heating, lighting, venting, and
process energy will not change. If the building normally has an
HV system and an HVAC system is proposed, this handbook
cannot be used to calculate energy use and costs.
Operational Internal Load Thermal
Characteristics System
Day- Hr/ Days/ Light Process
Night Day Week (w/sf) (w/sf)
A. ADMIN, <5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
B. ADMIN, >5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
C. ADMIN, MULTISTORY D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
D. ADMIN, COMPUTER FACILITY D 10 5 2.5 2.0 HVAC
E. DINING FACILITY D+N 14 7 1.3 2.8 HVAC
F. DORMITORY D+N 24 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
G. FIRE STATION D+N 24 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
H. INDUSTRIAL FACILITY D 10 5 1.7 2.0 H V
I. MAINTENANCE, <5000 SF D 10 5 1.0 0.5 HV
J. MAINTENANCE, HIGH-BAY D 10 5 2.1 1.0 HV
K. MAINTENANCE, AIR COND D 10 5 1.7 1.0 HVAC
L. MAINTENANCE, LOW-BAY D 10 5 1.7 1.0 HV
M. TRAINING, AUDITORIUM D+N 8 7 1.3 0.5 HVAC
N. TRAINING, <5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
O. TRAINING, >5000 SF D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
P. TRAINING, MULTISTORY D 10 5 2.5 0.5 HVAC
Q. TRAINING, GYMNASIUM D 10 7 1.7 0.0 HV
R. WAREHOUSE D 10 7 1.7 0.0 HV
Table 3-1: Internal Load Characteristics
The energy use patterns of some, but not all, building types are Multistory Buildings
affected if they are multistory rather than single story buildings.
The extent to which the energy use changes depends on how
sensitive the energy consumption is to the envelope
characteristics of the building. In general, the more a building is
dominated by internal loads, the less sensitive it will be to the
characteristics of the envelope. For example, a three-story
administration building uses about 20% less energy per square
foot than does a single story building of the same size. In using
this handbook, it is assumed that a proposed building is single
story except where specifically otherwise listed, i.e., ADMIN:
MULTISTORY, TRAINING: MULTISTORY, and DORMITORY.
Exceptions are as follows:
o A dining facility can be single or multistory.

o The sleeping section of a fire station can be single or
multistory.
A dining facility can be single or multistory because the building

is dominated by the process loads. The internal loads for a
dining facility are 1.3 w/sf for lighting and 2.8 w/sf for process
(food preparation, etc.) for a total of 4.1 w/sf. The only building
type with greater internal loads is a computer facility with 4.5
w/sf. For the dining facility, the energy exchanges through the

envelope have a minimal impact on overall energy consumption.

A multistory sleeping section of a fire station can be analyzed
because the usage pattern is similar to a dormitory, which has
been analyzed as a multistory building.
Equipment Equipment loads in industrial or maintenance buildings have

been purposely ignored in the analysis done for this handbook.
The energy used and heat given off by heavy equipment such as
electric welders, air compressors, process boilers, and so on, can
overshadow the building’s energy performance and dominate
energy costs, if they are included in the cost of operating the
building. Furthermore, passive solar systems are not capable of
impacting these uses of energy. In the one maintenance facility
with air conditioning analyzed for this handbook, the
assumption has been made that no heavy equipment is used in
the building. Increases in the internal loads of buildings from
what were assumed in the analysis and shown in Table 3-1 will
tend to shift the energy priorities toward increased cooling and
ventilating requirements and away from heating requirements.
This should be kept in mind when using the information in the
handbook.
26 Volume II
Choosing Passive Solar Systems 4.0
This chapter presents Steps 5 and 6 of the comprehensive Introduction

planning process as applied to passive solar buildings.
Step 5: Choose appropriate passive solar systems.

Step 6: Match energy use to passive solar systems.
Passive solar systems appropriate for each building type and

climate zone have been preselected through building energy
analysis. From the available set of passive solar systems, you
must match high priority energy use categories with solar
systems that address that particular energy end use. Much like
the energy analyses carried out in the previous chapter, the
determination of appropriate passive solar systems can be done
in either a simplified or a detailed manner. The detailed
calculation method is explained in Chapter 5.
Figure 4-1 on the following page is an example of an Energy Step 5:

Cost Savings data sheet for Climate Region 2. A complete set of Choosing Solar
similar data sheets for all twelve climate regions can be found in
Appendix D. This data sheet, along with the results of the Energy Systems
analysis in the previous chapter, are all that are needed to
complete a simplified determination of appropriate passive solar
system options (Step 5).
The Energy Cost Savings data sheet contains information about

the anticipated annual cost savings associated with each passive
solar system. The eleven passive solar technologies are
abbreviated as follows:
HEAT D+S Direct Gain plus Storage

IND Indirect Gain (plus Storage)
DG Direct Gain (without storage)
SUN Sunspace (plus storage)
COOL NMV Night Mechanical Ventilation

NVN Natural Ventilation
DAYLIGHT WIN Windows (sidelighting)

SKY Skylights (toplighting)
SAW Sawtooth apertures (toplighting)
MON Monitor apertures (toplighting)
ATR Atria (core daylighting)
For a detailed explanation of each passive solar system, see

Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts.
The information in Figure 4-l is coded for rapid identification of

possible energy cost savings. The coding system uses “pies” to
designate energy cost savings. The quarter-pie represents first
year cost savings of 5% or less. The half-pie represents savings of
5 to 10%; the three-quarter pie represents savings from 10 to

4.0 Choosing Passive Solar Systems
15%, and the fully shaded pie represents energy cost savings the
first year greater than 15%. The blank pie indicates that a
passive solar system is inappropriate for the specified building
Climate Region type.
Building Types
Passive Solar Systems
Heat D+S
IND
DG
SUN
Cool NMV
NVN
Daylight WIN
SKY
SAW
MON
ATR
Energy Cost Saving Code
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Figure 4-1: Example Energy Cost Data Sheet,

Appendix D
For example, from Figure 4-1, for an ADMIN, <5000 SF, the
following are passive solar systems that save energy costs:
28 Volume II
System Savings Strategy
o natural ventilation <5% cooling

o windows 10 - 15% lighting
o skylights >15% lighting
o sawtooth >15% lighting
o monitor >15% lighting
o atria >15% lighting
All of the remaining passive solar systems are inappropriate for

an ADMIN, <5000 SF building type in Climate Region 2; none of
them save an appreciable amount of energy cost. Looking at the
charts in Appendix D and determining which passive solar
systems are appropriate completes Step 5.
The next step is to match appropriate passive solar systems with Step 6:
the energy use characteristics of the building. For the ADMIN,
<5000 SF in our example, the energy use priorities were: Match Energy Use
and Solar Energy
(1) lighting System
(2) heating
(3) cooling
(4) ventilation
(5) process
Five appropriate passive solar systems will reduce the lighting

(and cooling) energy costs and one will reduce the cooling (and
ventilation) energy costs. None are appropriate for reducing the
heating costs.
Although heating is the second largest energy use, none of the

passive solar systems will save any heating energy costs.
Therefore, it would be inappropriate to choose a passive heating
system for this building type in this climate region if cost savings
were the only criteria. However, other design criteria might
make one or more of the passive solar systems appropriate. For
example, a demonstration project might allow you to plan for the
use of a wider range of possible solar technologies in a building.
Five daylighting systems are appropriate for a small

administration building. Since only one cooling strategy will
work, only that one can be justified on the basis of energy cost
savings. It would be appropriate to suggest a combination of
lighting and cooling strategies, or only daylighting, or only the
natural ventilation strategy.
Criteria such as site constraints and the solar envelope for the
building might eliminate some of the options from further
consideration. However, it is not necessary to eliminate any
options at this stage of the planning process. When the building
is designed using Volume IV, then an appropriate set of passive
solar systems will be considered and analyzed.

Example 1: The credit union example discussed in Chapter 3 has a total

usable floor area of 10,000 square feet and is located in Climate
A Credit Union Region 2.
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Figure 4-2: Credit Union Example, Appendix D
Step 5 Using Figure 4-2 from Appendix D, the following passive solar
systems are appropriate for this building type and climate
region:
Passive Solar System Savings Strategy
o Night Mech Vent < 5% cooling
o Natural Ventilation < 5% cooling
o Windows > 15% lighting
o Skylights > 15% lighting
o Sawtooth > 15% lighting
o Monitor > 15% lighting
o Atria > 15% lighting
30 Volume II
The architectural impact of choosing a daylighted passive solar

system for the credit union is conceptually illustrated in Figure
4-3. A building example is shown in Figure 4-4 on the following
page.
Figure 4-3: Daylighted (SAW) Credit Union
The energy use priority for this building, as determined in Step 6

Chapter 3, is:
(1) lighting
(2) heating
(3) cooling
(4) ventilation
(5) process
In comparing the list of appropriate passive solar systems with

the energy use priority for the building, match-ups exist for
lighting and cooling. Although heating is the second largest
energy use, no passive heating systems will save heating energy
costs in this building type in this climate region.
During the comprehensive planning process, it is not necessary to

ascertain which daylighting and cooling systems are most
appropriate. This is part of the design function of the

DD Form 1391 architectural/engineering team. However, it might be useful to

CBD Announcement list a variety of possible solutions in DD Form 1391 or a CBD
announcement. These possibilities are discussed in Volume III.
Figure 4-4: Operations and Training Facility, Kulis A.N.G.,

Alaska
Example 2: The example warehouse has a total usable floor area of 5,000 sf
A Warehouse and is one story in height. This building is also located in
Climate Region 2.
Step 5 Using Figure 4-5 on the following page from Appendix D, the
following are appropriate passive solar systems for this building
type:
Passive Solar System Savings Strategy
o Direct Gain + Storage 5-10% heating

o Indirect Gain 5-10% heating
o Direct Gain 5-10% heating
o Sunspace 10-15% heating
o Skylight > 15% lighting
o Sawtooth > 15% lighting
o Monitor > 15% lighting
The seven passive systems appropriate for the warehouse are

quite different than those that were appropriate for the 10,000 sf
administration building. Because of the moderate (1.5 w/sf
internal loads in the warehouse, all of the passive heating
strategies will work, as well as several of the daylighting
32 Volume II
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%

Figure 4-5: Warehouse Example
strategies.
Step 6
The energy use priority for this building, as determined in
Chapter 4, is:
(1) heating
(2) lighting
(3) ventilation
In comparing the list of appropriate passive solar concepts with

the energy use priority, match-ups exist for heating and
lighting. Thus, these passive solar systems should be included in
a facility programming document. See Volume III: Programming
Guide.

