Protection of Synchronous Machines: Application Guide

Protection of Synchronous
Machines
Application Guide
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1MRS 751894-ETI Protection of Synchronous Machines
Issued: 23.12.1982
Version: A/28.02.2002 Application Guide
Checked: PL
Approved:
We reserve the right to change data without prior notice.
Contents:
1. Introduction ...............................................................................7
2. How to use the Application Guide, Example ..........................8
3. Atmospherical and Switching Overvoltages ........................10
3.1. Nature of the Fault ......................................................................10
3.2. Realization of the Protection .......................................................10
4. Thermal Overload ....................................................................11
5. Network Short-Circuit .............................................................12
6. Stator Interwinding Short-Circuit ..........................................13
7. Stator Interturn Fault ..............................................................14
8. Stator Earth-Fault ....................................................................15
8.2.1. Machine with Step-Up Transformer .................................15
8.2.2. Machines Directly Connected to the Network ..................16
8.2.2.1. One or more Machines with Unearthed
Star-Points in Isolated Neutral Networks ...........16
8.2.2.2. One or more Machines with Unearthed
Star-Points in Neutral Earthed Networks ...........16
8.2.2.3. One or more Machines with Earthed
Star-Points .........................................................16
9. Overvoltage .............................................................................17
10.Unbalance Load ......................................................................18
10.1.Nature of the Fault ......................................................................18
10.2.Realization of the Protection .......................................................18
Substation Automation 3
Protection of Synchronous Machines 1MRS 751894-ETI
Application Guide
11.Underexitation and loss of Synchronism ............................ 19

11.1.Generators ................................................................................. 19
11.1.1.Nature of the Fault ........................................................... 19
11.1.2.Realization of the Protection ............................................ 19
11.2.Motors ........................................................................................ 20
11.2.1.Nature of the Fault ........................................................... 20
12.Rotor Earth-Fault ................................................................... 21
12.1.Nature of the Fault ..................................................................... 21
12.2.Realization of the Protection ...................................................... 21
13.Rotor Interturn Fault .............................................................. 22
13.2.ReaIization of the Protection ...................................................... 22
14.Brushless Machines, Diode Faults ...................................... 23
15.Undervoltage or Intermittent loss of Voltage ...................... 24
16.Frequency Disturbance ......................................................... 26
16.2.Realization of the Protection ...................................................... 26
17.Reverse Power ....................................................................... 27
18.Start-Up Supervision ............................................................. 28
18.1.Nature of the Start-Up Situation ................................................. 28
19.Temperature Supervision ..................................................... 29
19.1.Overheating of the Stator Winding ............................................. 29
19.1.1.Nature of the Situation ..................................................... 29
19.2.Increasing Cooling Air Temperature .......................................... 29
19.3.Overtemperature in Bearings ..................................................... 29
4 Substation Automation
Application Guide
20.Vibration ..................................................................................31
20.1.Supervision of Vibrations ............................................................31
20.1.1.Nature of the Fault ...........................................................31
20.1.2.ReaIization of the Protection ............................................31
20.2.Bearing Vibrations ......................................................................31
20.2.1.Nature of the Disturbance ................................................31
20.2.2.Realization of the Protection ............................................31
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Application Guide
1. Introduction
Synchronous machines, especially synchronous generators, are essential
components of the power electrical system. The synchronous machines of today are
to be accurately and versatily operatable. Synchronous machines are stressed
magnetically and electrically to their utmost. The construction of the machines is
hence precise and complicated. Therefore special attention is to be paid to the
protection of the machines, both to the extent and versatility of the protection.
This application guide deals with the most common types of disturbance and covers
the types of protections required to solve the disturbance situations. The text part of
the application guide deals with those types of disturbance imposed to the machines
from the external network or from the drive itself. The text part also deals with the
types of disturbance caused by internal faults of the machine. The origin and the
effects of each type of fault or disturbance dealt with are analysed. Principle
guidance for protection is given as well as recommendations for trippings and
alarms. No recommendations for relay settings are included.
The application guide also deals with the effects of a unit transformer and the
external network on the protection. Selection tables have been included as guide-
lines for selection of protections for machines in various power system lay-outs and
applications. The selection tables are to be regarded as guide-lines and
recommendations, but not as absolute requirements. When determining the final
extent of the protection system, the protection system is to be seen as part of an
overall technical system. For this evaluation the text part forms a good basis and
foundation for decisions.
The example diagrams give hints for grouping the protective relays to the current
transformers and indicate the required intermediate current transformers, if any. In
the tripping matrix one trip-out signal configuration is proposed for the controlled
objects.
Application Guide
2. How to use the Application Guide, Example

