Robinson GS 1964 PHD Thesis PDF

THE FAILURE MECHANISM OF CONCRETE
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE
BIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
by
G. S. Robinson, B.S.E., D.I.C.
A thesis submitted for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in the Faculty of Engineering of the University of London.
Imperial College of Science and Technology,

London
November, 1964
2
ABSTRACT
This thesis studies the failure mechanism of plain concrete.

The purpose is to explain the elastic and strength properties of concrete
in terms of its internal structure. The study is presented in five parts.
1) The analysis of Part I studies the existing failure theories

both qualitatively and statistically in terms of data from 516 tests.
From this it is suggested that the volumetric and deviatoric stresses,
and a limiting tensile strain are ieportant to the failure of concrete.
Furthermore it is shown that it is necessary to study the heterogeneous
nature of concrete and the definition of failure.
2) Part II contains an analytical study of the heterogeneous

nature of concrete, considering first one inclusion, and then the
interactions of numerous inclusions. For the latter analysis, an
idealized packing (model) is assumed. With this it is possible to
simulate many aspects of the behaviour of concrete in uniaxial compression.
Both these analyses offered an explanation for the modes of failure in
concrete and emphasized the importance of a limiting tensile strain.
3) Part III describes a coordinated series of tests to study the

influence of the internal structure of concrete and microcracking on the
behaviour of concrete. Acoustic, pulse velocity, and a specially developed
X-ray technique were used. This series provided information not only about
the formation, location, and size of microcracks and the effect of coarse
aggregate, but also the capabilities of the testing techniques. Thus it
is possible to describe the behaviour of concrete in uniaxial compression
in terms of its structure and to propose a definition for the failure of
concrete.
4) Part IV extends the discussion of the previous sections to

biaxial compression by developing and proving a biaxial compression
testing machine and then conducting a series of tests on 10 x 10 x 4 inch
concrete and mortar slabs. The effect of the lateral load is shown on
the strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson!s ratio.
3
5) On this basis, the discussion in Part V proposes a

rational explanation for the behaviour of concrete in biaxial
compression in terms of the interactions of the structural elements
of the concrete. It is sugest-d that the volumetric stress and a
limiting tensile strain in the paste are critical to the failure of
concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer deeply grateful to the following people and

organizations:
Professor A. L. L. Baker, under whose supervision the research

programme was conducted.
Mr. K. Newman, who suggested the research programme, arranged

for some of the basic equipment, and in particular whose considerable
help was invaluable in the preparation of the thesis and the papers
published during the research.
Mr. G. W. D. Vile and Mr. 0. T. Sigvaldason, both close friends

of the writer, for their helpful suggestions and assistance during the
research. Special acknowledgment is extended to Mr. Vile as he and the
author cooperated closely on a number of experiments, published a joint
paper, and during the final preparation of the thesis, Mr. Vile spent
numerous hours proof-reading.
Mr. R. Glenn, who made much of the apparatus, and Mr. J. R. Turner,
who helped in the preparation of the specimens.
Mrs. E. Corliss of the United States National Bureau of Standards,

whose assistance was invaluable in the preparation of the acoustic
experiments.
Mr. C. E. Paine and Control Instruments, Ltd., for their

generous loan of the X-ray equipment and Mr. P. E. Maybury and
Mr. S. Towers of Ilford, Ltd., all of whom helped in developing the
X-ray technique.
Mr. R. Alford, Mr. L. Jacovides, and Mr. D. Pedaer, who

obtained and set up the electronic equipment required for the
analysis of the acoustic data.
Miss Joyce Gurr, who skilfully took and prepared numerous

photographs needed in the analysis of the data and in the presentation
of the thesis.
5
Miss M. Gregory for the care and ability with which she
proof-read the original manuscript; Miss P. Kerridse for her
painstaking care in typing the thesis; and Miss M. J. Burns for
proof-reading the stencils.
My many other friends who, though not directly involved with

the research, had a significant influence on the author and made his
stay in England so enjoyable; in particular Mr. J. Levy of
Imperial College.
The Marshall Scholarship Commission for originally providing

the writer with the opportunity of studying in England.
The Civil Engineer Corps of the United States Navy, in which

the author is a Lieutenant (junior :;ride), for its generous financial
support and understanding throughout the research.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT 2
ACKNOWLEDUM-NTS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS 6
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THESIS
1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 The Stron-Tth of Cehcrote 11
1.3 Levels of Study 11
1.4 Levels of Stu:'.y User'_ for Concrete 12
1.5 Objective of Thesis 13
1.6 Outline of Thesis 14
1.7 Notation 15
PART I
COMPARISON OF AVAILABLE DATA SITE THE EXISTING FAILURE
THEORIES AT THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PART I

