Mai n t a i n i ng L i n e Worker S a f e t y Through Mai ntenance and

T e s t i n g O f P r o t e c t i v e Grounding Equipment
9 8 2 1-C -ESMO-5
Clayton King
A.B. Chance Co.
210 N. Allen St.
Centralia, MO 65240
Abstract: Worker safety during de-energized 1 ine maintenance has always
been important, but maintenance of protective grounding equipment was
often overlooked. With OSHA CFR 1910.269 sub-part R in Jan. 1994 this
changed. Equipment, with suitable accuracy is now available to assist
in equipment evaluation. This paper describes some of that equipment,
operating principles and positive and negative features of each.
Calculations for maximum allowable jumper resistance are shown. A
maintenance program should be part of every utilities activity.
Key words: grounding equipment, grounding jumpers, protective
maintenance, de-energized line maintenance
Introduction: Protecting a line worker from the harmful effects of
current is difficult under the best of conditions. Unless protective
grounding equipment is properly maintained the life of the worker may lie
in jeopardy if a line is accidently re-energized during maintenance.
Not all utilities have maintenance programs. This paper will assist in
establishing values and selecting equipment and establishing an ongoing
program.

While worker protection has always been an important activity, it has

been receiving increased attention in recent years. As the country has
grown so has the electrical needs of the population. More people, more
businesses and factories all using more power. Lines have been upgraded
and new ones constructed to supply this increasing demand for electric
power. Today we see higher voltage lines with higher levels of both
rated and fault currents.
This growth has led to the increasing difficulty in providing a safe
worksi te during de-energized maintenance procedures. In many cases the
"old" methods may not only be inappropriate but may be unsafe. Today it
is important to be aware of worksite fault current levels, protective
equipment limitations, equipment available and techniques for
establishing the safe working area.
The growth of the utility industry has been accompanied by an increase
in the number of accident injuries. This has resulted in both more
awareness within the industry and from governmental regulating agencies.
At the federal level rules by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) were published in January 1994. CFR 29 1910.269
Sub part R addresses operation and maintenance of generation, control,
transformation, transmission, distribution of lines and equipment and
tree trimming. Very little is being left to chance. These rules carr.y
the weight of law and violators may have severe penalties and monetary
fi nes imposed.
Worker protection is the focus of the decade.
0-7803-4883-4/98/$10.0001998 IEEE

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Why i s p r o t e c t i o n such a problem? A major d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e e x t r e m e l y
l o w " s a f e " c u r r e n t l e v e l s , as cgypared t o a v a i l a b l e f a u l t c u r r e n t s a t
any work s i t e . The c h a r t below p r e s e n t s t h e f i n d i n g s o f r e s e a r c h e r s
which a r e w i d e l y accepted throughout t h e i n d u s t r y .

E f f e c t s o f E l e c t r i c C u r r e n t On The Human Body

Effect Men Women

S l i g h t T i n g l i n g ( P e r c e p t i o n Threshold) 1.1 0.7
P a i n f u l Shock, p a i n f u l b u t muscle c o n t r o l 9.0 6.0
not l o s t ~~ ~

P a i n f u l Shock ( L e t Go Threshold) 16.0 10.5

P a i n f u l & Severe Shock, muscles c o n t r a c t , 23.0 15.0
breathing d i f f i c u l t
P o s s i b l e V e n t r i c u l a r F i b r i 11a t i o n
From s h o r t shocks (0.03 Sec.) 1,000 1,000
From l o n g e r shocks (3.0 Sec.) 100 100
V e n t r i c u l a r F i b r i 11a t ion , C e r t a i n Death Must occur d u r i n g suscept ib l e
phase o f h e a r t c y c l e t o be
1e t h a l .
From s h o r t shocks (0.03 Sec.) 2 ,750 2,750
From s h o r t shocks (3.0 Sec.) 275 275

( A l l values a r e m i l l i a m p e r e RMS a t 60 Hz.)

I n d e t e r m i n i n g s a f e body c u r r e n t several f a c t o r s must be considered.

The pub1 i s h e d 1 it e r a t u r e t y p i c a l l y c o n s i d e r s t h e r e s i s t a n c e between
e x t r e m i t i e s , l a t e l y presented as 1,000 ohms'*'. While t h i s i s an
approximate v a l u e i t p r o v i d e s a b a s i s f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s and comparisons
between s a f e t y equipment.

