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Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
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The effects of curing time and temperature on stiffness, strength

and durability of sand-environment friendly binder blends
Nilo Cesar Consoli a,⇑, Helena Batista Leon a, Mariana da Silva Carretta a
João Victor Linch Daronco b, David Eduardo Lourenço a
a
Graduate Programme in Civil Engng., Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
b
Dept. of Civil Engng., Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Received 7 November 2018; received in revised form 31 May 2019; accepted 24 June 2019
Available online 9 August 2019

Abstract

Agricultural-industrial wastes, like rice-husk ash (RHA) and carbide lime (CL), have great potential applications in such earthworks
as the stabilization of slopes and pavement layers and the spread footings and bed of pipelines, particularly in the regions near where the
waste is produced. Present research evaluates the potential use of RHA mixed with CL as a binder, improving strength, stiffness and
durability properties of a uniform sand. Two different curing temperatures, 23 °C and 40 °C, and curing periods, 7 and 28 days, of com-
pacted sand-RHA-CL blends (distinct dry unit weights and contents of RHA and CL) were evaluated to determine the importance of
these changes on the reactions between the materials. The experimental program aims to assess the following parameters: initial shear
modulus (G0), unconfined compressive strength (qu), and accumulated loss of mass (ALM). Studies have been carried out to quantify
these parameters as a function of a novel index called porosity/volumetric binder content (g/Biv). The results showed higher values of
G0 and qu, as well as a small rate of ALM with reduction of porosity and with rise of the environment friendly binder content. The latter
is achieved either by increasing eith the RHA or the CL content. The curing temperature acts as a catalyser, accelerating the pozzolanic
reactions between RHA and CL. Longer curing periods also benefit reactions between materials by enhancing their geotechnical prop-
erties. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried and the results showed the dry unit weight, RHA content and curing type are sig-
nificantly effect the strength results. It was also possible to verify that curing for 28 days at 23 °C and for 7 days at 40 °C are statistically
equivalent in terms of strength. The G0 results after weathering cycles tended to decrease in specimens at a 40 °C curing temperature and
increase in specimens at a 23 °C curing temperature.
Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Rice-husk ash; Carbide lime; Sustainable binder; Curing effects; Stiffness variation; Durability