2.1 Failure Theories 17
2.2 Objectives of Part I 18
2.3 Outline of Part I 18
CHAPTER 3 THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE

COMPARED TO THE CLASSICAL FAILURE THEORIES
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Maximum Principal Stress Theory 26
3.3 Maximum Principal Strain Theory 37
3.4 Guest's Theory, The Maximum Shear Stress Theory 42
3.5 Internal Friction Thory 48
3.6 Mohr's Theory 52
3.7 OctahoJral Shear Stress Theory 56
3.8 icier; ;y The ories 60
3.9 Griffith's Crack Theory 63
3.10 Conclusto Chapter 3 69
CHAPTER 4 THE PHENOMENOE0-iICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE
COMPARED TO TEl THEORIES SPECIFICALLY
PROPOSED AS :iiILURE CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE
4.1 Introduction 8o
4.2 Internl Friction-M a ximum Str.Jss Theory 81
4.5 Octahedral Shear-Normal Stress Theory 83
4.4 Theory proposed by Brandtzaef; 88
4.5 Conclusions to Chapter 4 92

PAGE
5 CONCLUST(VS TO HART I
CHAPTER
5.1 Introduction to Chapter 5 95
5.2 Interrelation of the Theories 95
5.3 The Validity of the Failure Theories a Failure
Criterion for Concrete 96
5.4 Reasons for the Lock of A7reement between Theory
nd D-ate 96
PART II
STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SINGLE AND MULTI-PARTICLE
NON-HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS
CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO PART II

6.1 Introduction and Objective 104
6.2 The Non-homogeneous Nature of Concrete 104
6.3 Outline of Part II 105
CHAPTER 7 EFFECT OF A SPHERICAL INCLUSION ON THE STRESS
DISTRIBUTION AND CRACKING IN AN OTHERWISE
UNIFORM CEMENT PASTE
7.1 Introduction 106
7.2 Application to Concrete 110
7.3 Stress Distribution about an Air Void (E = 0) in
Cement Paste 112
7.4 Stress Distribution about an Infinitely Stiff
Sand Particle in Cement Paste 114
7.5 Stress Distribution about a Piece of aggregate
in Cement Paste 115
7.6 The Onset and Mode of Cracking about a Single
Inclusion in an Otherwise Uniform Cement Paste 117
7.7 General Conclusions 128
CHAPTER 8 A STRUCTURAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE INTERACTION

OF COARSE AGGREG;JTE PARTICLES IN CONCRETE
8.2 Basic Assumptions 133
8.3 The Analysis 136
84 Member Stiffnesses 144
8.5 Relationship of Model to Mix Design 148
8.6 The Model, Its Use and Its Macroscopic Behaviour 149
8.7 Computer Programme 151
8.8 The Influence of the Inputs en the Behaviour of
the Model 160
8.9 Comparison of Model with an Actual Concrete 165
8.10 The Phenomenological Behaviour of the Model 168
8.11 Comparison with Other Theories 176

PAGE
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION TO PART II 179
PART III
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR MEASURING THE FORMATION
AND PROPAGATION OF MICROCRACKS
CHAPTER 10 GENERAL INFORMATION AND DESCRIPTION OF

EQUIPMENT FOR THE TESTS OF PART III
10.2 Preparation of Specimens 185
10.3 General Equipment Required for Part III 193
10.4 General Tests 198
CHARTER 11 A STUDY OF MICROCRACKS IN CONCRETE USING

ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES
11.2 acoustic Transducers and Associated Equipment 201
11.3 Resonant Frequency (fr) and Damping Factor (Q)
Tests 210
11.4 Sound Emission tests 217
11.5 Justification of Data 243
11.6 Discussion of the Testing Technique 243
11.7 Conclusions and Discussion of Data 244
CHAPTER 12 A STUDY OF MICROCRACKS BY MEASURING THE VFLOCITY

OF SOUND THROUGH CONCRETE
12.2 Testing 252
12.3 Justification of Data Obtained by the Pulse
Velocity Technique 258
12.5 Conclusions and Discussion of Data 261
CHAPTER 13 X-RAY DETECTION OF MICROCRACKS IN CONCRETE