When a synchronous machine is to be protected, the following proceeding is
followed:
1. The correct selection table is referred to, as given by the object to be protected.
2. The correct column of the table is selected, as given by the rated voltage and the
rated power of the machine.
3. The protections are selected according to the marks of the table. The
explanations of the marks are to be found under the table and a more detailed
explanation is given on page 34. In the text parts of the application guide more
precise information is given on the different protections and their necessity in
various applications. If the marks of the selection tables are not unambiguous,
the text parts also give additional information on the circumstances, under
which a certain protection is needed.
([DPSOH
The protective relays for a hydro power plant with two synchronous generators
running in parallel are to be defined. The generators are both rated 800 kW on 400
V. The generators are of the brushless type and both connected to a 20 kV network
over their individual step-up transformers. The power plant is normally unmanned
and it is to be designed so that it occasionally can be operated when disconnected
from a public network.
1. According to the type of machines, the selection table on page 32 is referred to
2. The column U < 1 kV and p = 1 MW is selected
3. The protective relays for the machines are selected one by one
a) From the selection table it is seen that the protective relays for the following
fault situations are self-explanatory:
- No. 1, thermal overload, no. 2, short-circuit, no. 5, stator earth-fault, no. 14,
reverse power. These protections are necessary as individual protections for the
generators.
- No. 12, undervoltage. The protection is necessary, but one common protection
is enough for both the generators.
b) Overvoltage protection
- No. 6, overvoltage protection. According to the selection table the protection is
necessary, at least as one common unit. Furthermore the protection is to be
considered from the individual protection point of view. On page 17 it is seen
that the protection is necessary and applied individually for the generators,
because of the block-connected generators and the possibility of operating the
power plant disconnected from a public network.
c) Unbalance load protection
- No. 7, unbalance load protection. According to the selection table the protection
is to be considered as an individual protection. On page 18 it is seen that the
protection is necessary and applied individually for the generators, because of the
possibility of operating the power plant disconnected from the public network.
Application Guide
d) Underexcitation and loss of synchronism

- No. 8, underexcitation and loss of synchronism. According to the selection
table the protection is to be considered, when applied individually. On page 19 it
is seen that the protection is considered necessary for generators rated over 500
kW in unmanned low-voltage powerplants.
e) Frequency protection
- No. 13, frequency protection. According to the selection table the protection is
to be considered, when applied as a common protection. On page 26 it is seen
that the protection is considered necessary for generators rated under 3 MW,
because of the possibility of operating the power-plant disconnected from the
public network. One common protection is considered enough.
The above evaluation ends up in the following protections:
- individually applied protections; no. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 14
- protections applied in common; no. 12 and 13
When the necessary protections are defined, the concerned application guide
sections are gone through in order to select the suitable relays as to relay details and
mounting practice. E.g. the network short-circuits require a three-phase secondary
relay energized from a set of three phase current transformers located on the star-
point side of the generators, because of the rated generator power over 500 kW.
Application Guide
3. Atmospherical and Switching Overvoltages
3.1. Nature of the Fault

The atmospherical overvoltages are surge voltages, the rise-times of which are <10
µs and the duration < 100 µs. The switching overvoltages are of considerably longer
duration, the rise-times are < 1 ms and the duration < 10 ms. These overvoltages
cause electrical stresses to the insulation of synchronous machines and may cause
punctuation of the insulation.
3.2. Realization of the Protection

The protection against atmospherical and switching overvoltages is carried out
individually from one plant to another:
- on the step-up transformer high-voltage side with surge arrestors between the
phases and earth. Recommended also for small power plants, where the distribution
transformers used usually are protected with grading gaps only.
- on the step-up transformer low-voltage side with surge arrestors between the
phases and earth. Because of the steep wave-fronts, the surge arrestors usually are
bypassed by 0.1 µF capacitors. Local distribution lines going out directly from the
plant are also protected with surge arrestors.
- on the step-up transformer low-voltage side surge arrestors are also applied
between the phases, when the phase-to-phase voltage is 10 kV.
If a high-voltage machine is provided with an own circuit-breaker, and the
protection of the plant is considered not to be sufficient for limiting switching
overvoltages, the synchronous machine is provided with an additional overvoltage
protection located between the circuit-breaker and the machine.
Application Guide
4. Thermal Overload

When synchronous machines are overloaded, the temperature of the windings
increases, stressing the insulation, which increases the possibility of an insulation
break-through and a flash-over. The temperature increase is a function of the thermal
power, which is a function of the square of the current density and the flow of heat
from the windings to the surrounding material, the iron and the air. The thermal
replica of a machine can be described by an exponential function with two
timeconstants, the shorter defining the flow of heat from the windings to the iron,
and the longer defining the flow of heat from the iron to the air.

Low-voltage machines rated < 1 MW are provided with thermal overload
protections associated to the circuit-breaker or the contactor, especially if the
machine is overdimensioned for its task. High-voltage machines and large, i.e. > 1
MW, low-voltage machines are provided with thermal overload relays, which are
given their settings according to the thermal time-constants of the machine.
A single-phase thermal overload protection is enough, if the machine at the same
time is provided with an unbalance load protection. Otherwise the protection is to be
a two-phase or three-phase protection. When using thermal overload relays with
adjustable heating time-constants, the accuracy of the protection is fully dependant
on the accuracy of the selected time-constants. When accurate settings are given, the
thermal overload protection can be used for alarm purposes for small overloads and
for tripping purposes during heavy overload conditions.
The thermal overload protection is to its nature a tripping protection.
Application Guide
5. Network Short-Circuit

Short-circuits may occur between the terminals of a synchronous machine, in the
busbars or in the external network. The machine feeds short-circuit current to the
fault spot, thus overloading the machine and stressing it mechanically and thermally
to the utmost. When a short-circuit arises in the machine, a heavy current burst is
generated, which causes a torque impact to the shaft of the machine and strong
forces stressing the skein-ends of the windings. The result may be a broken coupling
or a destroyed prime mover, or injuries in the windings of the synchronous machine.