1. Introduction is often performed to resolve low bearing capacity soils

In situ soils do not always meet the design requirements
and may need to be improved to be transformed into
appropriate earthwork materials. Chemical stabilization
Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: consoli@ufrgs.br (N.C. Consoli), portugal@ufrgs.br
(D.E. Lourenço).
and usually employs Portland cement. However, according
to Arulrajah et al. (2016, 2017), Phummiphan et al. (2016,
2017) and Suksiripattanapong et al. (2017), the develop-
ment of alternatives for reusing domestic, agricultural
and industrial wastes as geotechnical stabilization materials
can result in environmental and economic benefits. Clean
quartzitic sands do not react with lime by itself, but, when
ash is added to the admixtures, pozzolanic reactions occur,
improving mechanical properties.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.06.007
0038-0806/Ó 2019 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Nomenclature
a, A, D, E and K scalars
ALM accumulated loss of mass
Biv volumetric binder content (expressed as a
percentage)
CL carbide lime content (expressed as a percentage)
D50 mean effective particle diameter (mm)
G0 initial shear modulus (MPa)
qu unconfined compressive strength (MPa)
The present research evaluates the use of rice-husk ash
(RHA) and carbide lime (CL) as a binder to enhance the
geotechnical properties of a uniform sand. These materials
were used to reduce the accumulation of wastes, acting as
an environmentally sustainable binder for geotechnical
applications, especially in regions where these wastes are
commonly generated, near industrial plants producers of
CL or agricultural regions where rice is grown. Therefore,
the availability of materials for soil stabilization nearby
reduces the costs of transportation. According to Behak
(2007), usually rice cultivation soils do not meet geotechni-
cal requirements to be employed as pavements base or sub-
base. Consequently, local roads are often very deteriorated
at the end of harvest season and demand large investments
to be recovered.
Rice-husk ash (RHA) is an agricultural-industrial waste
with great potential for use as a pozzolanic addition and/or
partial replacement of cement in soil-cement mixtures
because of the high concentration of silica accumulated
by the rice plant. The incineration of rice husk has been
used to reduce its volume and also generate thermal and
electrical energy. However, burning still produces another
waste, the RHA. According to Juliano (1985), when incin-
erated, rice husk produces approximately 25% of its weight
in ash. As stated by Ali et al. (1992), every 4 tons of rice
husk generates 1 ton of husk ash.
In Brazil, approximately 12 million tons of rice were
harvested in 2017 (CONAB, 2017). The data showed
approximately 3 million tons of rice husk were generated
as waste, and that about 0.75 million tons of ash could
have been produced from all husk incineration.
Carbide lime (CL) is a waste from acetylene gas (C2H2)
production plants. Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], the main
component of CL, is generated as an aqueous slurry with
small amounts of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), silica oxide
(SiO2) and other metal oxides. World production of acety-
lene gas was approximately 500,000 tons in 2014, whereas
the CL production as a waste was approximately
1,423,000 tons (Market Research Store, 2015). Thailand
produces 21,500 tons/year of CL (Horpibulsuk et al.,
2015). According to Saldanha et al. (2018), Brazil currently
produces 6000 tons/year of acetylene gas and generates
approximately 17,100 tons/year of CL.
1429
R2 coefficient of determination (dimensionless)
RHA rice-husk ash content (expressed as percentage)
V volume of specimens (cm3)
q density (kg/m3)
cd dry unit weight (kN/m3)
cs unit weight of solids (kN/m3)
g porosity (expressed as percentage)
g/Biv porosity/volumetric binder content index
Carbide lime (CL), in the presence of water, produces an
alkaline environment and provides the available Ca++ to
react with silica (SiO2), found in RHA, thus creating poz-
zolanic reactions. The addition of an activator (CL) to a
pozzolanic material (RHA) in a wet process provides cal-
cium silicate hydrate (CSH) formation in a gel condition,
that, afterwards, crystallize and form interparticle bonds
that constitute the cementation (Massazza, 1998).
Pozzolanic reactions are slow at ambient temperature
(23 °C), with long curing periods of time to achieve target
parameter values of strength, stiffness and durability. How-
ever, there are alternatives to accelerate curing time. Rao
and Asha (2012) studies on lime-fly ash reactions showed
that larger strength values are developed at higher curing
temperatures, even in a short period. Specimens cured for
24 h at 80 °C developed strength values twice as long as
specimens cured for 28 days at 25 °C. Saldanha and
Consoli (2016) also concluded that higher curing tempera-
tures (40 °C and 60 °C) accelerate the gain of strength on
carbide lime-coal fly ash blends in comparison to standard
laboratory curing temperature (23 °C). That is, tempera-
ture acts as a blend catalyser and is important in
environmental-geotechnical engineering.
Since pozzolanic reactions are affected by many factors
(such as porosity, amounts of RHA and CL, curing type
and temperature), a dosage methodology is necessary to
assess mechanical behavior of these blends. Thus, present
study aims to quantify the influence of porosity and
volumetric content of binder (sum of RHA and CL) on
stiffness, strength, and durability properties of uniform
sand-RHA-CL blends submitted to different curing tem-
peratures and periods. Finally, a statistical analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) was carried out in order to verify if the
changes of controllable variables significantly affect the
results of qu.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
The Osorio sand, rice rusk ash (RHA) and carbide lime
(CL) originated from Southern Brazil. Fig. 1 presents grain
1430 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439

Fig. 1. Grain size distribution of Osorio sand, RHA and CL.

size distribution of the three materials, and their physical

properties are shown in Table 1.
This soil is a nonplastic uniform fine sand, with rounded
particle shape and a grain unit weight of 26.3 kN/m3. It can
be classified, according to Unified Soil Classification Sys-
tem (USCS), as SP (ASTM, 2017). According to the classi-
fication for highway purposes (ASTM, 2015), Osorio sand
can be classified as A-3. The grain particles are predomi-
nantly quartz, in accordance with mineralogical analysis.
The RHA used was obtained from a rice company that
incinerates the rice-husk, in a process with controlled tem-
perature, in order to generate thermal and electrical energy,
which produces RHA as a by-product. RHA unit weight
grain is 22.0 kN/m3.
CL, a by-product from an acetylene gas production
plant, was used throughout this investigation. This mate-
rial has a specific surface area of 22.6 m2/g and solids unit
weight of 21.9 kN/m3.
Fig. 2 exhibits results from X-ray diffraction analysis
(XRD) performed on RHA, which shows presence of
cristobalite (SiO2) as dominant mineral. According to pre-
vious studies detailed by Saldanha et al. (2018) portlandite
[Ca(OH)2], calcite (CaCO3) and graphite (C) are the dom-
inant minerals in CL composition. Chemical characteriza-
tions of RHA and CL were carried out by X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and it can be seen in
Table 2. RHA presents 93.6% of silica (SiO2), which reacts
with CL, producing pozzolanic reactions, while CL pre-
Fig. 2. X-ray diffraction analysis of RHA.
sents 74.0% of calcium oxide (CaO) produced due calcium
carbide (CaC2) hydrolysis.
Distilled water was employed for all moulded speci-
mens, for specimen submersion before unconfined com-
pressive tests and during durability tests.
2.2. Methods
Standard Proctor compaction tests were carried out in
accordance with ASTM D698 (ASTM, 2012), in order to
assess optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit
weight of blends. As previous written materials used for
these tests were admixtures of Osorio sand, RHA and
CL. RHA content based on sandy soil dry masses, were
10%, 20% and 30%, and CL content was 8% of the sum
of dry solid masses, for all blends used for these tests.
Fig. 3 presents results of the three standard energy Proctor
compaction tests were carried out in this research.
2.2.1. Dosage methodology
A target cd for a given specimen was established through
a dry mass sum of the sand-RHA-CL blends divided by the