5.0 Passive Solar System Performance
Introduction This chapter presents Steps 7, 8, and 9 of the passive solar
building comprehensive planning process.
Step 7. Determine passive building energy use and peak

demand.
Step 8. Determine annual energy costs of conventional
and passive solar buildings.
Step 9. Determine HV or HVAC system size.
The detailed performance characteristics of the passive solar

commercial-type building is determined in Steps 7 and 8. Step 9
determines first costs savings, if any, associated with the passive
solar building. Incorporating the results of the comprehensive
planning process for passive solar buildings is discussed in
Volume III: Programming Guide. The energy use, energy costs,
and HVAC system size calculations done in these three steps are
comparisons with the conventional nonsolar building and are
used to strengthen the documentation about the effectiveness of
the passive building to reduce energy costs.
Step 7: Once a candidate passive solar system has been determined it is

necessary to estimate the energy use by end use category of the
Determine passive building. T h i s d a t a c a n b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
Passive Building conventional nonsolar building to illustrate the improved energy
performance characteristics of the passive solar building.
Energy Use and
Peak Demand If a single passive system is chosen, rather than a combination of
two or more passive systems, then the performance can be taken
directly from Appendix E. If a combination is chosen, then the
data in Appendix E must be applied according to a set of
guidelines discussed later in this chapter (page 44).
Data for Step 7 is obtained from Appendix E under the category

heading “Energy Use.” The calculation process is identical to the
detailed energy analysis calculations done for the conventional
nonsolar building.
For example, for an ADMIN, <5000 SF, the following passive

solar systems save energy costs:
System Savings Strategy
o natural ventilation < 5% cooling

o windows 10 - 15% lighting
o skylights >15% lighting
o sawtooth >15% lighting
o monitor >15% lighting
o atria >15% lighting
These were determined in Step 6 of the passive solar building

comprehensive planning process.
34 Volume II
Passive Solar System Performance 5.0
Using Appendix E as shown in Figure 5-1, if windows are used Step 7

for daylighting, the building total energy use is:
o 79,906 Btu/sf-yr
and the energy use by specific end use category is:
o heating = 36.3% x 79,906 = 29,006 (Btu/sf-yr)

o cooling = 26.0% x 79,906 = 20,776 (Btu/sf-yr)
o lighting = 23.3% x 79,906 = 18,618 (Btu/sf-yr)
o ventilation = 8.0% x 79,906 = 6,392 (Btu/sf-yr)
o process = 6.4% x 79,906 = 5,114 (Btu/sf-yr)
o building total = 79,906 (Btu/sf-yr)

The percent of energy savings is one minus the ratio of the

passive building to the conventional nonsolar building. That is:
% energy savings calculation % savings = (1 - [passive bldg / conventional bldg])
For this example the percent of energy savings is:
% savings = (1 - [79906/87635]) = 0.088 = 8.8%
In a number of cases, the passive solar building may not use less
energy than the conventional building. These are included
because they save energy costs and the purpose of this handbook
is to help reduce energy costs in commercial-type buildings. The
reason that some cases do not save energy but save energy costs
is directly related to the use of peak demand charges as part of
the electric utility rate structure and trading off electricity for a
different fuel. See Volume I: Introduction to Passive Solar
Concepts.
Peak Demand Peak demand can also be determined using Appendix E. For the
daylighting case using windows, the peak demand is 6.9 watts
per square foot. The peak demand in kilowatts (kW) is equal to
the peak demand per square foot multiplied by the floor area of
the building, then divided by 1,000 to convert it from watts to
kilowatts.
Peak Demand = [(watts per square feet) (area)]/ 1000
For the ADMIN, <5000 SF building that is using windows for

daylighting, the peak demand is:
Peak Demand = [(6.9) (5000)]/1000 = 35 kW
This compares well with the nonsolar conventional building that

has a peak demand of 44 kW. The passive building has reduced
peak demand by almost 25% over the nonsolar building.
Passive solar buildings do not necessarily save energy in all end

use categories. Table 5-1 compares the nonsolar building and the
passive solar building with windows for daylighting.
Conventional Nonsolar Building Passive Solar Building (Windows)
o heating = 25,414 Btu/sf-yr o heating = 29,006 Btu/sf-yr

o cooling = 21,208 Btu/sf-yr o cooling = 20,776 Btu/sf-yr
o lighting = 28,569 Btu/sf-yr o lighting = 18,618 Btu/sf-yr
o ventilation = 7,361 Btu/sf-yr o ventilation = 6,392 Btu/sf-yr
o process = 5,083 Btu/sf-yr o process = 5,083 Btu/sf-yr
o building = 87,635 Btu/sf-yr o building = 79,906 Btu/sf-yr
Table 5-1: Comparison of conventional and passive

buildings energy end use (ADMIN, <5000SF)
36 Volume II
In Table 5-1, energy savings is achieved in three end use

categories (cooling, lighting, and ventilation) but increases occur
in heating energy use. It is typical in a daylighted building that
the heating energy increases over a similar nonsolar building.
The reason for this is that the electric lighting in the nonsolar
building is helping to heat the building. In the daylighted
building, the electric lighting system is controlled such that there
is a reduction in the overall usage of the lighting system. By
turning the electric lighting off (or dimming it), not as much heat
is added to the building and the heating system must be used
more.
Energy costs for the conventional nonsolar building, as well as all Step 8:
of the appropriate passive solar systems for a given building type Determine Energy
and climate region, can be found in Appendix E. An example of
this appendix section is shown in Figure 5-2. All energy costs Costs
are in 1987 dollars.
Figure 5-2: Appendix E: Energy cost data

Energy costs are listed in two ways: (1) total energy costs for the
building, per square foot per year, and (2) cost by end use
category as a percent of the total. End use categories are:
o $Heat = heating (including parasitic electricity)

o $Cool = cooling (including ventilation)
o $Lite = lighting
o $Othr = process
Energy costs for electricity include peak demand as well as

consumption costs.
The data in Appendix E are used: (1) to calculate an estimate of

the total energy costs, in 1987 dollars, for the first year of
operation, and (2) to calculate the cost by end use category.
From Figure 5-2, the total energy cost of a conventional ADMIN,

<5000 SF building is $1.56 per square foot per year (in 1987
dollars). The total energy costs for the building would be $7,800
if the building were 5000 sf; that is:
Annual Energy Cost $Total Energy = Area x ($ / sf)

Calculation
In this case
$Total Energy = 5000 x 1.56 = $7,800
The fraction of the total energy cost for each end use category is:
o $Heat = 11.4%
o
o
o
The cost by end use, in dollars per square foot or dollars per
(1987) year, would be:
End Use Energy Cost $End Use = $Total x %End Use
Calculation
For the above set of end use data, the resulting costs for an
administration building of 5000 square feet in Climate Region 2
are:
$Heat = 1.56 x 0.114 = $.178/sf-yr or 7,800 x 0.114

= $ 889/yr
$Cool = 1.56 x 0.490 = $.764/sf-yr or 7,800 x 0.490

= $3,822/yr
$Lite = 1.56 x 0.330 = $.515/sf-yr or 7,800 x 0.330

= $2,574/yr
$Othr = 1.56 x 0.066 = $.103/sf-yr or 7,800 x 0.066

= $ 515/yr
38 Volume II
Energy cost data can be used in a detailed comparison of the

conventional nonsolar building and a passive solar building.
Comparing the previous cost data for a conventional ADMIN,
<5000 SF building with the same building daylighted using
sawtooth apertures (SAW), the passive solar building energy
costs are:
$Tot = 1.02 x 5000 = $5,100/yr
$Heat = 1.02 x 0.220 = $.224/sf-yr or 5,100 x 0.220

= $1,122/yr
$Cool = 1.02 x 0.527 = $.538/sf-yr or 5,100 x 0.527

= $2,688/yr
$Lite = 1.02 x 0.152 = $.155/sf-yr or 5,100 x 0.150

= $ 775/yr
$Othr = 1.02 x 0.101 = $.103/sf-yr or 5,100 x 0.101

= $ 515/yr
and the savings, by end use category are:
Conventional Passive Savings
$Tot = $7,800/yr $5,100/yr $2,700/yr
$Heat = $ 889/yr $1,122/yr - 233/yr
$Cool = $3,822/yr $2,688/yr $1,134/yr
$Lite = $2,574/yr $ 775/yr $1,799/yr
$Othr = $ 515/yr $ 515/yr 0/yr

It is relatively easy to make end use cost comparisons, or
comparisons of the total energy costs, for the nonsolar and solar
buildings. For this example the cost savings is 34.6%
(conventional nonsolar case vs. sawtooth case), or $0.54 per
square foot for the first year of operation.
Turning off the electric lighting impacts not only the lighting
energy use but also the heating and cooling energy use. Electric
lighting, at best, is only about 25 - 30% efficient. That is, only
about 25% of the input energy is converted to light, the rest is
converted to heat. During the winter heating season this extra
heat helps offset heating fuel usage; during summer it increases
the need for cooling. When daylighting is used and the electric
lighting is turned off, there is a decrease in lighting energy use, a
decrease in cooling energy use, and an increase in heating energy
use. The net result should be a decrease in both energy use and
costs, as long as electricity is not used as a heating fuel. This can
be seen in the conventional nonsolar building and the daylighted
building (sawtooth) for the small administration building
example discussed above.

Step 9: Most passive heating and cooling concepts reduce energy use and
cost but do not impact the size (capacity) of the HVAC or HV
HVAC System system. However, the use of daylighting may impact both the
Analysis heating and cooling components of an HVAC or HV system. The
net result is usually an increase in the heating plant size and a
decrease in the cooling plant size.
In an HVAC system, it is usually advantageous to trade off

heating capacity for cooling capacity, primarily because heating
systems are only about one-tenth as expensive, per Btu/hr of
capacity, as cooling systems. In this step, the impact of the
passive solar strategy on the actual size of the HVAC or HV
system will be considered.
Figure 5-3: HVAC System Analysis
40 Volume II
Thermal system size, per square foot of floor area, can be

determined from Appendix E in the section entitled “HVAC” as
illustrated in Figure 5-3.
For the small administration building, the nonsolar building

thermal system sizes are:
o 37 Btu/hr/sf, heating
o 46 Btu/hr/sf, cooling
The daylighted building, using sawtooth apertures, requires the

following thermal systems:
o 39 Btu/hr/sf, heating
o 29 Btu/hr/sf, cooling
This represents a slight increase in the heating capacity and a

substantial reduction in cooling capacity. The actual size of the
thermal system will vary depending upon the floor area. For
example, if the building is 2000 sf, the nonsolar case and
daylighted case thermal capacity is:
Nonsolar Case Daylighted Case
Heating 74,000 Btu/hr 78,000 Btu/hr

Cooling 92,000 Btu/hr 58,000 Btu/hr HVAC Plant Size
Sometimes it is useful to convert the cooling capacity to tons of

cooling. One ton of cooling is equal to approximately 12,000
Btu/hr. Therefore, 92,000 Btu/hr equals 7.6 tons and 58,000
Btu/hr is 4.8 tons of cooling, respectively. These calculations are
useful only for planning purposes and cannot be used to size an
actual HVAC system.
Knowing the approximate size of the plant is not as critical as

showing a change in the size was achieved using passive solar
systems. For most HVAC systems, the reduced cost of the cooling
component will more than offset the increased cost of the heating
component. In an HV system the increased cost of the heating
component is usually very minor.
When documenting changes in the size of the heating or cooling

equipment, it is best to denote the change as a percentage rather
than as an absolute value, because this is not an engineering
calculation of an HVAC system. Thus, a reduction in cooling
capacity of 37%, or an increase in heating capacity of 5% may be
more useful than stating that it is anticipated that the passive
system will reduce the cooling plant from 78,000 Btu/hr to 58,000
Btu/hr. When the first cost of the HVAC system in a passive
solar building is less than the HVAC system in the nonsolar
building, it provides further justification for the use of the
passive solar system.