The generator is to be provided with a three-phase secondary overcurrent relay
energized from a set of three phase current transformers located on the star-point
side of the generator, when the generator is rated > 500 kW. Generators rated < 500
kW are provided with a circuit-breaker incorporating an overcurrent release feature.
When using overcurrent relays, these relays form a main short-circuit protection for
the busbars. At the same time they form a back-up protection for the overcurrent
relays of the network and for the differential current relay of the generator.
When using a circuit-breaker incorporating an overcurrent release feature for short-
circuit protection of a synchronous machine, the ability of the protection to fulfil its
task is to be considered from case to case and the system might have to be extended
with a fuse arrangement.
The short-circuit protection is always to its nature a tripping protection.
Application Guide
6. Stator Interwinding Short-Circuit

Insulation injuries between two phases of the windings and the resulting arching
pretty soon destroy the insulation and spread to the stator iron package causing
burning. The magnitude of the short-circuit current depends on the location of the
fault on the winding. The effects of an interwinding short-circuit are much alike
those of a short-circuit outside the generator.

Large synchronous machines rated > 5 MW are provided with a differential current
relay for interwinding short-circuit protection. A differential current relay is also
recommended for high-voltage generators rated < 5 MW, if several generators are
connected to the same busbar and running in parallel, if a rapid and discriminating
interwinding short-circuit is required.
Low-voltage machines are not liable to interwinding short-circuits and they are
seldom provided with differential relays, but the short-circuit protection is extended
with a circuit-breaker overcurrent release feature. The overcurrent release gear is to
be given a setting exceeding the rated short-circuit current of the machine itself. For
small synchronous machines rated < 500 kW the short-circuit protection is
considered sufficient, when the interwinding short-circuit occurs close to the output
terminals of the machine. When the generator is connected to a step-up transformer,
the differential current relay should cover the step-up transformer also.
The interwinding short-circuit protection is to its nature a tripping protection.
Application Guide
7. Stator Interturn Fault

An insulation injury between different turns of the same phase winding may develop
into an interturn fault. The fault may be the result of a weak spot in the insulation or
may result from a punctuation of the insulation caused by another fault type. The
magnitude of the interturn fault current depends on the electromotive force of the
turns bypassed by the fault. The high fault current density causes local overheating
of the winding, which may result in severe damage.

An interturn fault protection is required, if two or more turns of the same phase
winding are located in the same winding slot. The protection can be carried out with
an overvoltage relay, which is energized from an open delta connected secondary of
a set of three voltage transformers, the primary side star-point of which is directly
connected to the generator star-point.
If the synchronous machine is provided with a split stator winding with two
available star-points, the interturn fault protection can be carried out in two ways;
either with an overcurrent relay energized from a current transformer connected
between the star-points or with an overvoltage relay energized from a voltage
transformer applied between the star-points.
Interturn faults rarely occur to low-voltage machines. For high-voltage machines
rated = 20 MW an interturn fault protection is considered essential.
The interturn fault protection is to its nature a tripping protection.
Application Guide
8. Stator Earth-Fault

An insulation break-through between a stator winding and the frame of the machine
causes a stator earth-fault. The life-time of the stator insulation depends on
mechanical faults of the insulation, on impurity on the insulation surface, on locally
appearing high temperatures, on variations of the temperature and on overvoltages
in the stator windings. An earth-fault usually arises in a stator slot. The damage
caused by the fault depends on the fault current magnitude and the duration varying
from insulation injuries to burns and welding of the stator iron. During an earth-fault
the phase-to-earth voltage of the two healthy phases increases a few percent, thus
increasing the risk for a second earth-fault.

The protection is carried out in many ways by using overcurrent or overvoltage
relays depending on e.g. the size of the machine, the earthing system of the machine
star-point or any other part of the concerned network and the lay-out of the
concerned power system, i.e. directly connected generators or generators connected
to the network over a step-up transformer, one single generator or several generators
running in parallel.
8.2.1. Machine with Step-Up Transformer

Earth-faults occurring on the network side of the step-up transformer are limited to
their effects on the generator side of the step-up transformer by earthing the
generator star-point over a resistor.
The stator earth-fault protection for low-voltage machines can be carried out by
means of an overvoltage relay energized from a voltage transformer measuring the
voltage drop over the star-point earthing resistor. In case of high-voltage machines
being protected, the earthfault overvoltage relay is energized from an open delta
connected secondary of a three-phase voltage transformer applied between the
machine and the step-up transformer.
Normally the stator earth-fault protection is a tripping protection. If the stator earth-
fault protection is to be signalling only, the magnitude of the earth-fault current is to
be reduced to a harmless level by suitably dimensioning the star-point earthing
resistor.
In the above applications the stator earth-fault protection can also be carried out by
using a sensitive overcurrent relay energized from a core balance current
transformer applied between the generator star-point and the star-point earthing
resistor, by suitably dimensioning the resistor value and the turns ratio of the core
balance current transformer.
Application Guide
8.2.2. Machines Directly Connected to the Network
8.2.2.1. One or more Machines with Unearthed Star-Points in Isolated

Neutral Networks
The earth-fault current is generated by the distributed capacitance of the network
towards earth. The magnitude of the fault current depends on the system voltage and
the total earth-capacitance of the concerned network.
The stator earth-fault protection is carried out with individual sensitive overcurrent
relays for the generators. The relays are energized from core balance current
transformers applied between the generator and its circuit-breaker, if the generators
are connected to the busbar with a cable connection. Otherwise the earth-fault relays
are energized from a set of three phase current transformers, the secondaries of
which are residual current connected. The former solution is recommended if
applicable.
8.2.2.2. One or more Machines with Unearthed Star-Points in Neutral

Earthed Networks
If the neutral of the concerned network is earthed somewhere in the network, e.g. in
association with a transformer out in the network or with a separate earthing
transformer on the common generator busbar, the stator earth-fault protection can be
realized as described in chapter 8.2.2.1, provided the machine star-points are
unearthed.
8.2.2.3. One or more Machines with Earthed Star-Points