Table 1
Physical properties of Osorio sand, RHA and CL.
Properties Osorio sand Rice-Husk Ash (RHA) Carbide Lime (CL)
Plastic Index (%) Non-plastic Non-plastic –
Unit weight of solids (kN/m3) 26.3 22.0 21.9
Medium sand (0.425 mm < diameter < 2.0 mm) (%) 0.25 0.00 0.00
Fine sand (0.075 mm < diameter < 0.425 mm) (%) 97.43 0.00 5.14
Silt (0.002 mm < diameter < 0.075 mm) (%) 2.09 90.74 88.67
Clay (diameter < 0.002 mm) (%) 0.47 9.26 6.19
Mean particle diameter - D50 (mm) 0.16 0.02 0.02
USCS classification (ASTM, 2017) SP (poorly graded sand)
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439 1431

Table 2 Porosity (g) and volumetric binder content (Biv) ratio

X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry Test Results on allowed the assessment dosage parameter, porosity/volu-
RHA and CL.
metric binder content, index (g/Biv). This index aims to
Chemical RHA CL quantify influence of both materials in a single value, being
SiO2 93.6 3.10 the RHA + CL a new cementitious material, made from a
Al2SO3 0.26 0.46 pozzolanic material (RHA) and an activator (CL).
CaO 1.20 74.0
Fe2O3 0.20 0.26
In the present work, a water/binder ratio could not be
K2O 2.91 ND considered accurate as discussed by Consoli et al. (2009),
TiO2 ND ND since the specimens were not saturated. Without satura-
SO3 0.40 0.54 tion, voids were only partially filled with water, making it
MgO ND 0.72 impossible to find a unique relationship between voids
MnO 0.50 ND
P2O5 0.85 ND
and amount of water. For soil binder in an unsaturated
Na2O ND ND state, as is usual in engineering earthworks, the relationship
Others 0.10 – between porosity and binder content is a more appropriate
Note: ND = not detected. measure of mechanical behavior.

2.2.2. Moulding and curing of specimens

Moulding points for specimens submitted to strength
and stiffness tests carried out had a target moisture content
of 14% and three different dry unit weights (14.5 kN/m3,
15.5 kN/m3 and 16.5 kN/m3). These values were chosen
based on Proctor standard compaction effort tests:
16.5 kN/m3 is approximately the maximum value, and
14% is approximately the optimum moisture content.
RHA and CL contents were selected considering interna-
tional experience with soil-ash-lime blends (e.g.;
Transportation Research Board, 1987; Consoli et al.,
2001, 2011a). The total number of moulded specimens
for strength and stiffness tests was 81. Variations of RHA
and CL contents and curing types are shown in Table 3.
Three different curing types were evaluated. Specimens
were cured for 7 days at two distinct temperatures (23 °C
and 40 °C) and for 28 days at 23 °C. These different ways
of specimen curing aimed to assess how time and tempera-
Fig. 3. Proctor compaction tests of Osorio sand, RHA and CL ture influence the pozzolanic reactions developed in blends.
admixtures.
As stated before, previous studies concluded pozzolanic
reactions accelerate if specimens are cured at higher tem-
total specimen volume. According to Eq. (1) (Consoli et al., peratures than 23 °C and might achieve similar values to
2011a), porosity (g) is a function of dry unit weight of the those obtained for longer curing periods (28 days).
blend (cd), contents of sand (S), rice-husk ash (RHA) and
carbide lime (CL), and solid unit weights of sand (css),
rice-husk ash (csRHA) and carbide lime (csCL).
Table 3