UNDER LOAD
13.2 General Considerations 265
13.3 The Attenuation of X-rays 266
13.4 The Production of X-rays 270
13.5 Photographic Detection Equipment 272
13.6 Relative Locations of X-ray Unit, Specimen, and Film 276
13.7 Microcrack Size and Orientation 276
13.8 Summary of Equipment Capabilities and Usage for
X-raying Concrete 278
13.9 Equipment Actually Used During; Experiments 279
13.10 Testing Procedure 282
13.11 Data Processing 286
13.12 Justification of the Data Obtained 288
13.14 Discussion of Data 301
9
PAGE
CHAPTER 14 CONCLUSIONS TO PART III

14.1 Interrelation of the Testing Techniques 305
14.2 Preliminary Description of the Macroscopic
Failure Mechanism of Concrete 306
14.3 A Possible Definition of the Failure of
Concrete 313
PART IV
THE DateURPLLTIUN AND FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONCRETE IN BIAXIAL COMPRESSION
CHAPTER 15 INTRODUCTION TO PART IV

15.2 Reasons for Choosin7 Biaxial Compression 316
CHAPTER 16 DRSIGN AND PROVING OF A BIaXIAL TESTING MACHINE

16.2 Previous Biaxial Compression Testing Machines 318
16.3 Advantages and Limitations of Biaxial Testing
Machines 320
16.4 Double Ram Machine, General Design 323
16.5 Specimen Shape 332
16.6 Platen Restraint 335
16.7 Machine Proving Trials 340
CHAPTER 17 THE BEHAVIOUR OF MORTARS AND CONCRETES IN

BIAXIAL STATES OF COMPRESSION
17.2 Previous Research on the Biaxial Compressive
Strength of Concrete 349
17.3 Preparation of Specimens 353
17.4 Testing Equipment 357
17.5 Testing Technique, Biaxial Specimens 364
17.6 Testing Technique, :Aandard Test Specimens 369
17.7 Data 370
17.8 The Effect of 02 and Coarse Aggregate Content
on the Elastic Parameters 378
17.9 The Effect of a 2, A/C, W/C, and Coarse Aggregate
on the Ultimate and Cracking Loads of Concrete 383
17.10 Other Strain Readings 390
17.11 The Mode of Failure of Concrete in Biaxial
Compression 391
17.12 Conclusions to Chapter 17 and Part IV 396
10
PAGE
PART V
EI, FECT OF THE MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE ON
ITS PHENOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR
CHAPTER 18 THE FAILURE MECHANISM OF CONCRETE

18.1 Summary 399
18.2 Definition of the Failure of Concrete 401
18.3 A General Concept for the Failure of Concrete 408
18.4 The Model in Biaxial Compression 409
18.5 The Behaviour of Concrete in Biaxial Co:npression 420
18.6 The Model 428
18.7 Two Concepts Important to the Failure of Concrete 429
CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH
19.1 General Conclusions 434
19.2 Testing Techniques 434
19.3 Microcracking in Concrete 435
19.4 The Behaviour of Concrete. in Biaxial Compression 435
19.5 The Macroscopic Behaviour of Concrete 436
19.6 The Failure of Concrete 437
19.7 Suggested Criteria for the Failure of Concrete 437
19.8 Suggestions for Future Research 438

REFERENCES 44o
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THESIS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The work described in this thesis is part of an integrated

programme of research at Imperial College designed to study the behaviour
of concrete under various states of stress and, in particular, the
mechanism of fracture and failure.
1.2 THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
With a better understanding of the properties of concrete,

especially its strength properties, concrete structures may be designed
more efficiently. At present, such properties are stipulated in codes
of practice that are based on years of engineering experience. However,
new structures that incorporate arches, shells, and prestressed members
subject concrete to complex states of stress upon which there is little
previous experience to base an efficient design. For example, one code
of practice (Polish) has recently ventured to permit increased allowable
stresses in certain complex stress situations.
As a result there is a definite need to know more about the

failure of concrete and the allowable working stress. This is
particularly true for biaxial and triaxial states of stress. Of even
more fundamental importance is the mechanism of failure. Without a
knowledge of the mechanism of failure, the failure criteria for concrete
can only be of an empirical nature and may bear no relation to the actual
cause of failure. However, with such knowledge it may be possible to
propose a valid criterion on some fundamental basis. With this, complex
structures could be designed more efficiently.
Therefore this thesis will consider certain aspects of the

failure of concrete and extend the study to complex states of stress.
1.3 LEVELS OF STUDY
From a distance, concrete appears uniform and homogeneous.