If the generators are earthed over resistors between the machine star-points and
earth, the machines are each provided with a sensitive overcurrent relay for earth-
fault protection. A restricted earth-fault protection is arranged by providing current
transformers on both sides of the protected machines. The earth-fault relays are
sometimes blocked by an instantaneously obtained starting signal from the short-
circuit protection of the machines.
Instead of earthing each generator separately, it is recommended that the earthing is
carried out in one place only, e.g. by installing an earthing transformer on the
common busbar. Thus the case is converted to the solution described in chapter
8.2.2.2, and the protection is carried out according to the solution of chapter 8.2.2.1.
Application Guide
9. Overvoltage

When a generator is running in parallel with a rigid public network, the generator
voltage is given by the network voltage. The generator voltage may increase, when
the generator suddenly is disconnected from the network, but the voltage regulator
soon normalizes the generator voltage. When the generator is operated disconnected
from a public network, the generator voltage may increase upon sudden loss of a
major load, especially if the voltage is manually regulated. A fault in the voltage
regulator or the excitation device, or an overspeeding prime mover, e.g. a hydro
turbine, also may cause the generator voltage to increase. The capacitive load
formed by the network may also cause a self-excitation of the generator, resulting in
an uncontrolled voltage increase. Overvoltages cause abnormal ageing of the stator
insulation, saturation of the magnetic circuits of the generator as well as distortion
of the waveform of the generator voltage. The overvoltages can be dangerous to the
generator itself as well as to the loads of the generator.

When a fault appears in the automatic voltage regulator, the situation can be
managed by changing over for manual voltage regulation. Lowpower generators are
not always provided with this feature, but they have to be disconnected from the
network.
The generator overvoltage protection is carried out with a single-phase overvoltage
relay provided with a high-set instantaneous stage and a low-set delayed stage. The
overvoltage relay is not to be energized from the same voltage transformer as the
voltage regulator. Low-voltage generators connected over a step-up transformer to
the network are provided with a two-stage overvoltage relay as above, while directly
connected low-voltage generators are provided with a single-stage overvoltage
relay, which operates either instantaneously or with a specified delay.
The overvoltage protection is always a tripping protection.
Application Guide
10. Unbalance Load

When synchronous machines are unsymmetrically loaded, the symmetry of the
stator currents is disturbed and a counter-rotating negative phase-sequence current
is set up. This current results in double-frequency eddy currents being induced in the
rotor, causing additional heat losses and local overheating of the rotor as well as
mechanical vibrations.
When a generator is operated disconnected from a public network, the load is often
more or less unbalanced. Earth-faults and unsymmetrical short-circuits in the
network also cause temporarily appearing current unbalances, but these are solved
by the concerned network protection relays. A broken phase conductor, e.g. caused
by an invalid operation of a circuit-breaker or isolator switch or by a blown fuse in
the network, causes a severe unbalanced load situation, while the power of the
healthy phases increases.

Severe unbalance load situations occur rather seldom. Thus a separate unbalance
load protection is recommended only in the following cases:
- for synchronous machines operated disconnected from a public network
- when high-voltage fuses are used in the network on major loads
- for large high-voltage machines
For high-voltage machines the protection is carried out with a negative phase-
sequence overcurrent relay and for large low-voltage synchronous machines with
protective relays being able to detect phase-conductor discontinuities.
Note! Other protective relays are unable of detecting unbalance load situations.
The unbalance load protection is a tripping protection.
Application Guide
11. Underexitation and loss of Synchronism
11.1. Generators
11.1.1. Nature of the Fault

When a synchronous generator is running in parallel with a public network with
infeed from other sources also, the flow and direction of the generator reactive
power is controlled by regulating the excitation of the generator. An overexcited
generator feeds reactive power into the network, while an underexcited generator
draws reactive power from the network.
The reactive current drawn from the network by an underexcited generator forms an
additional flux to the flux set up by the generator excitation current, thus causing the
generator to saturate and additional heat to develop in the iron of the machine. An
underexcitation situation may be the result of
- an invalid operation of the excitation device
- an invalid operation of the voltage regulator
- an increase of the network voltage
- a fault in the excitation system
Upon loss of excitation, a generator running in parallel with a rigid network loses its
capability of supplying active power into the network. When the prime mover thus
loses its load, the speed of the generator tends to increase and upon passing the
stability level, the generator gets loss of synchronism and continues running with an
over-synchronous speed as an asynchronous generator, being excited by the reactive
current drawn from the network.
During an asynchronous situation, slip-frequency eddy currents circulate in the
rotor, causing additional heating of the rotor. When trying to pull into synchronism
again, heavy inrush currents develop in the stator windings, causing torque chocks
to the generator and prime-mover shaft and vibrations.
The cage winding of a generator is not dimensioned for standing long-lasting
asynchronous operation of the generator, but the winding is overheated and
damaged.
During asynchronous operation, the generator draws as much reactive power from
the network as the rated power of the machine is, thus also interfering the external
network.
11.1.2. Realization of the Protection

The generator is protected by means of a field-failure relay or an under-reactance
relay. The protection is essential for all high-voltage generators and for low-voltage
generators rated > 500 kW operating in unmanned power stations. The protection is
used for tripping purposes.
Application Guide
11.2. Motors

Upon a decrease in the excitation or upon loss of excitation, the load-ability of a
synchronous motor decreases. When the torque of the motor load exceeds the output
torque of the motor, the motor falls out of synchronism. Depending on the torque of
the motor, it continues running as an asynchronous motor or it stops completely.
During asynchronism, slip-frequency currents are induced into the rotor, which tend
to increase the motor speed. Yet, the motor seldom is pulled into synchronism again,
because of the heavy load torque. The current induced into the start-up winding of
the motor causes the winding to be thermally stressed and if the asynchronism is
permitted to persist, the winding may be damaged.