29 CFR 1910.269 ( n ) ( 4 ) ( i ) s t a t e s t h a t i t i s t h e u t i l i t i e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o p r o v i d e " p r o t e c t i v e grounding equipment" t h a t " s h a l l be capable o f
c o n d u c t i n g t h e maximum f a u l t c u r r e n t t h a t c o u l d f l o w a t t h e p o i n t o f
grounding f o r t h e t i m e necessary t o c l e a r t h e f a u l t . . . ' I Further,
s e c t i o n ( n ) ( 4 ) ( i i ) s t a t e s " P r o t e c t i v e grounds s h a l l have an impedance
l o w enough t o cause immediate o p e r a t i o n o f p r o t e c t i v e devices i n case o f
a c c i d e n t a l e n e r g i z i n g o f t h e l i n e s o r equipment." These two statements
combine t o p l a c e a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y upon t h e u t i l i t y b o t h t o p r o v i d e
s u i t a b l e equipment and t o i n s u r e t h a t i t i s m a i n t a i n e d i n s a f e working
o r d e r . An equipment maintenance program i s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned,
b u t based on t h e requirement f o r t h e u t i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s u i t a b l e
equipment i t i s c e r t a i n l y i m p l i e d .

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One of the basic principles for worker pr~tection‘~’is to minimize the
current flow through the worker. This is done by placing a protective
jumper of sufficiently low resistance in parallel with the worker. The
resistance of this jumper controls both the current through and the
voltage across the worker. In this parallel circuit, the fault current
multiplied by the jumper resistance is the maximum voltage across the
worker. The current through the worker is minimized by the shunting
jumper. As a parallel circuit current divides in inverse proportion to
the resistances. Since some current will flow through every possible
path the resistance of the jumper is absolutely critical. The
resistance of the jumper must be kept below the maximum calculated
value, based upon the maximum voltage drop across the worker (or the
maximum body current) allowed by the utility. As an example consider
the following situation.
Assume : Maximum worksite available fault current = 12,000 amp.
The maximum breaker interrupt time is 20 cycles (0.333 sec.)
The accepted level of safety (established by the utility):
Voltage across the worker, Vman, max = 100 volts OR
Current through the worker, I,,,, = 1/3 the heart
fibri 11 at ion 1 eve1
The average workers weight = 155 lbs.
Average man resistance = 1,000 ohms

where k = 157 for 155 lbs.

Ifibrillation = 272 mi 11 iampere
Iman, max = 1/3 x Ifibrill&ion = 1/3 x 272 = 9 1 mil 1 iampere

Rearranging this equation. to solve for Rjumper:

Rjumper - Rman x CIman,max / (Ifault - I m m , ma,) 1
Rjumper = 1,000 x [0.091 / (12,000 amp - 0.091 amp)]
= 0.0076 ohm or 7.6 milliohm

Ijumper
-- Ifault - Iman, max

Vman = Ijumper x Rjumper = (12,000 amp - .091 amp) x .0076 ohm

= 91.2 volts

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This parallel protective jumper, based upon the given assumptions, will
maintain a current below the heart f i b r i l l a t i o n level and meets the two
safety requirements specified. Note t h a t t h i s i s the maximum resistance
the complete, assembled jumper(s) used in parallel with the worker may
have. This i s also the maximum resistance t e s t value of the one or
several jumpers employed t o parallel the worker a s well. Protective
jumpers n o t in parallel w i t h the worker are designed t o l e t the system
protective equipment know a f a u l t has occurred. Their requirement i s t o
n o t fuse during the f a u l t . I t i s n o t necessary for jumpers n o t in
parallel with the worker t o meet t h i s c r i t i c a l value of resistance.
A lack of maintenance may result in unsuitable equipment because of
broken conductor strands, high resistance connections between the clamp
parts or between the clamp and ferrule or cable end connection. I t
takes a very small increase in resistance t o make a significant change
in voltage across the worker a t f a u l t current levels. The r e s u l t may
take the f o r m of increased voltage across the worker (or current through
the worker) or the clamp burning off from the conductor. A loss of
protection d u r i n g an accidental re-energizing could lead t o a possible
injury t o the worker and would be a violation of the OSHA safe equipment
provision rul ing as we1 1 .
Most problems resulting i n increased resistance occur a t the clamp ends.
Typical causes are corrosion o r d i r t i n loosened connections between the
clamp and f e r r u l e or clamp and removable serrated jaw inserts. Bare
cab1 e instal 1ed directly under pressure terminal s , without ferrul es, are
subject t o serious corrosion due t o atmospheric moisture. After an
extended time these connections become extremely high resistance due t o
the corrosion surrounding each exposed strand.
Cable damage i s usually in the form of broken strands a t the point i t
e x i t s the ferrule. Damage t o the cable away from the clamps i s l e s s
frequent. The purpose of maintenance programs i s t o identify and repair
these degraded conditions.
Testing includes b o t h visual/manual and electrical methods. Electrical
methods 'i'nclude a millivolt d r o p t e s t , a temperature r i s e or thermal
t e s t , AC resistance measurements and AC high current. Several round
robin t e s t series have been conducted within ASTM b u t so f a r the r e s u l t s
are inconclusive. Each method has b o t h strong and weak points. Each i s
discussed bel ow.
VISUAL/MANUAL: A close visual and manual inspection of the clamp and
i t s connections will reveal broken, loose or missing components. If
found, cleaning, tightening or replacement of components should be
completed b e f o r e continuing. The extra flexible cable used i n
protective grounding s e t s i s n o t normally damaged during regular use.
I t may degrade i f l e f t unprotected and exposed t o the weather f o r an
extended time. The visual/manual method i s s t i l l the more r e l i a b l e
method for inspection of the interconnecting cable. Cables w i t h kinks,
obvious broken o r mashed strands, swollen o r damaged jackets t h a t can be
seen or f e l t should be replaced.