cd S RHA CL Characteristics of the specimens moulded for strength and stiffness tests.
g ¼ 100  100 100
þ 100
þ 100
ð1Þ
S
100
þ RHA
100
þ 100
CL
csS csRHA csCL Dry unit weight RHA CL Curing type
(kN/m3) content content (days-temperature °C)
(%) (%)
In order to evaluate the influence of the RHA and CL 14.5 10, 20, 30 5, 8, 11 7–23 °C
contents of in a single index, volumetric binder content 7–40 °C
28–23 °C
(Biv) is a novel parameter proposed, and it represents the
influence of contents sum of these on blend material prop- 15.5 10, 20, 30 5, 8, 11 7–23 °C
erties. Eq. (2) shows that calculation of the referred index is 7–40 °C
28–23 °C
based on the volumetric contents of RHA (VRHA) and CL
(VCL) by total volume (V) of the specimen. 16.5 10, 20, 30 5, 8, 11 7–23 °C
7–40 °C
28–23 °C
V RHA þ V CL mRHA =csRHA þ mCL =csCL
Biv ¼ ¼ ð2Þ Total 81 specimens
V V
1432 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Specimens were statically compacted in three layers,
within a cylindrical mould, according to the method pro-
posed by Ladd (1978), so that each layer reached the spec-
ified cd. Curing process was carried either in a moist
chamber at 23° ± 2 °C and a relative moisture of approxi-
mately 95% or in a steam room at 40° ± 2 °C with the same
relative moisture.
For strength and stiffness tests, cylindrical specimens of
50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height were prepared.
Same specimens were used for both tests. After the mould-
ing procedure, all specimens were measured and weighted
in order to reach cd: between 99 and 101% of the target
value; diameter: within ±0.5 mm; height: within ±1 mm;
and moisture content: within ±0.5%. Specimens that did
not meet the specified conditions were excluded from
experimental program. Table 3 shows moulded specimen
specifications.
Cylindrical specimens 100 mm in diameter and
127.3 mm in height were moulded for durability (wet and
drying cycles) and supplementary stiffness tests. While the
moulding procedures were the same as those for strength
and stiffness tests specimens, the diameter and height toler-
ances of specimens for the durability tests were ±1.00 mm
and ±1.27 mm, respectively. Specifications of the moulded
specimens are presented in Table 4. All specimens moulded
for these tests were cured for 7 days.
Before testing, the specimens were submerged in a water
tank for 24 h in order to minimize suction. Afterwards,
they were submitted to ultrasonic pulse velocity tests and
then the unconfined compression tests were performed.
2.2.3. Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests
Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests were used to evaluate the
elastic properties of artificially cemented soils, according to
ASTM D 2845 (ASTM, 2008). Transducers were coupled
to both specimen extremes through the utilization of a spe-
cial coupler gel. Based on density (q) and velocity of shear
wave (Vs), the value of G0 could be calculated as stated by
Eq. (3). These tests were performed on specimens that were
supposed to be subjected to unconfined compression tests
and during specific cycles of durability tests (0, 1, 3, 6, 9,
and 12).
G0 ¼ q V 2s
Table 4
Characteristics of the specimens moulded for durability tests.
Dry unit weight RHA CL Curing type (days-
(kN/m3) content (%) content temperature °C)
(%)
15.5 10, 30 11 7–23 °C
7–40 °C
16.5 10, 20, 30 5, 8, 11 7–23 °C
7–40 °C
Total 14 specimens
Table 5
ANOVA: Controllable factors and level of factors.
qu as response variable
Controllable factor Factor level
Dry unit weight (kN/m3) 16.5, 15.5, 14.5
RHA content (%) 10, 20, 30
CL content (%) 5, 8, 11
Curing type 23 °C  7 days, 23 °C  28 days,
40 °C  7 days
2.2.4. Unconfined compression tests (UCS)
UCS tests carried out in the present research followed
the recommendations of ASTM D 5102 (ASTM, 2009).
The moulding processes included the weighting, the mix-
ture and the static compaction of each specimen. The aim
was to determine qu of the moulded blends. Tests were per-
formed on a computerized loading machine with load cell
capacities of 10 and 50 kN.
2.2.5. Durability tests
Wetting-drying cycles were performed on durability
tests according to ASTM D 559 (ASTM, 2015) in order
to obtain the ALM of blends. Procedures allowed the eval-
uation of mass losses after wetting-drying cycles. A cycle
begins when specimens are placed underwater for 5 h at
23 °C ± 2 °C. Then, they were oven-dried for 42 h at
71 °C ± 2 °C. Finally, using a force of approximately
13.3 N, specimens were brushed 18–20 times.
2.2.6. Statistical analysis
This research aims to analyse the influence of curing
temperature and period, as well as the impact of other con-
trollable variables (cd, RHA and CL contents) on the spec-
imens’ strength. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed in order to determine which of those factors
influenced the response variable qu. In this way, the exper-
imental project consisted in a cross-analysis of four con-
trolled factors studied at three levels each, presented in
Table 5. ANOVA analysis was performed with a 95% con-
fidence level, therefore p-values less than 0.05 mean that