The field-failure protection can be applied either in the stator circuit or in the rotor
circuit of the motor.
The loss of synchronism in association with motors having brushes can be detected
from the excitation current. The synchronizing unit protects against loss of
synchronism. The starting resistor is also connected in parallel with the excitation
winding upon loss of synchronism, thus shunting the winding and protecting it
against overvoltages.
Brushless motors are protected from the stator side by providing the motor with e.g.
an underreactance relay. The excitation circuit is protected by the resistor applied in
parallel with the excitation winding.
A protection against loss of synchronism is considered important for all types of
synchronous motors. It is usually used for tripping purposes. The protection is
provided with an alarm feature and a delayed trip feature in those cases, when
counting with the possibility of a resynchronization of the motor.
Application Guide
12. Rotor Earth-Fault

An earth-fault in the rotor of a machine forms no immediate hazard to the machine.
An earth-fault in the rotor circuit changes the potential level of the rotor circuit
compared to the level of the shaft of the machine. A second earth-fault in a rotor may
bypass parts of the rotor circuit, thus reducing the excitation. An earth-fault may also
short-circuit the excitation device, if the earth-fault circuit is allowed to be closed
over e.g. the earthing brush of the machine shaft or through the shaft and over the
load of the machine to the excitation device, if the excitation device is earthed as the
situation is for machines provided with brushes.

A rotor earth-fault protection is provided only for large low-speed high-voltage
narrow air-gap machines equipped with brushes. The protection is carried out with
a current injection device and a sensitive overcurrent relay. The current injection
device strives to inject a low-level a.c. component into the rotor circuit and the
circuit formed by the current injection device, and the overcurrent relay is closed,
when a rotor earth-fault arises, thus causing the overcurrent relay to operate.
The rotor earth-fault protection is usually used for alarm purposes only.
Application Guide
13. Rotor Interturn Fault

A rotor interturn fault situation is extremely rare. It is usually the result of two
simultaneously occurring earth-faults in the rotor. In an interturn fault situation a
part of the excitation winding is short-circuited, which causes a field dissymmetry.
The interturn fault causes vibrations and the bypassed part of the excitation winding
is overheated, because of the heavy fault current circulating through the bypassed
part of the winding. The heat developed burns the insulation and causes additional
damage to the winding.
13.2. ReaIization of the Protection

The rotor interturn fault protection is applied only for large high-voltage generators,
not included in the Strömberg range of production. It can be realized by means of a
d.c. overvoltage relay and a bridge connection installed into the rotor circuit.
Application Guide
14. Brushless Machines, Diode Faults

The rotating diode rectifier bridge is liable to the following fault types; a diode short-
circuit, a diode break-off or a fuse-blow. During a diode short-circuit the exciter
machine is short-circuited over the faulty diode and over the diodes of the two
healthy phases, which may also damage these diodes. If the diodes are protected
with fuses, the diode short-circuit results in a fuse-blow.
A fuse-blow or a diode break-off does not cut off the excitation, but the exciter
machine feeds excitation current over the healthy diode branches.
A decrease or a complete loss of excitation causes the generator excitation regulator
to try to restore the excitation. The regulator increases the excitation, thus
overloading the exciter machine. Upon a decrease or a complete loss of excitation in
the rotor circuit of a motor provided with a permanent excitation system, the motor
will draw reactive power from the network, the motor loadability will decrease and
the motor is liable to fall out of synchronism.
The exciter machine of a motor provided with a power-factor controller is liable to
be overloaded during a fault, as the power-factor controller tends to restore the
power-factor by increasing the excitation.

The protection is carried out with a diode supervision relay, which monitors the
content and magnitude of harmonics in the excitation current of the exciter machine.
During a diode fault harmonics are set up in the excitation current, and their
frequencies and magnitudes vary depending on the fault types. For diode short-
circuits the relay is tripping and for diode break-offs the relay is usually only
alarming.
For low-voltage machines the diode supervision relay is used only in land-based
unmanned power plants rated > 1 MW. In off-shore applications on marine vessels
the diode supervision relay is seldom used, as spare power always is available on
these vessels. For high-voltage machines rated > 1 MW in off-shore applications the
diode supervision relay is always used.
Application Guide
15. Undervoltage or Intermittent loss of Voltage

The voltage of a network decreases temporarily, when large synchronous or
asynchronous motors of the network are started. Motors previously connected to the
network are not damaged by these temporarily occurring short-duration
undervoltages. If the network voltage permanently takes a lower level, synchronous
machines are to be provided with overload protections. A voltage decrease reduces
the loadability of synchronous machines. Depending on the voltage decrease and the
load torque of the machine, the synchronous motor is more or less liable to falling
out of synchronism.
If the motor load is unchanged, the current drawn by the machine from the network
increases in accordance with the voltage decrease, and this situation may prolong the
duration of the undervoltage.
When a synchronous motor loses its voltage, the speed of the motor falls to a level
defined by the motor load torque and the duration of the voltage loss. When the
voltage recovers, the stress-level of the motor and its load reaches levels about twice
the level reached in a short-circuit.
The behaviour of a synchronous generator during a loss of voltage situation depends
on the ratio of the remaining generator load to the rated output power of the
generator. If the generator load exceeds the peak output power of the generator
prime mover, the prime mover stops. If the generator continues to rotate, its speed
and thus also its frequency decrease and when the network voltage is restored, there
is a frequency and a phase-angle difference between the network and the generator.
If the generator is connected to the network without being synchronized to it, the
generator is liable to be connected into the network during a phase opposition, which
results in the generator being stressed far in excess of the stress caused by a short-
circuit. A general rule is, that no auto-reclosures are permitted and that the operating
time of an undervoltage relay is to be as short as possible. When auto-reclosures are
required, the dead times of the auto-reclose relays are to be determined from case to
case, when the conditions are known. The auto-reclose requirement usually results
in a special manufacture motor with supported windings.