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Hidden h i g h r e s i s t a n c e connections, such as incomplete crimps i n s i d e t h e
f e r r u l e can n o t be i d e n t i f i e d by t h e visualJmanua1 method. However, a.n
adequate i n s p e c t i o n should r e s u l t when used w i t h one o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l
methods.

ELECTRICAL TESTS: A general d e s c r i p t i o n i s provided. D e t a i l s o f

o p e r a t i o n and t e s t i n g s a f e t y i s s u e s a r e l e f t t o t h e user. Low c u r r e n t
e l e c t r i c a l t e s t methods t o d e t e c t f l a w s i n t h e c a b l e p o r t i o n cannot be
r e 1 ia b l y made.
MILLIVOLT DROP TEST: T h i s t e s t i s conducted by p a s s i n g a c u r r e n t
t h r o u g h t h e sample under t e s t and making v o l t a g e measurements. The
r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e n c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g Ohm's law. A DC power source i s
p r e f e r a b l e because i t e l i m i n a t e s r e a d i n g e r r o r s and v a r i a t i o n s i n
r e p e a t a b i l i t y caused by t h e i n d u c t i v e e f f e c t when u s i n g AC c u r r e n t s .
The o u t p u t v o l t a g e o f t h e power source should be h i g h enough t o break
down t h e aluminum o x i d e on aluminum components. Due t o i t s extremely
t h i n t h i c k n e s s 5 t o 10 v o l t s should be s u f f i c i e n t .

The use o f DC means t h e c a b l e does n o t have t o be u n c o i l e d o r r e c e i v e

s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n i n g . A v o l t m e t e r o f s u f f i c i e n t accuracy i s used t o make
v o l t a g e measurements. Remember t h a t t h e d e s i r e d r e s i s t a n c e range i s o f
t h e o r d e r o f a few m i l l i o h m s . Therefore, t h e l a r g e r t h e t e s t c u r r e n t
t h e h i g h e r t h e v o l t a g e drop and t h e e a s i e r t h e reading, b u t should be
k e p t t o a l e v e l t h a t w i l l n o t cause a r e s i s t a n c e change due t o h e a t i n g ,
10 - 25 Amp. i s a p p r o p r i a t e . The t e s t c u r r e n t may be a l l o w e d t o f l o w
w h i l e making t h e measurements i f i t i s below t h e steady s t a t e c u r r e n t
r a t i n g o f t h e cable.

Readings can be taken o f t h e e n t i r e assembly and o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

connections. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l s i n c e i t w i l l i d e n t i f y any
h i g h r e s i s t a n c e connections, i f present. Needle t i p probes can be used
t o measure t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e c a b l e e x i t i n g t h e f e r r u l e by p i e r c i n g
t h e c a b l e j a c k e t . A measurement from t h e f e r r u l e t o 12 inches from t h e
f e r r u l e i s recommended. The p i n h o l e made by t h e probe should be sealed
when t h e t e s t i s complete.