It is upon such an assumption that structures are designed. Yet a
closer examination reveals that concrete is not uniform, but consists
of stones of varying sizes, hardened cement, water and air. A
microscopic or chemical analysis would even show the structure of the
cement and aggregate, and could possibly be extended to the atomic level.
According to Freudenthal (AMF)*, "A material body consists of

structural elements. Each element may be considered to be a smaller
body which, in turn, is built up of still smaller bodies. These bodies
of different order of magnitude represent the structural elements of
consecutive orders of magnitude. For reasons of expediency this
divisibility of matter is arbitrarily limited at a certain level, in
accordance with the purpose of the particular investigation".
Freudenthal continues by listing three convenient levels:
a)the phenomenological or engineering level where

for practical purposes the material is considered
continuous and homogeneous;
b) the macroscopic or structural level at which, upon
closer examination, the material can no longer be
considered as homogeneous since it is formed of elements
of different properties and of finite dimensions, but
for the purpose of this thesis it may or may not be
continuous;
c)the microscopic or atomic level at which the material
consists of discrete minute particles, which are bound
together by chemical and physical forces.
1.4 LEVETS OF STUDY USED FOR CONCRETE
It is at the phenomenological level, where the material is

assumed to be homogeneous, that most studies on engineering materials
are conducted and as a result have led to phenomenological theories of
mechanical behaviour such as the maximum stress theory. The short-
comings of such an approach becomeA evident as the structure of the
material increases in complexity (AMF); this is particularly true for
concrete.
* Refer to comment at start of bibliography

1.5 13
Through extensive testing on a phenomenological level, data

can be obtained upon which to base design codes, but such an analysis
is limited. It is important that the engineer should understand the
properties of the constituents of the material and be in a position to
assess the influence of each property on the behaviour of the structure.
Hence, "unless the engineer knows how the material is built up, he will
hardly be able to understand what makes it deform and break"; - that is,
"unless the physical basis of the origin of mechanical properties is
more thoroughly known, and this knowledge is correlated with the results
of observations on the large scale (phenomenological) deformational
response to loads, progress in the development of engineering materials
and in their evaluation for various purposes will be extremely difficult"
(AMF). To comprehend the behaviour of concrete, or for that matter,
other materials, they should also be studied on the macroscopic or
microscopic level and the behaviour observed on the macro- or
microscopic level related to the phenomenological behaviour.
To carry such an approach to the extreme would be to study

concrete on its most fundamental microscopic or atomic level, which is
also its most complex. Primarily this is the realm of the physical
scientist and chemical engineer and, although their conclusion's will
be used, this level of approach will not be studied in the thesis.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS
It is therefore the objective of the thesis to explain certain

aspects of the phenomenological behaviour of concrete in terms of its
macroscopic structure and behaviour. Particular emphasis will be
placed on the failure mechanism, and a definition of the failure of
concrete. In this way some of the phenomenological data obtained from
concrete subjected to complex states of stress may be explained. Hence
it will be possible to extend the present understanding of the behaviour
of concrete by showing how the macrostructure 3f concrete responds to
loads applied to the concrete, and how in turn this is reflected in
the phenomenological behaviour of concrete.
1.6
1.6 OUTLINE OF THESIS
To achieve this objective, the research and the thesis

have been divided into five parts.
a) Part I. As a foundation for the remainder of

the thesis, Part I contains a study of the largely empirical
failure criteria that have been used in the past to explain
the phenomenological behaviour of concrete. By a qualitative
and quantitative comparison of these theories with the available
data on the failure of concrete, an initial assessment may be
made of the validity of the criteria. From this analysis it
will be shown that it is only logical to study concrete on a
macroscopic basis. A number of points will be raised which
will form the basis for the remainder of the research presented
in the thesis.
b) Part II considers theoretically a hard inclusion

in a soft matrix and then extends this to the interaction of
numerous inclusions in a softer matrix, thus simulating concrete
on a macroscopic level.
c)In Part III the theoretical analysis is substantiated

by experimental data obtained from a unique series of tests on
the macroscopic behaviour in which X-rays, pulse velocity, and
acoustic techniques were employed. Such tests will provide a
possible definition for the failure of concrete.
d)Part IV provides detailed information on the behaviour

of concrete in biaxial compression in such a way that certain
aspects of the macroscopic behaviour may be inferred.
e)Part V summarizes the thesis by interrelating not only

Parts I to IV, but certain aspects of the macroscopic and phenomenological
behaviour of concrete.