The undervoltage protection is carried out with an undervoltage relay monitoring the
machine phase-to-phase voltage. For low-voltage machines the protection is carried
out with a single-phase relay, while a three-phase relay is used for high-voltage
machines.
The undervoltage relay is usually a tripping protection. For small machines rated
below 200 kW, the protection is carried out with the machine contactor. In case
generators are protected, each generator is provided with its own undervoltage relay,
if the generators are to be prevented from being connected to the network before
having reached the network voltage level. Otherwise one undervoltage relay in the
network is enough.
Application Guide
The undervoltage protection operates as a machine protection:

- during faults in the voltage regulator
- during short-circuits
- during disconnections in co-operation with the short-circuit and the frequency
protection
- during undervoltage situations protecting also the auxiliary devices
- during undervoltage situations protecting the electricity consumers and their
installations
- after disconnections of the machine, by preventing uncontrolled reconnections of
the machine.
Application Guide
16. Frequency Disturbance

A short-duration synchronous generator frequency disturbance may arise from a
sudden change in the generator load or from a disturbance in the prime mover. A
sudden increase in the generator load tends to decrease the frequency and a sudden
decrease in the generator load correspondingly tends to increase the frequency. The
phenomena is of short duration.
A frequency disturbance is caused by:
- an overspeeding prime mover, e.g. a hydro turbine
- a frequency decrease in the external power system
- a fault in the rotational speed regulator of the prime mover, when the generator is
operated disconnected from the public network
- a sudden disconnection of the generator from a public network, thus overloading
the generator.
During overfrequency operation the generator is mechanically but usually not
electrically stressed. During underfrequency operation the generator magnetic
circuit is likely to saturate. The increasing iron losses cause additional heating of the
machine. If the generator voltage simultaneously increases, the saturation of the
magnetic circuit increases rapidly and the excitation circuit is overloaded.
The operation of the generator auxiliary devices is also endangered, e.g. pumps and
fans, as their motor output power is reduced with the falling frequency.

For small generators rated < 5 MW, a frequency relay is used only in cases where
the generator feeds a local limited network, or if the generator from time to time is
operated disconnected from a public network.
Large generators rated > 5 MW are always provided with a frequency relay. Each
generator is individually provided with a frequency relay, if the generator is stopped
by means of the reverse power relay and the tripping of the generator circuit-breaker
is to be ensured.
The frequency protection is carried out with a dual-stage underfrequency relay,
which also protects the electricity consumers. Normally the first stage of the
frequency relay is used for alarm purposes only, while the second frequency stage is
used for tripping purposes. The use of the relay for alarm or trip purposes depends
on the operational circumstances of the power generator. Generally the frequency
relay is used for tripping purposes.
Application Guide
17. Reverse Power

The generator output power depends on the generator load and the output power of
the prime mover. The output power of the prime mover is to be high enough to
satisfy the power demand of the network loads and to cover the power losses of the
generator. If the prime mover output power is reduced, the amount of power fed into
the network is also reduced, while the power losses of the generator more or less
remain unchanged. When the output of the prime mover goes below the power level
required for keeping the generator at its synchronous speed and for covering the
power losses of the generator, the generator starts motoring trying to maintain its
synchronous speed by drawing additional power from the network.
The motoring forms no danger to the generator itself. The power reversal situation
may originate from a fault in the prime mover power regulator or from a disturbance
in the fuel supply system, and it may very soon damage the prime mover.

A generator power reversal is detected by installing a reverse power relay. The relay
measures the magnitude and the direction of the generator active power.
The reverse power relay protects the prime mover, and reverse power relays are
applied for protection of all power units rated > 50 kVA, if a power reversal is
possible. The reverse power relay is used for tripping purposes and a single-phase
relay is satisfactory.
If the reverse power relay is used for a soft stopping of large generators rated > 40
MW, the reverse power relay is doubled. In these cases the tripping of the generator
circuit-breaker is to be ensured by extending the generator protection with a
frequency relay or an undervoltage relay. Otherwise the generator circuit-breaker
may stay closed, in case no power reversal will appear.
Application Guide
18. Start-Up Supervision
18.1. Nature of the Start-Up Situation

The start-up time of a synchronous motor depends on the difference in torques of the
motor and its load. A reduction in the ability of a synchronous motor to start running
is observed as a prolongation of the motor start-up time, and in the most severe case
the motor will not start at all or it starts rotating with an asynchronous speed.
The reason of the reduction in the motor start-up ability may be a fault in the starting
automatics or injuries in the starting resistors, poles, rods or the interconnection
rails.
The current induced into the rotor during a start-up sequence causes additional
heating of the rotor and the start-up winding. Too long a motor start-up time may
damage the motor due to local overheating.