Example 1: As the previous discussion shows, determining performance

characteristics for a given passive solar building follows much the
A Credit Union same process used to determine the detailed nonsolar building
performance. The purpose of doing a detailed passive building
performance analysis is to document the energy and energy cost
savings associated with the passive building.
Step 7 The total energy use, energy use priority, and peak demand for
the example 10,000 sf administration building using sawtooth
apertures for daylighting, as compared with the conventional
nonsolar building, are as follows:
o Total energy use:
Nonsolar Bldg = 70,708 Btu / sf-yr

Passive Solar Bldg = 53,916 Btu / sf-yr
o Energy use priority (in Btu/sf-yr):
Nonsolar Building Passive Solar Building
QHeat = 16,050 QHeat = 24,747

QCool = 15,697 QCool = 13,587
QLite = 28,707 QLite = 5,985
QVent = 5,161 QVent = 4,475
QProc = 5,161 QProc = 5,161
o Peak Demand (w/sf):
Nonsolar Peak = 7.1 (w/sf)

Solar Peak = 4.8 (w/sf)
From the above information, the solar building uses 23.7% less
energy than does the nonsolar building. This decrease is
primarily in lighting (79% reduction) and cooling (13%
reduction), with an offsetting increase in heating (54% increase)
energy use. Peak demand is 71 kW for the nonsolar case and 48
kW for the passive solar case, a savings of 32% in needed utility
capacity. Figure 5-4 is representative of a small administrative
building employing a daylighting passive system.
Annual Energy Use Total energy use per year can also be calculated from the total
energy per square foot data. For the conventional nonsolar
building, the total energy use is approximately 707,000,000 Btu’s
per year (10,000 sf x 70708 Btu/sf-yr); for the passive solar
building, it is 539,000,000 Btu’s per year. This is a savings of
168,000,000 Btu’s per year.
Step 8 Energy costs comparisons are as follows:
o Total energy costs:
Nonsolar Bldg = $1.29 per sf-yr

Passive Solar Bldg = $0.92 per sf-yr
Volume II
o Energy cost priority (in $/sf-yr):
Nonsolar Building Passive Solar Building
$Heat = 0.112 $Heat = 0.168

$Cool = 0.557 $Cool = 0.505
$Lite = 0.517 $Lite = 0.114
$Othr = 0.103 $Othr = 0.103
Energy cost savings (1987 dollars) are approximately 28% in the

passive solar building. Total energy costs would be $12,900 for
the conventional nonsolar building, as compared with $9,200 for
the passive solar building.
The HVAC equipment comparisons are as follows: Step 9
o Heating Plant:
Nonsolar = 250,000 Btu/hr

Solar = 320,000 Btu/hr
o Cooling Plant
Nonsolar = 340,000 Btu/hr Solar = 260,000 Btu/hr

Nonsolar = 28 tons Solar = 22 tons
The heating plant has increased 28% in size, the cooling plant
decreased 21%. The net impact is likely to be reduced first costs
in the passive solar building. The impact of the HVAC system
size changes on the economics of the building construction are
discussed in Volume IV: Passive Solar Design.
Figure 5-4: Security State Bank, Wells, Minnesota

Combinations Of In the credit union example, a single daylighting concept was

Passive Solar analyzed. In many cases, combinations of passive solar options
must be considered. The data in Appendix E was not intended to
Systems provide information about combinations of passive solar systems.
Therefore, a set of guidelines has been developed to help you
document the impact of combined passive systems.
There are five passive solar system combination guidelines:
1. Passive heating plus passive cooling.
Use the heating (energy use, energy cost, HVAC system)

Heating + Cooling values for the passive heating system, plus the lighting,
cooling, ventilation, and process energy values from the
passive cooling system.
2. Passive heating plus daylighting.
Determine the net heating value from the combination of

Heating + Daylighting passive heating and daylighting, plus the lighting,
cooling, ventilation, and process energy values from the
daylighting system.
3. Passive cooling plus daylighting.
Determine the net cooling value from the combination of

Cooling + Daylighting passive cooling and daylighting, plus the values for
lighting, heating, ventilation, and process energy from
the daylighting system performance data.
4. Passive heating, cooling, and daylighting.
Determine the net heating from the passive heating and

Heating, Cooling, and daylighting system performance, the net cooling from the
Daylighting combination of passive cooling and daylighting.
Determine all other values from the daylighting system
performance data.
5. Converting an HVAC system to an HV system.
Set the cooling load to 0.0 for both the base and passive
cases. Recalculate total energy use. Set cooling cost to
HVAC systems 0.0 and recalculate values for all other uses. Add 6% to
represent ventilation energy costs. Set cooling peak
demand and HVAC system size to 0.0.
To illustrate the application of these rules, imagine a case in

which natural ventilation in combination with daylighting is to
be analyzed (Combination Guideline 3: Passive Cooling plus
Daylighting). If the cooling energy uses are 21,208 (Btu/sf-yr),
18,085 (Btu/sf-yr), and 13,005 (Btu/sf-yr) for the conventional
nonsolar building, a naturally ventilated building, and a
daylighted building, respectively, then the net cooling energy use
44 Volume II
is determined in three operations:
determine net cooling savings from natural

ventilation.
determine net cooling savings from daylighting.
determine net cooling savings from combined
systems.
That is:
Example Use Of Guidelines
Ventilation savings = Conventional - NVent = 21,208 - 18,085
= 3,123 Btu/sf-yr
Daylight savings = Conventional - Daylt = 21,208 - 13,005

= 8,203 Btu/sf-yr
Net savings = Conventional - (net vent + net daylt)

= 21,208 - (3,123 + 8,203)
= 9,882 Btu/sf-yr
The procedure for determining net heating savings is similar.

Given a combined passive heating plus daylighting system
(Combination Guideline 2), if the conventional nonsolar building
heating energy use is 17,464 Btu/sf-yr, the passive heating
system heating energy use is 12,403 Btu/sf-yr and the
daylighting system heating use is 19,710 Btu/sf-yr, then the net
energy use would be:
Heating savings = Conventional - Heating = 17,464 - 12,403

= 5,067 Btu/sf-yr
Daylight savings = Conventional - Daylt = 17,464 - 19,710

= -2,246 Btu/sf-yr
Net savings = Conventional - (Net Heating +

Net Daylt)
= 17,464 - (5,067 - 2,246) = 14,649 Btu/sf-yr
Note that the combined effect of the daylighting plus passive

heating produces a net energy savings for heating as opposed to
the increase produced by the daylighting system alone.
These guidelines for combining the results of several cases

provide a manual method for approximating the net result of a
combination of two or more passive solar features. The same
basic rules are used to calculate net energy use, net energy costs,
peak demand, and HVAC system size.
A majority of the buildings ultimately constructed as a result of

the recommendations in this handbook will make use of a variety
of appropriate passive concepts. Therefore, we believe that it is
important that you learn how to calculate the impact of combined
systems on energy use and costs.

Example 2: This building will be assumed to have two passive solar features,
direct gain (DG) for heating and skylights (SKY) for daylighting.
A Warehouse The building is located in Climate Region 2. Data is from
Appendix E. Figure 5-5 is representative of a warehouse
employing daylight and direct gain passive solar features.
The total energy use, energy use priority, and peak demand for
the example 5,000 sf warehouse using both direct gain and
skylights as compared with the conventional nonsolar building
are as follows:
Step 7 o Total energy use:
Nonsolar building = 25,127 Btu/sf-yr
Solar, direct gain = 21,584 Btu/sf-yr

Solar, daylighting = 23,252 Btu/sf-yr
Combined Solar = 19,801 Btu/sf-yr (see below)
o Energy use priority (in Btu/sf-yr):
Nonsolar building:
QHeat = 16,056
QLite = 7,086
QVen = 1,985
Solar, direct gain Solar, daylighting
QHeat = 12,605 QHeat = 19,252

QLite = 2,000
QVent = 2,000
Direct gain savings = 16,056 - 12,605 = 3,451
Daylighting savings = 16,056 - 19,252 = -3,196
Net QHeat = 16,056 - (3,451 - 3,196) = 15,801
Combined Solar Energy Use:
QHeat = 15,801
QLite = 2,000
QVent = 2,000
QTot = 19,801 Btu/sf-yr
o Peak Demand (w/sf):
Nonsolar building Solar, daylighting
Peak = 0.7 Peak = 0.3
46 Volume II
From this information, it is shown that the solar building uses

21.1% less energy than does the nonsolar building. Energy use
reductions are primarily in lighting (28% reduction) and heating
(2% reduction).
Total energy use per year can also be calculated from the total
per square foot data. For the conventional nonsolar building the
total energy use is approximately 125,000,000 Btu’s per year
(5,000 sf x 25127 Btu/sf-yr); for the passive building it is
99,000,000 Btu’s per year. This is a savings of 26,000,000 Btu’s
per year.
Peak demand is 3.5kW for the nonsolar building and 1.5kW for Step 8
the passive building, a savings of 57% in needed utility capacity.
Energy cost comparisons are as follows:
o Total energy costs:
Nonsolar building = $0.26 per sf-yr
Solar, heat = $0.24 per sf-yr
Solar, daylight = $0.17 per sf-yr
Solar, combined = $0.15 per sf-yr (see below)
o Energy cost priority (in $/sf-yr):
Nonsolar building:
$Heat = 0.109
Solar, direct gain Solar, daylighting
$Heat = 0.088 $Heat = 0.127

$Lite = 0.023
$Cool = 0.020
Direct gain savings = 0.109 - 0.088 = 0.021
Daylighting savings = 0.109 - 0.127 = -0.018
Net $Heat savings = 0.109- (0.021-0.018) = 0.106
Combined Solar Energy Costs:
$Heat = 0.106
$Lite = 0.023
$Cool = 0.020
$Othr = 0.000
$Tot = 0.149 $/sf-yr

Energy cost savings (1987 dollars) are approximately 43% in the

passive solar building. Total energy costs would be $1,300 for the
conventional nonsolar building as compared with $745 for the
passive solar building.
No net savings are achieved in heating energy costs; however,

this is an improvement over the performance characteristics of
most daylighting systems when used alone. Lighting energy costs
are reduced 82% and cooling costs remain unchanged. The
cooling energy costs are to ventilate the building using an HV
system.
Step 9 The HV equipment comparisons are as follows:
o Heating Plant:
Nonsolar = 85,000 Btu/hr Solar = 85,000 Btu/hr
The detailed calculations shown in this section can provide

justification for the use of passive solar systems in the proposed
warehouse.
Figure 5-5: McCaffrey Warehouse, Fort Collins, Colorado
48 Volume II

CLEAR
HDD (Range) 7,000 to 21,000
EIELSON
CDD (Range) 0 to 50 ELMENDORF
KING SALMON
LEH (Range) 0 to 100 SHEMYA
SONDRESTROM
THULE