167 15
1.7 NOTATIUR,
The notation used in the thesis is generally defined when

it is introduced. However it is worthwhile to emphasize a few of
the symbols used throughout the thesis.
0 0 principal stresses, whore

62
11 3 ,
0 > G , tension positive
1 G2 >
ultimate tensile strength
at
ac ultimate compressive strength
(any state of stress)
f'c uniaxial compressive strength
principal strains
81' 02, 0'3
E Young's modulus
V or P.R. Poisson's Ratio
K K
I 1 7 etc,
K2 - constants
ass infinity
psi pounds per square inch
cps cycles per second
W/C water-cement ratio
A/C aggregate-cement ratio
CA coarse aggregate
s.d. standard deviation
C.V. coefficient of variation
R.H. relative humidity
of degrees Fahrenheit
o
A Angstrom unit
16
PART I
COMPARISON OF AVAILABLE DATA WITH THE
EXISTING FAILURE THEORIES AT THE
PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL

2.1 17
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO PART I
2.1 F.,',ILURE THEORIES
For a material in uniaxial compression or tension, the data

required for de,'ign can ea::ily be obtaino,.1
- from measurements in a
uniaxial testing machine, (T,I). However, for more complex states of
stress, the characteristics of the material, particularly its strenfth,
are not s. easily determined. As a result, ever the years many different
failure criteria for cmplox status of stress have boon proposed.
The majority of these theories have b. m proposed for steel

or other ductile materials. These, which include the maximum stress
(Rankine) theory and the Griffith's crack theory, are referred to in
future as the classical failure theories. The correctness of one
theory or another has not been definitei established (EHS), yet many
hove been applied not only to ductile materials, but race to concrete.
With the increased use of concrete in recent years, other

criteria have been proposed specifically for concrete, some of which
are basically for classical failure criteria with some alterations and
qualifications.
Richert, Brandtzaeg, and Brown (R,B,B), Breslor and Pister

(B,P; B,P-1), Anson (24:1), Newman (KIT-1), and others (T,S; M,K) have
examined certain aspects of these theories with particular reference
to the failure of concrete. However, much of ths work has been of
limited scope. Many investigators have discussed the validity of one or
more of the failure criteria., particularly their own, in the light of
their tents; none has conducted a comprehensive study. ,s a result,
there has been little effort to interrelate the various theories used
as failure criteria for concrete. Yet, of even more importance, no
investigator has made a det-iled study of ths. validity of these
failure criteria by considering the extensive accumulation of data
on the failure of concrete.

2.2 18
2.2 OBJECTIVES OF PART I
Hence it is the objective of Part I to conduct a critical

analysis of the existing failure criteria in the light of the available
knowledge of the failure of concrete. From such an analysis Part I
will try:
a) to interrelate the theories;
b) to determine which, if any, of the available

theories are applicable tc concrete and the extent
of their limitations;
and
c) in the event that a suitable criterion is not
found, to show the qualitative and quantitative
errors of the existinf failure theories in such a
manner as to formulate a path of logical deductive
and experimental steps to obtain a better understanding
of the failure of concrete.
2.3 OUTLINE OF PART I
To achieve these objectives, Part I is divided into three

topics, each of which is covere2, in an individual chaoter. The first
(Chapter 3) will discuss and analyse the classical failure theories
with reference to the known properties of concrete. The second
(Chapter 4) will study those theories specifically proposed for
concrete. The remaining chapter (Chapter 5) will summarize the
conclusions of the previous twc chapters and on this basis outline
the remainder of the thesis.

3.1 19
CHAPTER 3
THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE
CONPARED TO THE CLASSICAL FAILURE THEORIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 The Classical Failure Theories
Since early in the history of the strength of materials,

investigators have conducted countless experiments in an effort to
establish a law or criterion of failure for materials. In the absence
of a simple yet workable theory for the macro- or microscopic mechanism
of failure of materials, or of sensitive equipment for detecting this
mechanism, it was necessary for these investigators to propose theories
based on the laws of elasticity but of an empirical or semi-empirical
nature (HJC-1).
As a result, the classical failure theories are phenomenological

in nature, being based on the assumptions that the material for which
they are a criterion is homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic up to the
critical stress predicted by the theory (ultimate load, yield stress,
or the proportional limit). "According to the classical theory the ...
(critical stress) .. of a material is determined by the internal
stresses in a point, assuming that by a suitable combination of these
principal stresses or strains a characteristic value may be computed
for the material in question. This value is supposed to be definitely
decisive in judging whether the .. (critical stress) .. has been
reached or not." (WW-1) "The different combinations of principal
stresses which are necessary to produce this .. (critical stress) ..
can be represented on the surface of a space model" (HJC-1). Vhen, as
in the vast majority of the previous tests on concrete, the critical
stress is taken as the ultimate load, this surface represents the
failure criterion predicted by the theory. Hence, the theories are
of a phenomenological nature (Section 1.3) and are comparable to
the phenomenological behaviour of the material.
20
3.1
The major theories that may be grouped under such a