For motors provided with brushes the stall protection and the protection against a
prolonged start-up sequence are carried out by installing a protection relay in the
rotor circuit of the motor. The relay measures the slip-frequency a.c. current induced
into the excitation winding during the motor start-up sequence. The stall protection
operates, if the slipfrequency persists over 47 Hz for a longer period of time than has
been set on the relay. The start-up time supervision unit of the relay operates, if the
motor does not reach its synchronous speed within the set time-lag of the unit.
For brushless motors the start-up time of the motor is supervised by installing an
overcurrent relay in the motor stator circuit. The stator current remains nearly
unchanged during the whole motor start-up sequence. The overcurrent relay
supervising the motor start-up time operates, if the stator current does not fall under
the set operating level of the relay within the set operating time-lag of the relay. If
the motor is capable of being stalled for a period of time longer than the normal start-
up time of the motor, the overcurrent relay also acts as a stall protection. Otherwise
the stall protection has to be carried out with special feature thermal overload relays
or by supervising the rotational speed of the motor e.g. by a tachometer.
The start-up time supervision relay is used for tripping the motor, and the protection
is considered essential for all motors independently of motor size.
Application Guide
19. Temperature Supervision
19.1. Overheating of the Stator Winding
19.1.1. Nature of the Situation

An increasing stator winding temperature causes a forced ageing of the winding
insulation materials, which during the course of time causes the windings to be
damaged. The increasing temperature of the stator windings may be caused not only
by a machine overload but also by a reduction in the efficiency of the machine
cooling system. In many cases a sufficient, fast enough thermal protection is
obtained by installing suitably located temperature sensors into the machine.

Pt-100 sensors are usually installed into the stator windings of synchronous
machines. These sensors provide a means for a continuous temperature supervision
of the windings. For low-power motors the temperature sensing elements are located
in the ends of the windings, and for large motors the temperature sensing elements
are located in the stator slots. The alarm and trip levels of the supervision relays are
set at the factory or at site according to machine loadability tests being carried out.
19.2. Increasing Cooling Air Temperature

An increase of the cooling air temperature over its permitted level may be caused by
e.g. a high machine ambient temperature, by a high cooling water temperature or by
a fault in the heat exchanger of a closed circulation air-cooled machine. The
reduction in the cooling of the machine due to the high cooling air temperature
causes overheating of the machine windings, and it may also damage other auxiliary
devices installed into the machine, e.g. regulators installed into generators.

For temperature supervision, Pt-100 temperature sensors are installed into the
cooling air channels. These sensors are applied for temperature supervision of
medium size and large closed air-cooled machines.
19.3. Overtemperature in Bearings

The increasing temperature of bearings indicates that the bearings are out of good
working order, that the bearings are damaged or that the lubrication system works
insufficiently. The temperature of a faulty bearing increases rapidly, and in the worst
case the bearing is running the risk to seize and thus cause damage to other
mechanical system parts.
Application Guide

The temperature of plain bearings is monitored by means of a capillary thermometer,
which is provided with an alarm contact and a trip contact. The bearing can also be
provided with a Pt-100 temperature sensor. By measuring the hot spot temperature
an accurate enough and fast indication is obtained, if the temperature tends to
increase above a safe level.
The hot spot, i.e. the inner ring, temperature of a roller bearing is difficult to
measure, thus the temperature measurement is not fast enough for serving any
protective tasks. The working order of roller bearings is therefore monitored by
measuring vibrations in the bearings, see chapter 20.2.
Application Guide
20. Vibration
20.1. Supervision of Vibrations

Synchronous machines may be liable to mechanical vibration because of improper
mounting, of an unbalanced rotor, of electrical and mechanical faults and of forces
from outside effecting the machine. Vibrations of too high an amplitude may cause
mechanical damage to the machine and its windings, if the vibrations are allowed to
persist for a long period of time.
20.1.2. ReaIization of the Protection

The machine vibrations are measured by means of a vibration root mean square
meter. The meter sensor is applied to the machine in a radial direction, and a separate
amplifier unit for remote supervision is mounted close to the machine. The
supervision unit is provided with adjustable alarm and trip units with output
contacts. The vibration sensor is mounted into the machine or into the frame of a
bearing. Large machines are provided with a vibration supervision system as
regarded important because of the machine size or because of the unnormal forces
effecting the machine.
20.2. Bearing Vibrations
20.2.1. Nature of the Disturbance

By measuring vibrations in bearings their working order is determined. In addition
to the increasing temperature, a beginning bearing injury is observed by an increase
in the noise produced by the bearing and by vibrations produced.

The working order of roller bearings is monitored by means of a vibration measuring
instrument, which is connected to a special type nipple applied close to the bearing,
e.g. on the bearing shield. The measurement is carried out from time to time, and the
test results from consecutive measurements are compared. If consecutive test results
differ much from each other, the situation may indicate the presence of an injury in
the bearing. In stead of an ordinary SPM-nipple, a special nipple provided with a
transducer can be installed. Thus a continuous supervision can be arranged by
connecting the nipple to the measuring instrument. A continuous supervision with
alarm and trip features is arranged for important objects, when reliable manually
performed measurements are difficult to carry out.
For plain bearings the vibration measurements are carried out by ordinary means,
but the actual working order of the bearing is determined by measuring the
temperature of the bearing, which forms the most reliable means of monitoring the
working order of plain bearings, see chapter 19.3.
Application Guide
3527(&7,216(/(&7,217$%/()256<1&+521286*(1(5$7256
UN < 1 kV UN = 2.4...13.8 kV
Type of fault or disturbance
PN = 1 MW PN > 1 Mw PN = 5 MW PN = 5...40 MW
4. Thermal overload
5. Network short-circuit
6. Stator interwinding shortcircuit
7. Stator interturn fault
8. Stator earth-fault
9. Overvoltage
10. UnbaIance Ioad
11. Underexcitation and Ioss of