CHANUTE KUNSAN OTIS
HDD (Range) 4,750 to 11,000 ELLSWORTH LORING PEASE
FAIRCHILD MALMSTROM PLATTSBURGH
CDD (Range) 500 to 1250
GRAND FORKS MCGUIRE WILLOW GROVE
LEH (Range) 2,500 to 10,000 GRIFFISS MINOT WRIGHT-PATTERSON
GRISSOM MISAWA WURTSMITH
RAD (Range) 0.40 to 0.60 HANSCOM OFFUTT YOKOTA
K. I. SAWYER OSAN

BEALE NORTON
HDD (Range) 1,250 to 6,000
CASTLE ONIZUKA
CDD (Range) 0 to 2,250 GEORGE TRAVIS

MARCH VANDENBERG
LEH (Range) 0 to 3,000 MATHER
MCCLELLAN
MCCHORD

FALCON PETERSEN
HDD (Range) 4,500 to 10,000
F.E. WARREN USAF ACADEMY
CDD (Range) 0 to 1,500 HILL
INDIAN SPRINGS
LEH (Range) 0 to 1,000
LOWRY
RAD (Range) 0.50 to 0.70 MOUNTAIN HOME

NELLIS

CANNON WILLIAMS
HDD (Range) 1,000 to 6,000
DAVIS-MONTHAN WOOMERA
CDD (Range) 250 to 2,250 EDWARDS
HOLLOMAN
LEH (Range) 5,000 to 15,000 KIRTLAND
RAD (Range) 0.60 to 0.75 LUKE

REESE

ALTUS EAKER SEYMOUR JOHNSON
HDD (Range) 1,750 to 5,000
ANDREWS LANGLEY SHAW
CDD (Range) 650 to 2,500 ARNOLD LITTLE ROCK TINKER
BOLLING MCCONNELL WHITEMAN
LEH (Range) 10,000 to 20,000 CHARLESTON POPE WHITEMAN
DOBBINS ROBINS SHAW
DOVER SCOTT WHITEMAN

BERGSTROM KELLY
HDD (Range) 1,500 to 4,000
BROOKS LACKLAND
CDD (Range) 1,750 to 3,500 CARSWELL LAUGHLIN
COLUMBUS MAXWELL
LEH (Range) 15,000 to 27,500 DYESS RANDOLPH
GOODFELLOW SHEPPARD
GUNTER VANCE

ANDERSON
HDD (Range) 0
ASCENSION (EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC OCEAN - Not Shown)
CDD (Range) 2,500 to 5,000 CLARK

DIEGO GARCIA
LEH (Range) 17,500 to 30,000 HICKAM
HOWARD
WHEELER

ABINGDON GREENHAM COMMON WETHERSFIELD
HDD (Range) 1,500 to 4,000
ALCONBURY HIGH WYCOMBE WOODBRIDGE
CDD (Range) 0 to 500 BENTWATERS LAKENHEATH
CHICKSANDS MILDENHALL
LEH (Range) 0 to 500 C.N.A. (SOESTERBURG) MOLESWORTH
CROUGHTON SCULTHORPE
FLORENNES UPPER HEYFORD

BITBURG RHINE ORDINANCE
HDD (Range) 4,000 to 7,500
HAHN SEMBACH
CDD (Range) 0 to 1,000 HESSISCH-OLDENDORF SPANGDAHLEM
KAPAUN VOGELWEH
LEH (Range) 500 to 2,000 LANDSTUHL WERSCHEIM
RAMSTEIN
RHEIN MAIN
Azores

ANKARA IZMIR
HDD (Range) 2,000 to 6,500
AVIANO LAJES FIELD
CDD (Range) 1,000 to 2,500 COMISO SAN VITO
CRETONE TORREJON
LEH (Range) 1,000 to 7,500 HELLENIKON ZARAGOZA
INCIRLIK
IRAKLION

BARKSDALE MACDILL
HDD (Range) O to 1,750
EGLIN MOODY
CDD (Range) 2,250 to 4,500 ENGLAND PATRICK
HOMESTEAD TYNDALL
LEH (Range) 15,OOO to 27,500 HURLBURT
KADENA
KEESLER

Code
A,B,C,D 100-000 C31 FACILITY
I,J,K,L 111-000 ACFT OPS/MAINT FACILITY
A,B,C 120-000 POL OPS FACILITY
A,B 121-111 PETROLEUM OPS BUILDING
NC 121-120 QUICK-TURN FACILITY
G 130-142 FIRE STATION
A,B,C 130-833 CENTRAL SECURITY CONTROL
A,B,C 130-835 SP OPERATIONS
D 131-111 TELECOMM CENTER
D 131-118 DIGITAL FACILITY
D 131-132 SATCOM GROUND TERMINAL
D 131-134 AIR COMM FACILITY
D 131-136 AIR COMM RELAY FACILITY
D 131-138 RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER FACILITY
D 131-139 MICROWAVE RELAY STATION
D 131-143 RADAR FACILITY
NC 134-XXX REMOTE CONTROL AND GROUND CONTROL FAC
NC 134-375 RAPCON
A,B,C 140-000 COMMAND POST
A,B,C 140-453 MOBILITY READINESS FACILITY
A,B,C 140-454 ORDINANCE CONTROL
NC 140-459 CREW READINESS/COMBAT CONTROL FAC
A,B,C 140-461 USAF COMMAND POST
A,B,C 140-753 SQ OPERATIONS
A,B 141-000 COMMAND POST
G 141-165 EXPLOSIVE ORDINANCE DISPOSAL
D 141-383 AUDIO-VISUAL FACILITY
NC 141-389 TV PRODUCTION FACILITY
A,B 141-451 COMPUTER FACILITY
A,B,C 141-453 BASE OPERATIONS
D 141-454 MOBILITY READINESS FACILITY
A,B 141-455 ORDINANCE CONTROL

A Administration, <5000 SF K Maintenance Facility, with HVAC
B Administration, >5000 SF L Maintenance Facility, Low-Bay
C Administration, Multistory M Auditorium, Cinema, Theatre
D Administration, Computer Facility N Training Facility, School, <5000 SF
E Dining or Food Service Facility O Training Facility, School, >5000 SF
F Dormitory P Training Facility, Multistory
G Fire Station Q Gymnasium
H Industrial Facility R Warehouse, Storage Facility
I Maintenance Facility, <5000 SF NC No current building type category
J Maintenance Facility, High-Bay
61

Code
NC 141-626 CONTROL TOWER

NC 141-629 WEATHER OBSERVATION FACILITY
NC 141-743 BASE PHOTO LAB
NC 141-745 COMBAT TARGET CTR
NC 141-747 PPIF FACILITY
NC 141-748 PASSENGER TERMINALS
A,B,C,D 141-750 TECH OPERATIONS FAC
NC 141-766 CHEMICAL LABORATORY
R 141-782 AIR FREIGHT TERMINAL
R 141-783 AIR FREIGHT TERMINAL PART (ONLY)
NC 141-784 AIR PASSENGER TERMINALS
NC 149-962 TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER
D 171-152 COMBAT MANEUV INSTRU FACILITY
N,O,P 171-158 BAND CTR
N,O,P 171-211 FLYING TRAINING CLASSROOM
D 171-212 FLIGHT SIMULATOR TRAINING
N,O,P 171-213 FLIGHT TRAINING UNIT
N,O,P 171-214 PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAINING
A,B,C 171-356 HISTORICAL RESEARCH CENTER
A,B,C 171-445 SQUAD OPS FACILITY
R 171-472 RANGE SUPPLY AND EQUIPMENT STORAGE
L,R 171-473 RANGE TARGET STORAGE AND REPAIR
NC 171-475 INDOOR SMALL-ARMS RANGE
NC 171-476 SMALL-ARMS MARKSMANSHIP TRAINING
D 171-611 SCIENTIFIC FACILITY
N,O,P 171-618 FIELD TRAINING FACILITY
A,B,C,D 171-620 COMBAT LOGISTICS SUPPORT FACILITY
D 171-621 TECH TRAINING FACILITY
N,O,P 171-623 TECH TRAINING LAB/SHOP
N,O,P 171-623 AVIONICS ACADEMIC CLASSROOMS
NC 171-625 LIQ FUELS TRAINING FAC
J 171-625 HIGH-BAY TECH TRAINING FAC
N,O,P 171-712 TARGET INTELLIGENCE TRAINING
D 171-810 RADAR BOMB-SCORE FACILITY
N,O,P 171-813 SAFETY EDUCATION FACILITY
N,O,P 171-815 NCO PME CENTER
N,O,P 171-851 LEADERSHIP DEV COMPLEX
N,O,P 171-873 AERIAL PORT

62

Code
N,O,P 171-875 MUNITIONS LOAD-REW TRAINING FAC

NC 179-475 SMALL ARMS TRAINING
I,J,K,L 200-000 ACFT MAINTENANCE & MGMT FAC
I,J,K,L,R 210-000 MUNI MAINTENANCE/STORAGE FAC
I,K,L 210-000 MUNITIONS MAINT FAC
L 211-XXX LOW-BAY INSTRU/ELECT EQUIP MAINT SHOP
J 211-111 HANGAR
NC 211-111 FUEL SYSTEMS MAINT DOCK
NC 211-133 FUEL ACCESSORIES TEST FACILITY
I,K,L,R 211-147 AIRCRAFT WEAPONS CAL SHELTER
I,J,L 211-152 ACFT MAINTENANCE
NC 211-152 LOW-BAY
J 211-152 MAINTENANCE HANGAR
NC 211-153 NDI LAB
J 211-154 HIGH-BAY FACILITY
I,J,K,L 211-157 GENERAL PURPOSE/NDI/ACFT ORG MAINT SHOP
J 211-159 CORROSION CONTROL FAC
J 211-159 CORROSION CONTROL FACILITY
I,J,K 211-179 FUEL SYSTEMS MAINT FACILITY
NC 211-179 FUEL SYST MAINT FACILITY
NC 211-254 CONSOLIDATED FUEL CONTROL FACILITY
NC 211-271 DEPOT INSTRUMENT OH SHOP
I,J,K,L 211-271 DEPOT INSTN OVERHAUL SHOP
R 212-213 MUNITIONS MAINT AND STORAGE
L,R 212-213 MUNITIONS MAINTENANCE/STORAGE
I,J,K,L 212-216 MISSILE MAINTENANCE SHOP
I,J,K,L 213-XXX TACTICAL MISSILE/GUIDE WEAPON MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 213-636 MARINE MAINT SHOP
NC 214-425 VEHICLE MAINTENANCE FACILITY

A Administration, <5000 SF J Maintenance Facility, High-Bay
B Administration, >5000 SF K Maintenance Facility, with HVAC
E Dining or Food Service Facility N Training Facility, School, <5000 SF
F Dormitory O Training Facility, School, >5000 SF
I Maintenance Facility, <5000 SF R Warehouse, Storage Facility
63