description are listed in Table 3.1.1.1 and are referred to as
the classical failure theories.
TABLE 3.1.1.1
The Classical Failure Theories
SECTION OF
CHAPTER 3
NAME OF THEORY
a) Maximum Principal Stress Theory 2

b) Maximum Principal Strain Theory 3
c) Guest's Theory, The Maximum Slir
Stress Theory
d) Internal Friction Theory 5
e) Mohr's Theory 6
f) Octahedral Shear Stress Theory 7
g) Energy Theories 8
h) Griffith's Crack Theory 9
Note: Griffith's Theory is not entirely a
phenomenological theory, but is included
here for convenience.
3.1.2 Statement of the Theory
To study each of these theories, it is necessary to comprehend

the basic assumptions that have been made. Therefore a concise statement
of each theory will be given, including any assumptions (excluding those
of a homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic material which are common to all
the theories) and pertinent equations.
3.1.3 Qualitative Analysis
The basic assumptions of the particular theory establish the

manner in which the material will fail, that is, its mode of failure.
By a qualitative comparison of the mode of failure assumed by the theory
and the mode of failure obtained in concrete, a conclusion can be drawn
as to the validity of the assumptions when applied to concrete.
3.1 21
3.1.4 ::atative Analysis
However, the above qualitative comparison is insufficient;

any conclusion must be substantiated by numerical data obtained from
tests on concrete. Such a quantitative analysis will be performed in
two ways:
a) by a general discussion in which relative values of the

ultimate load under various states of stress as predicted by the theory
are compared with data obtained from tests on concrete; and
b) more specifically, by a statistical analysis. A

statistical comparison, although more difficult, is superior to
plotting the data, superimposing the failure criteria, and observing
which theory best fits the data for the following reasons:
a) the values predicted by the theories arc, in

many cases, similar when plotted (Figure 3.2.1.1);
b) the data predicted by some of the theories plot as

a family of curves depending on the value of an unknown
parameter which, however, can be conveniently handled
statistically; and
c) a statistical analysis is more fundamental, more

concise, and provides an estimate of the deviation
from the theory.
3.1.5 Conclusions
The last part of the discussion of each failure theory

summarizes the conclusions drawn from the qualitative and quantitative
analyses and evaluates the theory as a possible failure criterion for
concrete.
3.1.6 Statistical Analysis
All the theories listed in Table 3.1.1.1 can be expressed

in the form
f(0 0 ) = Kt ... 3.1 .6.1
1' 2'3

3.1 22
where G0 and are the principal stresses as defined in

21,
Section 1.7 and K is a constant for any given material. The value
of K can be determined from a uniaxial test, and equation 3.1.6.1
then used as the failure criterion in more complex states of stress.
Since K is assumed by these theories to be a constant for

any given mix, equation 3.1.6.1 can be used to test the validity of the
particular failure criterion. For the theory in question, values for
0 and 0 2 taken from a series of experiments on concrete can be
17 2
substituted into the particular form of equation 3.1.6.1 and the value
of K calculated for each specimen tested. If K is a constant for
various values of the principal stresses, it may be concluded that for
that particular mix and those states of stress analysed, the theory may
be a valid failure criterion.
If, however, K does vary within a given mix, then it is

not a constant as predicted by the theory, and the theory is probably
not a failure criterion for that mix in those states of stress. There
will, of course, be some variation due to laboratory errors and the
nature of concrete. Hence a standard is necessary to establish the
allowable variation (degree of control) in laboratory work on concrete.
The values suggested by Fulton (FSF) are reproduced in Table 3.1.6.1.
TABLE 3.1.6.1
Standard Deviation and Coefficient of Variation
for Different Degrees Of Control
DEGREE OF CONTROL STANDARD COEFFICIENT

DEVIATION OF VARIARION
Well controlled lab. test 5 %

Excellentl approaches lab.
precision 10
Excellent -400 psi 12
Good -60o psi 15
Fair -800 psi 18
Fair minus -1000 psi 20
Bad -1200 psi 25
3.1 23
It is a matter of soae controversy as to whether the

standard deviation or the coefficient of variation best represents
the degree of control. Fulton (FSF) concludes that the standard
deviation is independent of the mean strength above -3000 psi and
therefore for strengths in excess of this value it would be a reasonable
measure of the control. On the other hand, Neville (AMN-4) has shown
that the standard deviation is proportional to the mean strength and
as a result the coefficient of variation is independent of the mean
strength (RN4) except for very low compressive strengths. As the mean
value of the K's will vary considerably, the coefficient of variation
will be the major criterion, but for large values of K obtained from
compressive tests the standard deviation will also be considered.
For any given theory the value of K can be computed from