synchronism
12. Rotor earth-fault x) x)
13. Rotor interturn fault
14. Brushless machines, diode xx) xx)

fauIts
15. Undervoltage and intermittent
loss of voltage
16. Frequency disturbance
17. Reverse power
18. Start-up supervision
19.1. Overheating of the stator

winding
19.2. Increasing cooIing air
temperature
19.3. Overtemperature of
bearings, plain type
20.1. Supervision of vibrations
20.2. Supervision of bearing

vibrations, roller type
essential, one per machine

upon consideration, one per machine
essential, one per network
upon consideration, one per network
non-essential
x) slip-ring machine
xx) brushless machine
Application Guide
3527(&7,216(/(&7,217$%/()256<1&+521286027256
U = 1 kV U = 2.4. . . 13. 8 kV
Type of fault or disturbance
PN/MW PN = 3... 20 MW
4. Thermal overload
5. Network short-circuit
6. Stator interwinding short-circuit
7. Stator interturn fault
8. Stator earth-fault
9. Overvoltage
10. UnbaIance Ioad
11. Underexcitation and loss of synchronism
12. Rotor earth-fault x)

13. Rotor interturn fauIt
14. Brushless machines, diode faults xx)

15. Undervoltage and intermittent loss of voltage
16. Frequency disturbance
17. Reverse power
18. Start-up supervision
19.1. Overheating of the stator winding
19.2. Increasing cooling air temperature
19.3. Overtemperature of bearings, plain type
20.1. Supervision of vibrations
20.2. Supervision of bearing vibrations, roller type
essential, one per machine

upon consideration, one per machine
essential, one per network
upon consideration, one per network
non-essential
x) slip-ring machine
xx) brushless machine
Application Guide
(;3/$1$7,212)7+(6<0%2/686(',17+(6(/(&7,21
= The protection is considered essential for the machine, and one

protective relay per machine is to be provided.
= The protection is not necessarily to be used in any application, but its
importance is to be considered from case to case. Please, refer to the
text part of the concerned protection for additional information. When
considered important, one protective relay per machine is to be
provided.
= The protection is considered essential, but one protective relay per
network is enough. It acts as a network protection relay as well.
= The protection is not necessarily to be used in any application, but its
importance is to be considered from case to case. Please, refer to the
text part of the concerned protection for additional information. When
considered important, one protective relay per machine is to be
provided.
= Not essential, the protection is not required.
Application Guide
([DPSOHRISURWHFWLRQVFKHPH
PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
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Application Guide
GENERATOR C.B.
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Application Guide
PRIME-MOVE SHUT-DOWN
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GENERATOR C.B.
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([DPS,HRISURWHFWLRQVFKHPH
PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
SUPPLY C.B.
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PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
SUPPLY C.B.
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1MRS 751894-ETI EN 02.2002
ABB Oy
Substation Automation
P.O. Box 699
FIN-65101 VAASA
Finland
Tel. +358 10 22 11
Fax. +358 10 224 1094
www.abb.com/substationautomation

Protection of Synchronous Machines: Application Guide

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Protection of Synchronous

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11.Underexitation and loss of Synchronism ............................ 19

2. How to use the Application Guide, Example

d) Underexcitation and loss of synchronism

3. Atmospherical and Switching Overvoltages

3.1. Nature of the Fault

3.2. Realization of the Protection

4.1. Nature of the Fault

4.2. Realization of the Protection

5.1. Nature of the Fault

5.2. Realization of the Protection

6. Stator Interwinding Short-Circuit

6.1. Nature of the Fault

6.2. Realization of the Protection

7. Stator Interturn Fault

7.1. Nature of the Fault

7.2. Realization of the Protection

8.1. Nature of the Fault

8.2. Realization of the Protection

8.2.1. Machine with Step-Up Transformer

8.2.2. Machines Directly Connected to the Network

8.2.2.1. One or more Machines with Unearthed Star-Points in Isolated

8.2.2.2. One or more Machines with Unearthed Star-Points in Neutral

8.2.2.3. One or more Machines with Earthed Star-Points

9.1. Nature of the Fault

9.2. Realization of the Protection

10. Unbalance Load

10.1. Nature of the Fault

10.2. Realization of the Protection

11. Underexitation and loss of Synchronism

11.1.1. Nature of the Fault

11.1.2. Realization of the Protection

11.2.1. Nature of the Fault

11.2.2. Realization of the Protection

12. Rotor Earth-Fault

12.1. Nature of the Fault

12.2. Realization of the Protection

13. Rotor Interturn Fault

13.1. Nature of the Fault

13.2. ReaIization of the Protection

14. Brushless Machines, Diode Faults

14.1. Nature of the Fault

14.2. ReaIization of the Protection

15. Undervoltage or Intermittent loss of Voltage

15.1. Nature of the Fault

15.2. ReaIization of the Protection

The undervoltage protection operates as a machine protection:

16. Frequency Disturbance

16.1. Nature of the Fault

16.2. Realization of the Protection

17. Reverse Power

17.1. Nature of the Fault

17.2. ReaIization of the Protection

18. Start-Up Supervision

18.1. Nature of the Start-Up Situation

18.2. ReaIization of the Protection

19. Temperature Supervision

19.1. Overheating of the Stator Winding

19.1.1. Nature of the Situation

19.1.2. Realization of the Protection

19.2. Increasing Cooling Air Temperature

19.2.1. Nature of the Situation