the controlled factor influences the response variable.
ð3Þ
3. Results
3.1. Influence of the porosity/volumetric binder content index
on qu
As stated by Consoli et al. (2016, 2018a), the ultimate
resistance qu of soils treated with Portland cement can be
estimated by Eq. (4), in which A, D and E are scalars.
" #E
g
qu ¼ A D ð4Þ
ðBiv Þ
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Diambra et al. (2018) used a mixture-modelling frame-
work and the principles of the critical state soil mechanics
to denote the qu of soils treated with Portland cement (con-
sidered as binder). These authors’ studies resulted in a the-
oretical model that shows a direct relationship of qu with
porosity of the blend (g) and volumetric binder content
(Biv). Their theoretical development resulting in Eq. (5),
in which K and a are scalars. Model suggests that K value
is affected by strength of the cementitious bonds and soil
matrix, however the influence of cementing agent is much
more effective. The external exponent a is considered to
be controlled by the properties of soil matrix and by the
relationship between the peak resistance and the soil
density.
" #a
g 
qu ¼ K ð5Þ
1
ðBiv Þa
As can be seen, Eq. (4) – empirical – and Eq. (5) – the-
oretical – are similar. When both equations are compared,
it can be concluded that E = a and D = 1/a. As previously
reported by Consoli et al. (2016, 2018a), because the empir-
ical value D can be considered as 0.28 based on previous
experimental data, the theoretical value of a is 3.57.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of qu with adjusted g/Biv. It
can be observed that the use of g/Biv, allows to estimate
the behavior of all the different moulding characteristics,
curing temperatures and periods (3 different cd, 3 RHA
contents, 3 CL contents, and 3 different curing characteris-
tics) in only three curves and equations, one for each curing
characteristic. Eq. (6), Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) capture the
Fig. 4. Variation of qu with adjusted g/Biv for compacted Osorio sand-
RHA-CL blends at different curing conditions.
1433
behavior of qu for specimens cured for 7 days at 23 °C,
7 days at 40 °C, and 28 days at 23 °C, respectively.
The influence of distinct cd, RHA contents and CL con-
tents tested are included in the g/Biv index calculation. In
this research, the empirical value of a was considered as
3.60, which is very close to the 3.57 value calculated by
Diambra et al. (2017), considering 1/a = 0.28. Reasonable
correlations [R2 = 0.78 – see Eq. (6) for 7 days of curing
at 23 °C, R2 = 0.80 – see Eq. (7) for 7 days at 40 °C, and
R2 = 0.65 – see Eq. (8) for 28 days at 23 °C] could be
obtained to estimate values of qu based on g/B0.28
iv .
  3:60
qu ðMPaÞ ¼ 3:05  104 g=Biv 0:28 ð6Þ
 3:60
qu ðMPaÞ ¼ 1:19  105 g=Biv 0:28 ð7Þ
3:60
qu ðMPaÞ ¼ 1:17  105 g=Biv 0:28 ð8Þ
Once power functions are the same for the three differ-
ent equations, scalars represent the difference in strength
results for specimens cured under different conditions. It
is concluded that, in general, qu values are more than
three-fold higher for specimens cured for 7 days at 40 °C
or for 28 days at 23 °C. Lower porosity and higher volu-
metric binder content result in higher values of qu.
According to Brazilian standard NBR 12253 (ABNT,
2012), resistance qu needs to achieve a minimum target
value – for soil-cement admixtures – that is 2.1 MPa, after
7 days curing, in order to be employed as pavement layer.
Analysing Fig. 4, a value of g/B0.28
iv = 14.33 [Eq. (6)], meets
this requirement when specimens are cured for 7 days at
23 °C; whereas the curing temperature is changed to 40 °
C, a value of g/B0.28
iv = 20.91 [Eq. (7)] is sufficient. There-
fore, higher porosity and lower volumetric binder content
fully comply with NBR 12253 requirements. When curing
temperature increase, cost is reduced due to less com-
paction effort or material content. It is also important to
note that a single value of Biv can be calculated by different
contents of pozzolana (in this case RHA) or lime (in this
case CL), which might be a dependent decision on the
availability of materials in the regions to be employed.
3.1.1. Statistical analysis of qu as response variable
The ANOVA performed on qu results has shown the
effects of the controllable variables: dry unit weight (cd),
rice husk ash content (RHA) and curing type are statisti-
cally significant. It was not possible to determine the statis-
tical influence of the carbide lime content (CL) on the
strength data analysed once its p-value is greater than
0.05, as shown in Table 6. Although the changes in the
CL levels did not show statistical significance, it is known
that the presence of lime in the admixture is substantial,
because without it, pozzolanic reactions would not happen.
Furthermore, the non-significance presented in statistical
analysis may represent that in all dosages (5%, 8% and
11% of CL) the lime content was already high enough to
alkalinize the environment and provide the adequate
1434 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439