Code
I,J,K,L 215-XXX WEAPONS & MUNITIONS MAINT SHOP

I,J,K,L 216-642 AMMO MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 217-000 VEHICLE MAINT FAC
NC 217-000 MAINT/STORAGE AND VEH PARKING FAC
K 217-712 AVIONICS REPAIR FAC
I,J,K,L 217-713 AIRCRAFT EQM POD SHOP
I,J,L,R 217-713 POD SHOP AND STORAGE
K 217-713 HAVAIDS COMM MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 217-735 ENGINEERING TEST FAC
I,J,K,L 217-812 EW MAINT FAC
I,J,K,L 218-712 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT SHOP
A,B,C,D 218-712 ACFT SUP EQUIP FAC
L 217-762 HVACAIDS COMM MAINT SHOP
I,J,K,L 218-852 PARACHUTE-EGRESS FACILITY
NC 218-868 PRECISION MEASUREMENT LAB
I,J,K,L 219-000 BCE COMPLEX
H 220-XXX PRODUCTION
D 310-916 COMPUTER SERVICE CTR
NC 310-921 BIOCOMMUNICATIONS LAB
NC 310-922 OPTICAL SYS LAB
NC 310-926 MICROWAVE LAB
A,B,C,D 311-173 ACFT SYS ENG FAC
I,J,K,L 311-174 TEST & EVALUATION FAC
I,J,K,L 315-236 GUIDED WEAPON & EVAL FAC
I,J,K,L 317-311 ELECT TEC/RESEARCH LAB
I,J,K,L 317-315 SYS MGT ENG FAC
I,J,K,L 317-932 AVIONICS RESEARCH LAB
I,J,K,L 318-612 ACFT FIRE PROT/EXPL RES FAC
R 318-612 PROPANE LAB STORAGE
I,J,K,L 319-946 HAZARDOUS-MATTER EVAL FAC
NC 319-951 TEST TRACK FACILITY

64

Code
A,B,C 400-000 COMMAND POST, SUPPORT

NC 411-135 HYDRANT FUEL SYSTEM AND STORAGE
R 411-628 TOOLING SHED
R 422-250 OPS/MUNITIONS STORAGE FAC
R 422-258 MUNITIONS STORAGE FACILITY
R 422-264 MUNITIONS STORAGE IGLOOS
R 422-275 MUNITIONS PRELOAD COMPLEX
R 441-758 DEPOT WAREHOUSE
R 442-000 RRR EQUIPMENT STORAGE
NC 442-275 ANCILLARY EXPLOSIVE COMPLEX
NC 442-515 MEDICAL STORAGE
NC 442-750 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT COMPLEX
J,R 442-758 AIRCRAFT WAREHOUSE/RRR EQUIP STORAGE
R 442-765 TROOP SUBSISTENCE WAREHOUSE
R 442-768 FORMS/PUBLICATIONS WAREHOUSE
R 442-769 HOUSING SUPPLY/STORAGE FACILITY
NC 510-XXX HOSPITAL BUILDING
NC 510-411 DISPENSARIES
NC 510-713 MEDICAL LOGISTICS FACILITY
NC 530-XXX LABORATORIES
NC 550-XXX DISPENSARIES
A,B,C 610-000 CONSOLIDATED SUPPORT CENTER/LOG FAC
A,B,C,I 610-100 ACFT MAINTENANCE MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-111 AREA DEFENSE OFFICE
A,B,C 610-112 LAW OFFICE
A,B,C 610-119 FAMILY-HOUSING MGMT OFFICE
A,B,C 610-121 VOA
A,B,C 610-122 BSA
A,B,C 610-127 BASE ENGINEERING ADMIN
A,B,C 610-128 BASE PERSONNEL OFFICE
A,B,C 610-129 WEAPONS SYS MUNITIONS MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-142 TRAFFIC MGMT FAC
A,B,C 610-144 MUNITIONS MAINT ADMIN
A,B,C 610-200 CONSOLIDATED SUP FAC

65

Code
F 610-241 ORDERLY ROOM, DORMATORY

A,B,C 610-243 AEROMED EVAC AIRLIFT SQ/ACB FAC
A,B,C 610-249 WING HEADQUARTERS
A,B,C 610-282 SUPPORT OFFICE
A,B,C 610-284 RECRUITING GROUP FAC
A,B,C 610-285 COMBAT CONTROL OFFICE
A,B,C 610-286 AIR DIV HEADQUARTERS
N,O,P 610-287 INSTRUCTIONAL FAC
A,B,C 610-675 SUPPORT CENTER
A,B,C 610-915 OSA BUILDING
F 720-000 UPH
E,F 721-215 DINING HALL IN DORMITORY
F 721-311 RECRUITS DORMITORY
F 721-312 AIRMEN PERMANENT PARTY/PCS-STUDENT DORM
F 721-315 VISITING AIRMEN QUARTERS DORM
E 722-351 AIRMEN DETACHED DINING HALL
E 722-356 OFFICERS DINING HALL
NC 723-XXX KITCHEN
F 724-415 UOPH
F 724-417 TRANSIENT BILLETING
F 730-XXX CONFINEMENT FACILITY (STOCKADE)
G 730-142 FIRE STATION/CRASH RESCUE OFFICE
NC 730-182 BREAD BAKERY
NC 730-186 PASTRY BAKERY
N,O,P 730-441 EDUCATION CENTER
NC 730-443 POST OFFICE
NC 730-717 CLOTHING STORE
NC 730-771 CHAPEL
N,O,P 730-772 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CENTER
N,O 730-774 HOSPITAL CHAPEL
E 730-781 DEPENDENT BOARDING SCHOOL DINING HALL
NC 730-782 DEPENDENT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
F 730-782 DEPENDENT BOARDING FACILITY
NC 730-785 DEPENDENT HIGH SCHOOL

66

Code
NC 730-821 MATERIAL PROCESSING DEPOT
A,B,C 730-832 SECURITY POLICE CONTROL & IDENT
A,B,C 730-833 SP CENTRAL CONTROL
A,B,C 730-835 SP CENTRAL OP
NC 730-836 RESERVE FIRE TRAINING FAC
D 730-838 MASTER SURVEILLANCE & CONTROL FAC
A 730-839 GUARD HOUSE
NC 730-842 SECURITY POLICE KENNEL SUPPORT
A,B,C 740-000 CONSOLIDATED PERSONNEL SUP CTR
A,B,C 740-155 CREDIT UNIONS
A,B,C 740-153 BRANCH BANKS
A,B,C 740-171 RED CROSS OFFICE
A,B,C 740-253 FAMILY SERVICES CENTER
NC 740-255 THRIFT SHOP
NC 740-266 STORE
K 740-266 COMMISSARY STORE
K 740-269 BASE PACKAGE STORE
E 740-315 ROD AND GUN CLUB
E 740-316 RECREATION CENTER
E 740-317 AERO CLUB
NC 740-379 BX AMUSEMENT TR
E 740-381 BX CAFETERIA AND SNACK BAR
NC 740-382 BRANCH BASE EXCHANGE
I,J,K,L 740-385 BX MAINT SHOP
A,B,C 740-386 BX ADMIN
NC 740-388 BASE EXCHANGE
K 740-389 SERVICE OUTLET
F 740-443 TLF
E 740-615 CONSOLIDATED OPEN MESS
E 740-617 OFFICERS CLUB
E 740-618 NCO CLUB
E 740-62X AIRMEN OPEN MESS
E 740-732 RESTAURANT
E 740-735 BASE RESTAURANT
N,O 740-644 ARTS & CRAFTS CTR
L 740-665 AUTO HOBBY SHOP

67
F 740-666 RECREATION SITE LODGING

NC 740-668 MISCELLANEOUS RECREATION BLDG
A,B,C 740-669 COMPOSITE RECREATION BLDG
Q 740-673 FIELD HOUSE
Q 740-674 GYMNASIUM
A,B,C 740-675 LIBRARY
NC 740-677 INDOOR SWIMMING POOL
M 740-873 BASE THEATRE
NC 740-883 YOUTH CLUB
N,O,P 740-884 CHILD CARE CENTER
NC 760-XXX MUSEUMS AND MEMORIALS
H 890-XXX OTHER

68
69
70
71
72
75
76
77
78
80
Energy Cost Savings Appendix D
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

D+S = Direct Gain with Storage NMV = Night Mechanical Ventilation WIN = Window(s)
IND = Indirect Gain NVN = Natural Ventilation SKY = Skylights
DG = Direct Gain SAW = Sawtooth
SUN = Sunspace MON = Monitor
ATR = Atrium
81
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

D G = Direct Gain SAW = Sawtooth
ATR = Atrium
82
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
83
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
84
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

I N D = Indirect Gain NVN = Natural Ventilation SKY = Skylights
ATR = Atrium
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

I N D = Indirect Gain NVN = Natural Ventilation SKY = Skylights
ATR = Atrium
86
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
87
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
88
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
89
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

SUN = Sunspace M O N Monitor
ATR = Atrium
90
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%
Heat Cool Daylight

ATR = Atrium
91
No Savings < 5% 5% - 10% 10% - 15% > 15%

Heat Cool Daylight
ATR = Atrium
92
CLIMATE REGION 1 Appendix E
CLIMATE REGION 2
CLIMATE REGION 4
CLIMATE REGION 4
CLIMATE REGION 6
CLIMATE REGION 10
CLIMATE REGION 12
Index

used to separate volumes. For instance, for the entry A i r

AFRCE: (III) 6
Air
temperature: (II) 5
ATR: see atrium
Base comprehensive plan (BCP): (I) 20; (II) 1

BCP: see base comprehensive plan B
Building
multistory: (II) 25
passive: (II) 34
redesign: (I) 3
schedule: (II) 10
shape: (I) 29; (II) 4, 6
type: (I) 32; (II) 13, 18, 21, 24
CBD: see Commerce Business Daily C

CDD: see cooling degree day
Climate: (I) 33

Index

Collection
daylighting: (I) 3
Control
daylighting: (I) 3

Daylight
Daylighting
concepts: (I) 1
core: (I) 13
DD Form 1391: (II) 32; (III) 1, 16
five year plan: (III) 2, 16
Item 9: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2,4,5, 16
Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab K: (III) 6
166 Volume II
Index

DG: see direct gain
DI’s: see design instructions
Distribution
daylighting: (I) 3
Electric lighting: (II) 39

automated controls: (I) 19 E
Energy use
end use: (II) 15, 19, 21
Five year plan: (III) 2, 16 F
HDD: see heating degree day

Heating degree day (HDD): (I) 33, 34 G, H
analysis: (II) 40
plant size: (II) 41

Index

Humidity: (I) 26
I Indirect gain systems: (I) 5

energy use: (II) 10
variables: (I) 42
sunspaces: (I) 5, 9
Item 9: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2, 4, 5, 16
Latent enthalpy hour: (I) 33, 35

J, K, L LEH: see latent enthalpy hour
M MAJCOM

NMV: see night mechanical ventilation

P Passive building
energy use: (II) 34
168 Volume II
Index

components: (I) 2
Peak demand: (I) 45; (II) 16, 18, 19, 21
costs: (I) 45
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab 0: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
RAD: see radiation and daylight Q, R

Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR): (I) 1; (II) 1 S

SAW see sawtooth aperture
Shading: (I) 10
coefficient: (I) 10
daylighting: (I) 11
Shape
building: (II) 4, 6
elongated: (II) 6
Site planning
daylighting: (I) 28

Index

SKY: see skylight aperture
Solar gains: (I) 26
Step 1: (II) 12
Step 2: (II) 13
Step 3: (II) 12
Step 4: (II) 16
Step 5: (II) 27
Step 6: (II) 27, 29
Step 7: (II) 34
Step 8: (II) 37
Step 9: (II) 40
Step 10: (III) 1
SUN: see sunspaces
T Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab K: (III) 6
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab O: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
170 Volume II
Index

Weather: (I) 33
WIN: see windows


Programming Guide
Volume III
Foreword
energy. Since the oil embargo of the early 1970's, the Air Force


Volume I: Introduction to Passive Solar Concepts

Volume IV: Passive Solar Design (proposed)
This is the third volume of the series.