Equation 3.1.6.1 for the principal stresses at failure for each specimen.
Then the mean value of K, its standard deviation, and coefficient of
variation can be determined from a number of specimens from each mix.
By comparing the results with those in Table 3.1.6.1, an assessment
may be made as to whether K is a constant for any given mix and hence
whether the theory is a valid failure criterion for that mix.
To perform such a statistical anal:fsis, extensive data were

required. Only data from biaxial and triaxial states of stress could
be used for, as will be shown in Section 3.10.1, in uniaxial states of
stress all the classical failure theories reduce to a quantitatively
similar criterion. Therefore ultimate load data were analysed from
biaxial and triaxial tests conducted by Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown
(R,B,B), Balmer (GOB), Bellamy (CJB), Wastlund (GW), Wiegler and Becker
(d,B; W,B-1), McHenry and Karni (M,K), Bresler and Rioter (B,P; B,P-1),
and Tsuboi and Suenaga (T,3). Their results include triaxial, biaxial,
and uniaxial compression, torsion and compression, tension and compression,
and uniaxial tension on a total of 516 specimens from 43 mixes. Owing
to the quantity and diversity of the data coupled with the detail,
accuracy, and care with which the experiments were performed, it is
felt that the K's computed with these data are within the degree of
control normally expected of laboratory work on concrete.

3.1 24
3.1.7 Presentation of Statistical Data
With these data the K values for any given specimen may
be computed and from this calculate the statistical variations of K
for any mix. That the calculations must be kept within a mix is
fortunate, since it is unnecessary to apply correction. factors for
different shapes and sizes of specimens, different aggregate shapes
and sizes, etc. In spite of this, the analysis of the data from
the 516 specimens for each of the theories listed in Table 3.1.1.1
would have required a vast number of repetitive calculations. To
save the author time, the entire calculation was programmed on the
University of London Mercury Computer.
These data are presented for each theory in tabular form.

The first table, Table 3.2.3.1, lists general information for each
mix, a reference number, the average value of K in pounds per square
inch (psi), the standard deviation (abbreviated s.d.) of K in psi,
and the coefficient of variation (abbreviated c.v.) in per cent. The
remaining tables are shorter, listing for any state of stress only the
reference number and the statistical information about K. By
comparing the variation of K for any mix with the standard variation
in Table 3.1.6.1 a quantitative assessment may be made as to the theory's
validity as a failure criterion for any particular mix.
3.1.8 The General Phenomenological Behaviour of Concrete
A few general comments about the phenomenological behaviour

of concrete are required before these theories are compared.
The first concerns the mode of failure often observed in

uniaxial compressive testa of concrete. There is still a difference
of opinion as to whether concrete subjected to compressive stresses
fails by a sliding at some angle (say 30 to 40°) to the applied load
or by splitting parallel to the axial compressive load (Figure 3.1.8.1).
From a review of recent literature on the failure of concrete there is
considerable evidence to support the view that concrete fails by vertical
splitting (Photographs 13.14.1.1 and 17.11.1.1) and that the sliding type
failure often observed, especially in cubes, is caused by platen restraint
25
FIGURE 3.1.8.1
MODES OF FAILURE IN CONCRETE
Sect ion A
V
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION UNIAXIAL
TENSION
BIAXIAL TENSION-
_ COMPRESSION
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION
Section B
BIAXIAL COMPRESSION

3.2 26
or other machine effects (OTS; RJ-1; RJ-2; AMN-2; OYB; R,B,B;

i$,P; CJB; B,B-1; B,B-2; FAB; FAB-3; GW; GMS; JSR; TNWA-1).
The most conclusive proof that concrete does fail by vertical splitting
of a tensile nature is given by the experiments reported by Jones
(RJ-1; RJ-2); further confirmation of vertical cracking will be shown
with X-ray tests in Chapter 13 of this thesis. Whether splittins also
occurs in biaxial and triaxial states of compression is not so definite
although available evidence (R,B,B; CJB; GW), especially in biaxial
compression, indicates that a cracking mode of failure exists. This
will be substantiated in Chapter 17. Hence for the purpose of this
chapter it can be concluded that the mode of failure in uniaxial
compression is one of cracking parallel to the applied load. In
biaxial compression a similar trend is present.
The second deals with the definition of the term failure.