Table 6
ANOVA performed for strength results as a function of the controllable factor.
Source of variation Degrees of freedom Mean square F-value P-value
cd (kN/m )
3
2 15.5155 30.627 0.000
RHA content (%) 2 52.0773 102.798 0.000
Lime content (%) 2 0.0181 0.036 0.965
Curing type 2 83.3020 164.434 0.000
Error 72 0.5066
Total 80

amount of calcium hydroxide to chemically react with the

pozzolana.
Fig. 5 indicates that increasing values of cd are signifi-
cant in raising the strength as response variable, likewise
observed with the variations of RHA content. None of
the employed CL contents presented significant difference
between themselves and the response variable. By changing
curing temperature from 23 °C to 40 °C (specimens cured
during 7 days) or by changing the curing period from 7
to 28 days (for specimens cured at 23 °C), it has been found
that the increase in strength results is highly significant. On
the other side, difference between curing at 40 °C for 7 days
or at 23 °C for 28 days could not be verified. This means
that both kinds of curing achieve statistically equal results.
The previous analysis was obtained by multiple compar-
isons of the paired means (MCM) that allow to evaluate
the practical significance of differences among means.

3.2. Influence of the porosity/volumetric binder content index

on G0

Fig. 6 presents G0 variation with adjusted g/Biv for com-
pacted Osorio sand-RHA-CL blends, performed in uncon-
fined compressive specimens (50 mm diameter and 100 mm
height). As demonstrated for qu values, the use of g/Biv to
estimate blend parameters is a simple way to achieve unifi-
cation of RHA and CL as a volumetric binder content. Eq.
(9), Eq. (10) and Eq. (11) estimate values of G0 as a func-
tion of g/B0.28
iv for 7 days at 23 °C, 7 days at 40 °C, and
28 days at 23 °C, respectively. Suitable correlations
[R2 = 0.72 – see Eq. (9), R2 = 0.76 – see Eq. (10) and
R2 = 0.75 – see Eq. (11)] are observed in these equations.
In these three equations, a unique power function is not
able to equally describe the behavior of specimens cured at
Fig. 6. Variation of G0 with adjusted g/Biv for compacted Osorio sand-
RHA-CL blends at different curing conditions.
23 °C for 7 days and the other two types of curing. This can
likely be attributed to the higher influence of porosity in
specimen stiffness. That is, for a more compacted specimen,
the G0 gain is greater in relation to the reduction of g/Biv
parameter value (more inclined curve) in the early ages
and at curing chamber temperatures. On the other hand,
at higher temperatures, or with a known catalyst or a pro-
longed curing period, pozzolanic reactions are more devel-
oped, exerting a more significant influence on stiffness,

Fig. 5. Multiple comparisons of means for the strength mean results as a function of the controllable factors.
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439 1435

raising it (Consoli et al., 2018b). Finally, it was found that

pozzolanic reactions are perfectly developed, requiring
either more time, or higher temperature. Thus, the increase
in stiffness with the reduction of g/Biv parameter is less
expressive (less inclined curve). Therefore, for curing per-
iod of 28 days at 23 °C or 7 days at 40 °C specimens, a
power of 1.50 was obtained, instead of 3.60. A lower
porosity and a higher volumetric binder content result in
higher values of G0.
 3:60
G0 ðMPaÞ ¼ 5:60  107 g=Biv 0:28 ð9Þ
 1:50
G0 ðMPaÞ ¼ 2:91  105 g=Biv 0:28 ð10Þ
 1:50
G0 ðMPaÞ ¼ 2:81  105 g=Biv 0:28 ð11Þ

3.3. Influence of the porosity/volumetric binder content index

on alm

Fig. 7 presents values of ALM with a number of

wetting-drying cycles for the two distinct curing tempera-
tures and 7 curing days. As noted in the figure, for both
curing temperatures, higher ALM values occurred for
two specimens moulded with 10% of RHA content. There-
fore, increasing the RHA content is an appropriate alterna-
tive if an increase in durability properties is required. In
addition, higher values of cd and CL content cause a
decrease in ALM rates.
As stated by USACE (1984), the maximum allowable
ALM, after 12 wetting-drying cycles is 11% for granular
materials, while the maximum value according to PCA
(1992) is 14% for soils classified as A-3 and stabilized with
cement. Therefore, all ranges of porosities and volumetric
binder content tested in this study are adequate for both
recommendations.
Fig. 8 displays ALM variation with adjusted g/Biv for
compacted Osorio sand-RHA-CL blends cured for 7 days
at 23 °C and 40 °C after 12 cycles. Eq. (12) and Eq. (13)
estimate the ALM based on the g/B0.28 iv values, for curing
at 23 °C and 40 °C, respectively. Excellent correlations
[R2 = 0.95 – see Eq. (12), and R2 = 0.99 – see Eq. (13)]
can be observed in the equations that allow the ALM cal-
culation. As stated in the equations, the same power (0.28)
Fig. 8. Variation of ALM with adjusted g/Biv for compacted Osorio sand-
RHA-CL blends at different curing conditions.
was applied to the Biv value in order to maintain compati-
bility of the porosity and volumetric binder content varia-
tion rates. An external empirical power function of 7.40
was also applied to g/B0.28
iv , in an effort to achieve the high-
est possible coefficient of correlation (R2) value.
 7:40
ALMð%Þ ¼ 3:18  109 g=Biv 0:28 ð12Þ
  7:40
ALMð%Þ ¼ 2:20  109 g=Biv 0:28 ð13Þ
3.4. Variation of G0 during wetting-drying cycles
Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests were performed after
cycles 0, 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12. Fig. 9 displays the variation of
G0 along these cycles for specimens cured at 23 °C and
40 °C. As shown in Fig. 9(a), the G0 values of specimens
cured at 23 °C increase when submitted to wetting-drying
cycles, while values decrease for specimens cured at 40 °C
[Fig. 9(b)]. Although specimens cured at 40 °C exhibit