Programming Guide i
Acknowledgements

Michael J Holtz, A.I.A. President


(303) 444-4149 FAX (303) 444-4304
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
1.0 How To Use This Volume 1
Introduction 1
Preparing Documents Using This Volume 1
2.0 Preparing DD Form 1391 2
Introduction 2
Five-Year Plan Submission 2
35% Design Submission 5
3.0 Preparing a Project Book 6
Introduction 6
Project Book 6
Tab B 7
Tab C 7
Tab D 8
Tab E 9
Tab F 9
Tab J 10
Tab M 10
Tab N 10
Tab P 11
4.0 Preparing Design Instructions 12
5.0 Preparing a CBD Announcement 13
Introduction 13
Project Description 13
Evaluation Factors 14
A-E Forms 254 and 255 Evaluation 14
Standard Form 254 15
Standard Form 255 15
6.0 Checklist 16
Introduction 16
Preparing DD Form 1391 16
Preparing a Project Book 16
Preparing Design Instructions 18
Preparing a CBD Announcement 19
Index 21
Programming Guide iii

iv Volume III
How To Use This Volume 1.0
This volume of the handbook supports the process of Introduction

programming Air Force commercial-type (nonfamily housing)
facilities. Its focus is the inclusion of passive solar design
information in standard Air Force facility programming
documents. The goal is to reduce energy consumption in
commercial-type facilities through the application of reliable and
cost-effective passive solar design concepts. This goal can be
achieved only if Air Force facility programmers are both
knowledgeable and sensitive to the requirements of passive solar
design, and also understand how to include passive solar design
requirements in programming documents.
Four key facility program documents are discussed in this

volume of the handbook:
DD Form 1391
Project Book Facility Planning Documents
Design Instructions
CBD Announcement
These documents represent the most important elements of the

decision-making process for determining the need for, cost of, and
design of Air Force commercial-type facilities. If passive solar
design is to be included or considered in a new facility, it must be
so stated consistently in each of these documents.
Each chapter discusses the preparation of one of these facility

programming documents. Where passive solar design
information should appear in these documents, it is presented
along with examples. A checklist is presented in Chapter 6.0 as a
reminder of the key points for preparing the program documents.
This checklist can be referred to at a later time without the need
to reread the entire manual.
Volume III, in total, represents Step 10 of the comprehensive Step 10:

planning process for passive solar facilities as presented in Complete Documentation
Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide. Step 10 is
concerned with the appropriate application of passive solar
design information in standard Air Force facility planning
documents.
Each of the four facility programming documents may be Preparing

prepared by different organizational units within the Air Force Documents Using
facility construction program. Therefore, the simplest way of
using this volume is for each Air Force organization to refer This Volume
directly to the chapter that describes the document for which
they are responsible. We recommend, however, that all chapters
be read so that the relationship of the various programming
documents is understood. This information will enable the
facility programming staff to prepare clear, concise documents
that effectively incorporate passive solar design information.
Programming Guide 1
2.0 Preparing DD Form
Introduction The proper and effective inclusion of passive solar design

information in DD Form 1391 enhances the probability of project
approval.
A DD Form 1391 is prepared at two distinct stages of the facility

planning and procurement process. Upon definition of a facility
need, a DD Form 1391 is prepared and included in the Base or
MAJCOM five-year plan. Assuming the project is accepted by the
Senior Air Staff and the Office of the Secretary of the Defense, a
second DD Form 1391 is prepared at the 35% design stage for
submission to Congress for construction funding approval.
Obviously, the level of information is very general in the five-year
plan submission and is more specific in the 35% design
submission. The appropriate locations and types of information
to include in each of the submissions are discussed below.
Five-Year Plan This DD Form 1391 submission initiates the multiyear process
for justifying, designing, and constructing an Air Force facility.
Submission This occurs at the conclusion of Base or MAJCOM
Comprehensive Planning where overall short-, mid-, and long-
term facility requirements have been established. Volume II of
the Passive Solar Handbook, Comprehensive Planning Guide,
will be used to identify the most energy cost saving passive solar
design features.
The portions of DD Form 1391 that are appropriate locations for

including passive solar design information are items 9 (Cost
Estimates: Supporting Facilities), 10 (Description of Proposed
Construction), and 11 (Requirement). Passive solar design
information and examples for each of the items are presented
below.
Item 9 Item 9 is divided into cost categories of Primary Facility,

Supporting Facilities, Contingency, and Supervision - Inspection
- Overhead. As a matter of general philosophy, all designs should
incorporate passive solar design features and the costs for these
features should be included in the Primary Facility budget.
However, where additional funding is required, beyond the
accepted unit cost per square foot guideline, and has been shown
to save energy costs (from Volume II, Comprehensive Planning
Guide), this amount should appear as a separate element within
the Supporting Facilities cost category entitled Passive Solar
Design. See Figure 2-1.
2
Preparing DD Form 1391 2.0
Figure 2-1: DD Form 1391, Item 9
Besides a general description of the proposed construction,

special elements or features of the project are described in Item Item 10
10. Passive solar design features determined to save energy costs
from Volume II can be discussed briefly. See Figure 2-2.
Programming Guide
2.0 Preparing DD Form 1391
The following are examples of phrases that could be used:
Perimeter and core daylighting techniques will be

used.
Multistory building surrounding an atrium for

daylighting, passive solar heating, and common
services with combination steel frame
and reinforced concrete structural elements
and masonry exterior walls; elevators, com-
munications, data-network prewiring, all utilities
and vehicle parking.
Single-story building with steel frame, concrete

slab floor, and clerestory windows for
daylighting and passive solar heating.
Volume I contains descriptions and examples of the various

passive solar heating, cooling, and daylighting concepts.
Item 11 Item 11 includes information on the Project Requirement,

Current Situation, Impact, and Additions and typically is
prepared by the facility's intended user (Figure 2-3). It
represents the justification for the proposed facility. The
compliance with public law, Executive Orders, and OSD
directives should be highlighted in the justification. A few
sample phrases are presented below.
Energy savings of 50% will be achieved over

current facilities housing these functions through
the use of renewable forms of energy in
compliance with PL 100-42 (S 1382).
Item 11
Project Requirement, Current
Situation, Impact, and Additions
4 Volume III
Preparing DD Form 1391 2.0
Consolidation of existing dispersed services into a central

facility will improve mission efficiency and at the same
time, reduce overall energy use by 55% as required by
DOD criteria.
At this stage, either through in-house staff or an A-E contract, a 35% Design
conceptual facility design has been developed. More detailed Submission
energy and economic analysis has been performed to assess the
cost-effectiveness of the previously identified passive solar design
features using Volume IV of the Passive Solar Handbook.
Consequently, it is possible to be more specific in the DD Form
1391 concerning the cost and benefits of the passive solar design
features.
Based on the A-E's preliminary design cost estimate, any Item 9:

additional cost for the passive solar design features should be Cost Estimates
included under the Supporting Facilities cost category. These
costs can be specified as cost per square foot (SF) or as a lump
sum (LS) cost.
The specific passive solar features included in the design should Item 10:
be summarized. Only the major passive solar features need to be Description of Proposed
presented. The phrasing examples from the five-year plan Construction
submission are also appropriate for the 35% design submission.
The overall justification for the facility likely will remain the Item 11:
same; however, you can be more exact regarding the anticipated Requirements
energy savings. The A-E should have performed energy and
economic analyses on the chosen passive solar design features.
Consequently, you can include these results in the revised DD
Form 1391. It may be useful to contrast the proposed building’s
energy performance with that of other such military facilities or
with private sector facilities. An example is as follows:
Facility predicted energy use is 30,000 Btu/sf-yr,

whereas the military energy budget for this
facility type is 50,000 Btu/sf-yr and typical
private energy use is approximately 60,000
Btu/sf-yr. This energy performance greatly
exceeds the DOD requirements for energy
efficiency.
Programming Guide 5
3.0 Preparing a Project Book
Introduction The Project Book contains data, criteria, functional requirements,

and cost information to support programming and design of Air
Force facilities. Base or MAJCOM design engineers normally
prepare the Project Book with the assistance of tenant and
supported units. The Project Book is used by:
HQ USAF/LEE HQ USAF/LEE Staff - to analyze project costs and to develop the

Congressional proposal;
AFRCE AFRCE - to ensure a clear, complete, and thorough statement of
facility requirements and inclusion of all required Air Force
policy directives;
Design Agent Design Agent - to instruct and guide the in-house design staff or
an A-E contractor during the design phase; and
Project Designer Project Designer - to develop preliminary and final designs that
meet all project requirements.
The table of contents of a Project Book is generally the same for

all projects. See Table 3-1.
Project Book The Project Book is organized into two parts - Part I: Design
Guidance and Part II: Project Support Data. The sections or tabs
of each part are as shown in Table 3-1, although not all Project
Books will have all sections/tabs.
The appropriate tabs in which passive solar design information

should be included are B, C, D, E, F, J, N, and P. The type of
information to include in these tabs and a few examples are
described in succeeding sections.
PART I - DESIGNGUIDANCE PART II - PROJECT SUPPORT DATA
Tab A Base Supplement Tab L Project Cost Estimate Worksheet

Tab B User Requirements Summary Tab M Air-conditioning/Heat Load Estimates
Tab C Site Description Tab N Energy Impact Statement
Tab D Architectural and Structural Considerations Tab O MAJCOM Review Comments
Tab E Mechanical Considerations Tab P Solar Energy System Application
Tab F Electrical Considerations
Tab G Water Supply-Waste Water Treatment
Tab H Environmental Considerations
Tab I Fire Protection Considerations
Tab J Maintainability
Tab K Communications
Table 3-1: Project Book, Part I and II
6 Volume III
Preparing a Project Book 3.0
Design criteria related to the function and operation of the Tab B

facility are described in this Tab, stated from the user’s
perspective. Issues of thermal comfort, lighting quality, and
design character should be defined. These and other issues are
important for defining the basic energy-related performance
requirements that the facility must satisfy.
Example phrasing of passive solar design information is

presented below:
Individual user control of heating, cooling, and

ventilation is desirable due to the wide variation
of functions housed in the facility.
Daylighting is the preferred approach to the

provision of general lighting requirements,
supplemented by task lighting at the individual
work stations.
An open plan arrangement is required to

facilitate efficient communications among all
staff, and maximize the potential of ventilative
cooling possible in this mild climate.
This Tab is a complete description of all project site Tab C

considerations and proposed changes that can affect the design.
Typically, a narrative description of the construction site
utilities, adjacent facilities, landscaping, climatic and
environmental conditions is discussed, and supporting data and
maps are included.
Site characteristics that may influence passive solar design

include size and shape of adjacent facilities and vegetation that
affect solar access, wind patterns, ground cover, and
topography. These passive solar design site characteristics
should be identified so that the designer takes them into account
during the design process.