Ambient (25°C) conductor r e s i s t a n c e s taken from t h e STANDARD HANDBOOK

FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS'4' a r e 166 pOhms/ft. f o r AWG #2; 105 pOhms/ft.
f o r AWG 1/0; 83.3 pOhms/ft. f o r AWG 2/0 and 52.3 pOhms/ft. f o r AWG 4/0.
A l e v e l o f 200 pOhm/crimp connection i s r e a l i s t i c . Some r e s i s t a n c e
v a r i a t i o n may occur due t o number o r q u a l i t y o f crimps. A 1 mOhm/ft.
f o r each c l a m p / f e r r u l e r e s i s t a n c e ( i n c l u d i n g 1 ft. o f c a b l e ) has a l s o
been s u c c e s s f u l l y used i n t h e p a s t . While many f a c t o r s may a f f e c t t h e
r e a d i n g t h e user can develop a p a s s / f a i l c r i t e r i a f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
p r o t e c t i v e ground jumper under t e s t by e s t a b l i s h i n g a t e s t h i s t o r y and
n o t i n g any changes.

An a l t e r n a t e method i s t o t u r n on t h e t e s t c u r r e n t , t a k e repeated
r e a d i n g s a t v e r y s h o r t i n t e r v a l s u n t i l t h e c u r r e n t s t a b i l i z e s , t h e n make
t h e v o l t a g e r e a d i n g and t u r n o f f t h e c u r r e n t . By automating t h i s
process t h r o u g h t h e use o f a microprocessor and r e d u c i n g t h e c u r r e n t
f l o w t i m e a s m a l l e r power supply can be u t i l i z e d , r e d u c i n g t h e w e i g h t
and i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o r t a b i l i t y . The use o f t h e microprocessor a l s o

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increases the test accuracy.
A commercial model using this automatic principle is available. The
readings are presented in mOhms for ease of interpretation. An
alternate means is to assemble individual components (power supply,
meter, wiring, switches, etc.) and construct a tester. Because the
portable, automated version pulses the current there will be no heating
of the cable under test. The operator still must rely on the
visual/manual portion to evaluate the cable.
The continuous current tester will noticeably heat a badly degraded spot
in the cable. Lesser damage may not be detectable. The visual/manual
method remains the most reliable method for cables between clamps.
AC RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: This method makes resistance measurements
by measuring voltage at a or near the continuous current rating of the
cable under test. The full assembly, including clamps, is placed under
test. The resulting readings of voltage and current can be converted to
resistance using Ohm’s law. The resistance value then be compared to
the pass/fail criteria. If the current is allowed to flow for an
extended time a high resistance connection may become noticeably hot.
Since an AC current is used for this test it is subject to the same
precautions as presented earlier. That is, changes in the reading
caused by the inductive effect when used with AC currents. Positioning
o f the cable is extremely important. varying results may occur if the
cable is tested while coiled, laid out on a conductive surface (metal
table or concrete floor) or allowed to cross over on itself. Successive
readings may vary from if the sample is not positioned the same as the
previous test.
Another form o f this method is to pass a near continuous rated current
through the set and measure the voltage drop. Using Ohm’s law the
resistance can be calculated. By scaling the resistance, current and
voltage values up to those at the work site it can be determined if the
desired level of protection is present.
TEMPERATURE RISE TEST: This method allows a continuous current to pass
through the set, using a current high enough to cause heating in any
high resistance connection or badly faulted cable. If sufficient heat
is present it can be felt by the testers hand. A more precise reading
may be obtained by the use of an infrared temperature sensor. Many hand
held units are available but results have not been completely
satisfactory. Positioning and distance from the sample vary the reading
obtained.
SUMMARY: The methods presented here are the best known methods at the
present time of evaluating the status of protective ground equipment
used up to the ASTM withstand current level. There is no way to
determine for certain that a protective ground jumper will meet the ASTM
ultimate current rating without subjecting it to a destructive test.
In all of these methods, experience and attention to detail are
required. A utility should have a maintenance program in place for the
safety of their workers, to minimize their liability and to comply with

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the OSHA ruling. It is not enough to have a maintenance program unless
the protective grounds are tested on a regular schedule and records
maintained. The schedule may vary between utilities or even within
utility working groups, based upon the frequency o f use.
A maintenance program may be centralized with the equipment brought to a
distribution center. If this method is used it i s essential that the
workers who use the equipment receive training in its proper use and
application and become skilled in performing their own visual and manulal
inspections. They must be trained to identify damaging conditions that
may occur between scheduled maintenance periods.

1. Dalziel, Charles F. "the effects of ELECTRIC SHOCK on MAN"; IRE

Transactions on Medical Electronics (PGME-5), May 1956
2. ANSI/IEEE Std. 80-1996 "IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation
Groundi ngll
3. Clayton C. King "OSHA Speaks Protective Jumpering"; TIPS of The
Trade, Bulletin 09-9502, A.B. Chance Co., June 1995
4. Donald G. Fink and John M. Carroll, Editors "Standard Handbook
For Electrical Engineers" 10th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1968

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