Fig. 7. Variation of ALM with number of wetting-drying cycles: (a) specimens cured for 7 days at 23 °C and (b) specimens cured for 7 days at 40 °C.
1436 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Fig. 9. Variation of G0 with number of wetting-drying cycles: (a) specimens cured for 7 days at 23 °C and (b) specimens cured for 7 days at 40 °C.
higher stiffness than the cured at 23 °C, before the durabil-
ity cycles, they reduce their G0 throughout the test.
Specimens cured at 23 °C evidenced an increase in stiff-
ness between cycle 0 and cycle 1, while the ones cured at
40 °C presented the most significant loss of stiffness
between the same cycles. The latter condition is believed
to occur once acceleration of pozzolanic reactions due to
high temperature (40 °C) might be responsible for generat-
ing tiny internal cracks in the specimen at seven days of
curing (named zero cycles). However, during the wet part
of the first cycle, water infiltrates in specimen, percolating
between the tiny cracks formed, triggering new fractures
in the specimen (once suctions are taken to zero). This pro-
cess may cause the attenuation of the material stiffness
when subjected to severe wet-dry cycles.
The only previous study on the variation of G0 during
wetting-drying cycles was carried out by Consoli et al.
(2018b) on a silt treated with rapid hardening Portland
cement, cured for 7 days. Comparing the results of the pre-
sent study with the results of Consoli et al. (2018), it is clear
that the variation of G0 results with wetting-drying cycles
observed by Consoli et al. (2018b) show the same trends
as the results in the specimens cured at 40 °C in this study.
Both results have high stiffness after 7 days of curing due
the use of early strength Portland cement (Consoli et al.,
2018b) and RHA-CL specimens cured at 40 °C, which
between cycle 0 and cycle 1 suffers the most significant loss
of stiffness. The reason for the loss of stiffness for both
improved soils is that they have developed most of their
cementation bonds during the 7 days of curing: the silt
treated with early strength Portland cement has about
65% of its total strength (and possibly stiffness) developed
in 7 days of curing (Consoli et al., 2011b), while RHA-CL
specimens have been cured at 40 °C, and as the tempera-
ture works as a catalyzer, most of the total stiffness has
grown.
Fig. 10(a) illustrates the stiffness of the specimens at 0
cycles, at both cure temperatures. The results demonstrate
that specimens cured at 40 °C are initially stiffer than spec-
imens cured at room temperature (23 °C). In addition, it
can be seen that the stiffness of the durability specimens
(100 mm  127 mm) is consistent with the results shown
previously by the stiffness tests on the UCS samples
(100 mm  50 mm) (Fig. 6). The findings demonstrate that
the stiffness of the evaluated mixtures, previously submitted
to the durability cycles, is independent of the specimen size,
since all the points fit to the corresponding G0 equations
described by Eqs. (9) and (10) and obtained for the UCS
specimens. At the end of the 12 cycles, as shown in
Fig. 10(b), specimens cured at 40 °C lose stiffness, leading
to a similar behavior to those cured at 23 °C for both
dimensions.
Fig. 11(a) points out a stiffness gain from cycle 0–12 for
specimens cured for 7 days at 23 °C. Cycles do not repre-
sent a relevant variation in strength when comparing the
G0 obtained before any cycle and at the end of all cycles.
The behavior is similar to that obtained for UCS specimens
(50 mm  100 mm) and for durability samples
(100 mm  127 mm) before being submitted to the wetting
and drying cycles (cycle 0). Fig. 11(b) shows specimen
behavior subjected to the wetting-drying cycles after curing
for 7 days at 40 °C. It can be observed from the initial
phase of durability tests (cycle 0) until the end of the cycles
(12 cycles), there is a decrease of stiffness, represented by
the reduction of G0 values for all tested samples. With this
drop, specimen stiffness is now similar to that cured at
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439 1437

Fig. 10. Values of G0 for durability specimens at different curing conditions: (a) G0 at zero cycles and (b) G0 at 12 cycles.

Fig. 11. Variation of G0 (from zero to 12 cycles) for durability specimens cured for 7 days (a) at 23 °C and (b) at 40 °C.