presented below:
An existing three-story office building east of the

project site and a stand of coniferous trees west of
the project site will cast winter shadows on
portions of the site. The designer should position
the building to maximize solar access for
daylighting and passive solar heating.
15-20 mph winter winds from the northwest are

common to the project site. The designer should
attempt to minimize the impact of these winds
through interior space zoning (buffer spaces) or
with site vegetation and landscaping.
Programming Guide 7
Cool prevailing winds are common to the project

site during the summer months. Natural
ventilation should be evaluated in lieu of
mechanical cooling for maintaining acceptable
levels of comfort.
Tab D This Tab describes any unusual or special architectural and

structural requirements that must be considered in designing the
facility. The primary passive solar design information to be
included in this Tab is as follows:
Energy Budget Energy Budget for the Project - in thousands of Btu/sf-yr of

conditioned floor area.
Operating Schedule Operating Schedule - number of people expected to be housed in

the facility and their anticipated work schedule.
Conservation Standards Applicable Energy Conservation Standards or Requirements -

reference Air Force guidance or ASHRAE energy standards, if
appropriate, or list any building siting or orientation
requirements, insulation levels, glazing requirements, shading,
or other fenestration-related requirements.
Passive solar design feature descriptions list those passive solar

features found to save energy costs from Volume II analysis. The
designer will be required to consider these passive features and
conduct more detailed energy and economic analyses during the
design process.

presented below:
The building will be designed for a total energy

budget figure of 40,000 Btu/sf-yr. Life-cycle cost
analysis and computer energy analysis will be
performed per the latest version of ETL:
Computer Energy Analysis.
Air Force guidance on levels of insulation,

ventilation, lighting, and mechanical system
efficiency shall be used.
The building shall be designed for optimum use

of daylighting and passive solar heating. See the
United States Air Force Passive Solar Handbook,
Volume I: Introduction to Passive Solar Concepts.
8 Volume III
This Tab describes any unusual or special mechanical Tab E

requirements and conditions that must be considered during
HVAC system design. Passive solar design information to be
included in this Tab includes design integration of HVAC, energy
management, and passive system controls; disaggregated energy
budgets figures for heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and
process energy; and appropriate energy conservation measures.

presented below:
The total energy use for the project is 50,000 Btu/sf-yr.

(ETL: Energy Budget Figures), made up of the following
estimated end use energy budget figures:
Heating = 11,500 Btu/sf-yr

Cooling = 11,000 Btu/sf-yr
Ventilation = 3,500 Btu/sf-yr
Lighting = 20,500 Btu/sf-yr
Process = 3,500 Btu/sf-yr
Building Total = 50,000 Btu/sf-yr
The HVAC and passive system shall be designed to

integrate with the existing base EMCS. Follow AFM 88-
36 and guidance to be provided at the criteria review
conference.
This Tab describes any unusual or special electrical requirements Tab F

and conditions that must be considered during lighting and
electrical system design. Passive solar design information to be
presented in this Tab includes lighting controls tied to
daylighting systems, special motors, or fans that may be required
for the passive system, and potential for task lighting and core
daylighting concepts.

presented below:
Where daylighting is used, provide lighting

control systems, i.e., continuous dimmers or
stepped, to reduce intensity levels of electric
lighting when adequate daylight is available.
If general lighting is used, it shall be direct

fluorescent with low-temperature energy efficient
ballasts and lamps, as applicable. High-intensity
discharge types may be used where practical.
Incandescent lighting shall be minimal.
Consider using task and accent lighting.
Programming Guide 9
Core daylighting concepts shall be anal.yzed for

any interior offices and common areas.
Maintenance problems associated with previous passive solar

Tab J projects should be identified in this Tab so that the designer
avoids them in the current project. Examples of maintenance
problems and phrasing for this Tab are presented below:
Movable insulation shall not be used on this

project due to inconsistent and ineffective use by
typical building occupants and to numerous
maintenance problems experienced in previous
applications.
Exterior lightweight movable shading devices

shall not be used on this project because of the
high winds associated with the building site.
Tab M Although this Tab contains only a preliminary estimate of the air
conditioning load of the facility, it is important that impacts, both
positive and negative, of the passive solar design features be
recognized. Most simplified heating and cooling load calculation
procedures do not account for the dynamic daily and seasonal
performance of passive solar design features. Therefore, a
caution statement must be included in this Tab so that the
designer recognizes that the specified loads are only a first
approximation and do not consider the passive solar design
features.
This Tab is used when energy consumption or source availability

Tab N will have a major impact on the project. The information to be
addressed in this Tab includes: (a) types of energy to be used;
(b) reasons for their selection over other types; (c) long-term costs
and availability projections; (d) effect on the local market in the
area surrounding the specific installation; and (e) alternative
sources or systems which might reduce total demand or critical
energy source.
Passive solar design information is discussed in this Tab only so

far as it represents a major element in the energy impact of the
project. Otherwise, it is assumed that the other tabs provide
sufficient guidance and justification for energy conservation and
passive solar design. An example would be a facility where a
daytime interruption of power could not be tolerated and
maximum use of daylighting and other passive systems is
10 Volume III
necessary to maintain operations. The special conditions that

lead to the unique passive solar design requirements would be
discussed and justified in this Tab.
This Tab specifically identifies the passive solar design features Tab P
that must be evaluated by the designer. The information for the
Tab comes from Volume II analysis. The designer should be
given Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts and
Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide, so that he or she
understands the assumptions used to determine passive solar
design feasibility, and Volume IV, Passive Solar Design, so that
the required passive solar design energy and economic evaluation
methods are followed.
Programming Guide
4.0 Preparing Design Instructions
Design Instruction (DI) provides authority to the Design Manager,

through the AFRCE or MAJCOM, to initiate the facility design
process. DI's are issued by the Senior Air Staff through the
computerized PDC system. The DI PDC screen identifies the project,
provides key dates of authorizations, and presents the project budget
and scope. Of concern to passive solar design is the inclusion of funds
for the costs of passive solar design features. Listed as Solar
Programmed Amount (PA), this budget represents an estimate of
construction costs that will be associated with cost-effective passive
solar design features beyond what must be considered in all designs.
The Solar PA is determined in part through Volume II:
Comprehensive Planning Guide, and will appear on the DD Form
1391.
An important point to remember is that passive solar design features

must be considered for all facility projects, whether or not funds are
provided in the Solar PA. The project Programmed Amount includes
costs for passive solar design features assumed to involve no added
construction costs. The Solar PA is for passive solar design features
that will involve added construction costs, but which have been
determined from Volume II analysis to save energy costs.
C U R R E N T M C P D E S I G N I N S T R U C T I O N
PDC -------------
FY ----- REG ----- STATUS------------------------------------------------
REQ MAJCOM -------- HOST MAJCOM ------- DM ------- CM ----- PKGNO --------
DA CA
AUTHORITY FOR DESIGN

AF DI ISSUED DM DI ISSUED CURRENT DI ISSUED
ON . . ------ ON . . . . ------ ON . . . . ------
DESIGN AUTH AF ADVERTISING AF CONTR AWARD

TO. . --- % AUTH . . ------ AUTH . . ------
BUDGET AND SCOPE
PROGRAMMED AMOUNT........... ------- SCOPE..... ------- SF
PHASE PROGRAMMED AMOUNT.... ------- CATEGORY CODE: -------
SOLAR PROGRAMMED AMOUNT.... -------
PROGRAM CODES: (1) -- (2) -- (3) --
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION MAJCOM AIR FORCE % DSGN
PB DUE 2807 STATUS PRIORITY PRIORITY ON ---
------ --- --- --- ---
AF DI COMMENT: -----------------------------------------------------------
Figure 4-1: PDC Screen
12 Volume III
Preparing a CBD Announcement 5.0
When in-service capability is unable to provide the needed Introduction

professional services, and procurement of such services is in the
interest of national defense, the work must be accomplished by
an architect-engineer (A-E) contract. For any A-E contract
estimated to exceed $10,000, an announcement must be
published in the Commerce Business Daily (CBD).
The project must be listed with a brief statement concerning the

location, scope of service needed, the significant evaluation
factors, and the relative order of importance the government
attaches thereto, the construction cost limitations, type of
contract proposed, the estimated start and completion dates, and
the date by which responses to the notice must be received,
including submission of Standard Forms 254 and 255, if required.
Appropriate statements must be made concerning any specialized
qualifications, security classifications, and limitations on
eligibility for consideration.
The design manager (DM) for the project is responsible for

preparing the CBD announcement. The DM must review the
Base Solar-Energy Cost PDC screen, the Project Book, and
Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide analysis, before
preparing the CBD announcement. If passive solar design
features are shown to save energy costs, then the CBD
announcement must include a requirement for A-E expertise in
passive solar design and analysis.
Passive solar design information may be incorporated into the

CBD announcement in two places: (1) project description, and (2)
evaluation factors. Each of these is discussed below.
The requirement for energy efficiency and the use of passive solar Project
design features may be included with the project description.
The type of passive solar design features to be considered during
Description
the design phase may be listed. This information will assist the
A-E firms in preparing Standard Form 255 in response to the
CBD announcement.
Example phrasing of a project description that includes passive

solar design features is presented below.
The project includes a 28,000 sf building to support the

following functions: administration, classrooms, storage,
mechanical repair shop, security lighting, fencing,
hardstands, and utility drops. The building shall be
energy efficient and use cost-effective passive solar design
features, especially daylighting. An EMCS and
continuous dimming light controls shall be evaluated
during the design phase.
Programming Guide 13
5.0 Preparing a CBD Announcement
The project involves the design of a 5,750 sf training

support center. The facility will provide for the central
management of audio-visual aids for base education and
training. Energy conservation and cost-effective passive
solar design features such as direct gain windows and
daylighting will be included in the design.
Evaluation The factors to be used in evaluating and selecting the A-E firm
are stated in the CBD announcement. If energy efficiency and
Factors passive solar design expertise are required in order to achieve the
project design objectives, then one or more evaluation factors
reflecting that requirement should be included on the list.
Example phrasing of energy conservation and passive solar

design evaluation factors is presented below.
Ability to determine the cost-effectiveness of

energy conservation and passive solar design
features.
Ability to design and analyze the energy savings

associated with passive solar daylighting
strategies.
Expertise in building energy and daylight

analysis using detailed simulation and physical
models.
Demonstrated experience in designing and

analyzing daylighting systems with stepped or
continuous dimmer lighting controls.
The exact phrasing of the project description and evaluation

factors is dependent on the type and detail of information that is
available from the Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide
analysis and the Project Book. However, it is recommended that
the requirement for passive solar design be clearly stated in the
CBD announcement. This will encourage all A-E firms who wish
to work with the Air Force to develop in-house expertise or obtain
the services of an energy consultant for the project.
A-E Forms 254 and Evaluation of Standard Forms 254 and 255 is made by a
Preselection Board and a Selection Board. The Preselection
255 Evaluation Board develops and adopts an evaluation procedure and conducts
the initial evaluation. The evaluation is based on qualifications
data maintained by the responsible Air Force Civil Engineer,
typically on a Standard Form 254, and data submitted by A-E
firms responding to the CBD announcement and the evaluation
14 Volume III
Preparing a CBD Announcement 5.0
factors contained therein. The Preselection Board recommends