23 °C. At higher curing temperatures or prolonged curing the specimens cured at 23 °C (7 days), the effect of temper-
period, pozzolanic reactions are more developed, exerting ature (during the drying phase of the test) caused catalysis
a more significant influence on stiffness by raising it. For of the pozzolanic reactions, which manifested itself in the
1438 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Fig. 12. Loss of stiffness (from zero to 12 cycles) for durability specimens
cured for 7 days at 40 °C.
stiffness gain during the test, compensating for the wear
suffered from the specimen during the 12 cycles. For the
specimens cured at 40 °C (7 days), the pozzolanic reactions
would already be well developed, and what caused the loss
of stiffness were the cracks caused by the wetting and dry-
ing cycles. In the end, pozzolanic reactions are perfectly
developed for higher temperatures or longer curing times,
but in durability tests the stiffness performance presented
a decrease in the stiffness measures, explained by the spec-
imen cracking during the wetting and drying cycles
(Consoli et al., 2018b).
Fig. 12 emphasizes decrease in stiffness from cycle 0 to
cycle 12 for specimens cured at 40 °C. Before the cycles,
specimens resemble stiffness behavior of the UCS speci-
mens (50 mm  100 mm) in the same curing conditions,
not subjected to cycles, described by Eq. (10), aforemen-
tioned. After stiffness loss, specimens tend to present simi-
lar behavior to the UCS specimens cured for 7 days at
23 °C, as demonstrated by Eq. (9). In order to verify these
results, the stiffness trend line of the specimens submitted to
durability cycles was proposed. Eq. (14) showed to be prac-
tically the same as Eq. (9), describing a very similar
behavior.
 3:60 2
G0 ðMPaÞ ¼ 5:57  107 g=Biv 0:28 ½R ¼ 0:77
4. Conclusions
From the results and analysis of tests described before,
the following concluding remarks can be made:
 A new environmentally friendly binder, made of two
wastes (rice-husk ash and carbide lime), and blended
with a poorly graded fine sand, have potential as an
alternative to enhance soil properties in regions where
these wastes are produced. The substitution of Portland
cement by a new binder, made of wastes, is an important
advance in sustainable geotechnical engineering;
 Rice growing regions do not usually have soils with
good geotechnical properties. Therefore, the application
of this new binder to bases or subbases of pavements can
improve the poor local road conditions, which are due
to intense traffic during harvest season;
 The use of adjusted porosity/volumetric binder index (g/
B0.28
iv ) has been proved useful to predict compacted
sandy soil-RHA-CL properties: unconfined compressive
strength, initial shear modulus and accumulated loss of
mass. Utilization of g/Biv allows the unification of RHA
and CL volumetric contents in a single index;
 Larger content values of RHA and CL, and lower
porosity result in better geotechnical blend properties.
Thus, larger values of qu and G0, and smaller rate of
ALM are achieved.
 Higher curing temperature (40 °C) compared to stan-
dard laboratory curing temperature (23 °C) was tested.
Results showed that curing temperature acts as a catal-
yser and higher temperatures accelerate pozzolanic reac-
tions between RHA and CL, improving blend
parameters of strength and stiffness, as well as reducing
the rate of ALM;
 ANOVA analysis showed that controllable factors cd,
RHA content and curing type are statistically significant
in qu results, as a response variable. Greatest perfor-
mance could be achieved by employing the highest cd
and RHA content, independent the amount of CL cho-
sen. Concerning the curing type, an engineer can opt
between curing at higher temperatures (40 °C) for a
shorter period of time or for a longer period (28 days)
at 23 °C.
 When using accelerated curing at 40 °C for sand mix-
tures, RHA and CL, revealed high effectiveness to
strength and durability gain of the new produced
geotechnical material. However, when evaluating stiff-
ness (G0), a certain deficiency of the material is observed,
considering decrease in the materials stiffness when sub-
jected to wetting–drying cycles.
 Initial shear modulus results after wet-dry cycles were
different, depending on pozzolanic reactions and cataly-
sers applied. Those cured for 7 days at 40 °C, where tem-
perature acted as a catalyser in pozzolanic reactions,
ð14Þ
exhibited a decreasing in G0, due to cycle gradient tem-
perature, inducing cracks within the specimens through
the differential contraction/expansion of the materials.
Specimens cured for7 days at 23 °C showed a gain in
G0, because the pozzolanic reactions were occurring
simultaneously with the wet-dry cycles, and the previous
effect exceeded the effect of the temperature gradient,
resulting in stiffness gains during durability tests.
 N.C. Consoli et al. / Soils and Foundations 59 (2019) 1428–1439
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their appreciation to
FAPERGS/CAPES 04/2018 – DOCFIX (project #
18/2551-0000559-2) and CAPES/BRASIL (scholarship
number 88887.195200/2018-00), for funding present inves-
tigation. The authors also wish to explicit their apprecia-
tion to FAPERGS/CNPq 12/2014 – PRONEX (grant #
16/2551-0000469-2), MCT-CNPq (Produtividade em Pes-
quisa, INCT-REAGEO and Universal) and MEC-
CAPES (PROEX) for the supporting to the research
group.
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