qualified A-E firms to the Selection Board.
Many factors enter into the ultimate selection of an A-E for a

specific project. The Preselection Board will address primarily
the evaluation factors contained in the CBD announcement. The
Selection Board considers the CBD evaluation factors as well as a
broader set of issues. Consequently, energy and passive solar
design considerations will represent only a portion of the overall
evaluation and scoring of the A-E qualifications. However,
expertise and experience of the A-E in energy and passive solar
design may influence the final outcome of the A-E selection
process. Therefore, knowing how to evaluate an A-E's energy and
passive solar design experience and expertise is essential for the
fair and proper selection of the project A-E.
In evaluating Standard Forms 254 and 255 for energy and passive Standard Form 254
solar design experience and capabilities, look for the following
information:
Does the A-E firm or its associated consultants have

personnel (Item 8) that typically would be required to Item 8
perform energy and passive solar design analysis such as
mechanical, electrical, and energy engineers?
Does the A-E or its associated consultants identify project Item 10

experience (Item 10) related to energy conservation and
solar energy utilization?
Does the A-E firm or its associated consultants identify Item 11

specific projects (Item 11) where energy conservation and
passive solar design were major design considerations?
Does the A-E firm possess in-house energy analysis and

passive solar design capabilities or will an energy
Standard Form 255
consultant be used (Items 4 and 5)? Items 4 and 5
Do the resumes of key personnel (Item 7) show a level of

education, training, and experience in the design and Item 7
analysis of energy conservation and passive solar design?
Are areas of special expertise noted, for example,
daylighting design and analysis?
Are the projects listed (Item 8) representative of the type of

energy experience the A-E or its consultants have? Are the Item 8
current projects for federal agencies (Item 9) responsive to
energy conservation and passive solar design issues? Does Item 9
the A-E firm specifically address the energy/passive solar Item 10
design evaluation factors in its presentation of additional
information and supporting resources for the project (Item
10)?
6.0 Checklist
Introduction This chapter presents a summary in the form of a checklist, of
the information presented in Chapters 2.0 through 5.0,
describing the areas in which passive solar design information
should be included in Air Force facility programming documents.
The checklist can be used as a reminder of the key points for
preparing the program documents without the need to reread the
individual chapters.
Preparing DD Five-Year Plan Submission

Form 1391
Item 9 Cost Estimates
Include any Solar Program

Five-Year Plan Submission Amount under a Support
Facility Cost heading entitled
Passive Solar Design.
Item 10 Description of Proposed Construction
Provide a description of the

energy cost saving passive
design features, determined
from Volume II analysis
within the general description
of the project.
Item 11 Requirement
Indicate how passive solar

design features enable the
facility to meet or exceed
Congressionally or Secretary
of Defense mandated energy
performance targets, or Air
Force energy design criteria.
35% design submission

35% Design Submission
Same as Five-Year Plan Submission but present greater detail,

based on A-E's energy and economic analysis.
Preparing A Tab B User Requirements Summary

Project Book Specify user requirements as
they relate to passive solar
design, such as thermal
comfort, lighting quality, and
design character.
16 Volume III
Checklist 6.0
Tab C Site Description
Identify all unique site

features that may affect the
design of the building's
passive solar features.
Tab D Architectural and Structural Considerations
Identify passive solar design

features t h a t m u s t b e
evaluated by the A-E for cost-
effectiveness.
Specify the overall energy

budget of the project.
Specify the anticipated

occupancy schedule and load
of the facility.
Identify any applicable energy

standards or criteria that
must be followed.
Tab E Mechanical Considerations
Identify any special HVAC

requirements that may affect
or be affected by the passive
solar design features.
Specify a disaggregated
energy budget consisting of
heating and cooling,
ventilation, lighting, hot
water, and process loads.
Tab F Electrical Considerations
Identify any electrical or

lighting requirements that
may affect or be affected by
the passive solar design
features.
6.0 Checklist
Tab J Maintainability

features that should be
avoided due to maintenance
problems.
Tab M Air Conditioning/Heat Load Estimates
If this Tab is used, insert a

caution that specifies air
conditioning loads are only a
first approximation and do
not typically account for the
passive solar design features.
Tab N Energy Impact Statement
Discuss the role passive solar

design features may play if
the project has a major energy
impact on the location,
Tab P Solar Energy System Application

features t h a t m u s t b e
evaluated by the A -E for cost-
effectiveness.
Refer designer to Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar

Concepts, Volume II: Comprehensive Planning Guide, and
Volume IV: Passive Solar Design, for further information and
assistance.
Preparing Design Solar Program Amount

Instructions Include any added costs
associated with effective
passive solar design features
determined as part of the
comprehensive planning
process analysis and listed in
DD Form 1391.
18 Volume III
Checklist 6.0
Project Description Preparing a CBD

Describe the primary passive Announcement
solar design features that will
have to be evaluated during
the design phase.
Evaluation Factors
List evaluation factors

concerning A-E experience
and expertise in passive solar
design and analysis.
20 Volume III
Index
used to separate volumes. For instance, for the entry Air

AFRCE: (III) 6
Air
temperature: (II) 5
ATR: see atrium
Base comprehensive plan (BCP): (I) 20; (II) 1 B

BCP: see base comprehensive plan
Building
multistory: (II) 25
passive: (II) 34
redesign: (I) 3
schedule: (II) 10
shape: (I) 29; (II) 4, 6
type: (I) 32; (II) 13, 18, 21, 24
CBD: see Commerce Business Daily C

CDD: see cooling degree day
Climate: (I) 33
Index

Collection
daylighting: (I) 3
Control
daylighting: (I) 3

Daylight
Daylighting
concepts: (I) 1
core: (I) 13
DD Form 1391: (II) 32; (III) 1, 16
five plan: (III) 2, 16
Item 9: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2,3,5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2,4,5, 16
Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
22 Volume III
Index
Tab K: (III) 6
DG: see direct gain
DI's: see design instructions
Distribution
daylighting: (I) 3
Electric lighting: (II) 39 E

automated controls: (I) 19
Energy use
end use: (II) 15, 19, 21
Five year plan: (III) 2, 16 F, G
HDD: see heating degree day H

Heating degree day (HDD): (I) 33, 34
analysis: (II) 40
plant size: (II) 41
Index
Humidity: (I) 26
I, J, K Indirect gain systems: (I) 5

energy use: (II) 10
variables: (I) 42
sunspaces: (I) 5, 9
Item 9: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 10: (III) 2, 3, 5, 16
Item 11: (III) 2, 4, 5, 16
L Latent enthalpy hour: (I) 33, 35

LEH: see latent enthalpy hour
M MAJCOM

NMV: see night mechanical ventilation

P, Q Passive building
energy use: (II) 34
24 Volume III
Index

components: (I) 2
Peak demand: (I) 45; (II) 16, 18, 19, 21
costs: (I) 45
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab 0: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
RAD: see radiation and daylight R

Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR): (I) 1; (II) 1 S

SAW: see sawtooth aperture
Shading: (I) 10
coefficient: (I) 10
daylighting: (I) 11
Shape
building: (II) 4, 6
elongated: (II) 6
Site planning
daylighting: (I) 28
SKY: see skylight aperture
Index

Solar gains: (I) 26
Step 1: (II) 12
Step 2: (II) 13
Step 3: (II) 12
Step 4: (II) 16
Step 5: (II) 27
Step 6: (II) 27, 29
Step 7: (II) 34
Step 8: (II) 37
Step 9: (II) 40
Step 10: (III) 1
SUN: see sunspaces
T Tab A: (III) 6
Tab B: (III) 6, 7, 16
Tab C: (III) 6, 7, 17
Tab D: (III) 6, 8, 17
Tab E: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab F: (III) 6, 9, 17
Tab G: (III) 6
Tab H: (III) 6
Tab I: (III) 6
Tab J: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab K: (III) 6
Tab L: (III) 6
Tab M: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab N: (III) 6, 10, 18
Tab 0: (III) 6, 11, 18
Tab P: (III) 6, 11, 18
26 Volume III
Index

Weather: (I) 33
WIN: see windows

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United States Air Force

Passive Solar Handbook

The audience for this five-volume passive solar handbook is the

The goal of the Air Force Passive Solar Handbook series is to

The five volumes of the Passive Solar Handbook are as follows:

Volume I: Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts

This is the first volume of the series.

Joseph A. Ahearn, Major General, USAF

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts i

Architectural Energy Corporation staff responsible for the

Michael J Holtz, A.I.A. P r e s i d e n t

Additional copies of this handbook may be obtained from:

Architectural Energy Corporation

1.0 Passive Solar Concepts 1

2.0 Energy and Site Planning 20

5.0 Glossary of Terms 50

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts iii

Figure 1-1: Breathing Wall. Tinker AFB, Oklahoma

The breathing wall, built in 1947, is a double layer mass wall

It is not anticipated that a properly designed passive solar

Technical and solar terms used throughout all of the volumes of

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts 1

A total of eleven different passive concepts will be considered in

(H) Direct gain with storage

Figure 1-2: Components of a Passive Solar Thermal

Daylighting concepts use the sun to light the building and

Figure 1-3: Components of a Daylighting System

In a passive solar building, the solar components are parts of the

It is virtually impossible to separate the passive features of a

To change the passive features of a solar building may require a

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts

Distribution Distribution is accomplished by arranging the functional spaces

The size and shape of the solar apertures (collection subsystem)

Heat distribution is accomplished by a combination of radiation

Control Control of the passive heating system might be quite different

A balance between the size, shape, and location of each subsystem

When developing a knowledge of the optimal performance

Passive solar heating systems are often categorized by the

Figure 1-4: Direct Gain (DG) Schematic

Figure 1-5: Direct Gain. Walker Field Terminal,

The roof apertures are used to provide both heating and

Extra storage mass in floor

Figure 1-6: Direct Gain plus Storage (D+S) Schematic

Figure l-7: Direct Gain plus Storage. Air National Guard

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts 7

Vents may not be

Figure 1-8: Indirect Gain (IND) Schematic

Figure 1-9: Indirect Gain. Shelly Ridge Girl Scout Center,

Note the masonry wall construction behind the glazing. This is

Extra mass may be in the wall

Figure 1-10: Sunspace (SUN) Schematic

Figure 1-11: Sunspace. Commissary, McGuire AFB,

The attached sunspace can be seen on the right of the picture.

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts 9

Different types of passive heating systems have been considered

Figure 1-12: Shading Schematic

overhangs, fins, or louvers, as illustrated in Figures 1-12 and 1-

Shading devices must be carefully designed. For passive heating

Figure 1-13: Shading. Military Personnel Support Center,

In this building, note how the vertical structural elements and

The analysis of passive cooling systems done for this handbook

The most successful cooling strategies reduce the internal loads of

Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts 11