The majority of the classical failure theories were originally proposed
for metals and thus the term failure referred to the yield stress
(JJG-1) or the proportional limit (T,L). From Figure 3.1.8.2 it can
be seen that such values are generally not applicable to concrete, and
in most tests on concrete only the ultimate load has been measured.
Therefore for Part I failure is defined as the ultimate load
(T,L; WAS; WAS-1).
3.2 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY
In 1833 G. Lame and B.P.E. Clapeyron published a paper

containing derivations based on the concept that a material would
fail when any one of the principal stresses reached a certain value
regardless of the magnitude of the other principal stresses (ST; T,L;
BPH1 to 3; FPS; HMW; EHS; JM-1; JM-2; CAS-1; HJC-1). This theory
was restated by W.J.M. Rankine in 1858 and now is often known by his
name. More specifically, the theory assumes failure will occur when
the maximum stress or the minimum stress reaches a given value in tension
or compression respectively, which is independent of the other principal
27
Ultimate load
-Yield point
STEEL 4-Ultimate load
Proportional
limit
CONCRETE
(not to scale)
STRAIN
TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

FOR -STEEL AND CONCRETE
FIGURE 3.1.8.2

3.2 28
stresses providing they are absolutely smaller (T,L; CAS-1; AN).

Mathematically this assumption is expressed (JM-1; JM-2; ST):
p 0 K or
1 t
0 = = K, ... 3.2.1.1
3
where 5 and (5
are the uniaxial tensile and compressive strengths
( t c
respectively. The failure surface (Section 3.1.1) is shown graphically
from these equations in Figure 3.2.1.1.
Qualitatively, if a material behaves according to the maximum

stress theory, when the maximum stress is exceeded the material will
fail normal to the critical principal stress (JM-1; BBS; T,L). Ward (MW)
and Jones (RJ-1) have shown that concrete if. pure tension does fail
normal to the applied tensile stress. On the other hand, concrete
subjected to a state of pure uniaxial compression fails by a splitting
parallel, not normal, to the applied load (Section 3.1.8). Hence the
maximum stress theory is in agreement with the mode of failure observed
in uniaxial tension, but not with that observed in uniaxial compression.
Extending this comparison to biaxial compression-tension,

Brosler and Pister (B,P; B,P-1), Tsuboi and Suenaia (T,S), and
McHenry and Karni (M,K) all observed that the failure in this state
of stress was apparently of a tensile nature normal to the principal
tensile stress, but depended on the ratio of tension to compression.
However, in biaxial compression, Richart, Brandtzaeg, and

Brown (R,B,B) as well as Bellamy (CJ1B) noted that the specimens often
failed by tensile cracks in the plane of the applied. loads (i.e.,
normal to 0 = 0). This is in contradiction to the crushing failure
1
normal to the largest compressive stress (0 ) predicted by the
S
maximum stress theory. The modes of failure in triaxial compression
are more difficult to assess, but shear-like failures were observed by
Balmer (OGB) and Bellamy (CJB) although failure by vertical splitting
29
maximum stress • /
eq. 3.2.1.1
maximum
2-shear
eq. 3.4.1.2
/oc-F,ealedral ..
410
shear ./ */
eq. 3.71.2
and energyl
eq 3.8.1.3 1
-1.0 / maximum
/ strain
eq. a3.1.2
maximum strain
eq. 3.3.1.3
K =1.0
COMPARISON
of
CLASSICAL FAILURE THEORIES
(from JM)
FIGURE 3.2.1.1
3.2 30
and crushing also occurred (R,B,i3). With the exception of the crushing,
none of the other modes of failure arc in agreement with the maximum
stress theory.
Qualitatively, the maximum stress theory is incompatible

with the modes of failure observed in uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial
compression, but it does, in general terms, agr&.; with the failures
observed in uniaxial tension and biaxial compression-tension.
5.2.3 Quantitative Analysis
Quantitatively, for uniaxial tensile and compressive tests

the data published by Ward (MW) show a coefficient of variation of
3.5 and 4.3 respectively. This is in excellent agreement with the
theory (Table 3.1.6.1).
Although the maximum stress theory is in agreement with data

from uniaxial states of stress, the true test of the theory is to show
that the ultimate load is independent of the magnitude of the other
principal stresses. To prove or disprove this, data from biaxial and
triaxial states of stress must be considered. If the data from these
tests show that the value of the failing load is independent of the
other principal stresses then the maximum stress theory may be a
failure criterion for concrete.
Richart, Brandtzaes, and Brown (R,B,B) showed that concrete

subjected to biaxial compression is as strong as if not stronger than
in pure compression. Bellamy (CJB) was more conclusive and data published
by Wastlund (GW), Campbell-Allen (DCA), and Weigler and Becker (W,B; W,B-1)
confirmed that G could be increased by up to 20 to 30 % in biaxial
c
compression. This is reflected in a standard deviation of 1292 psi
(Table 3.2.3.2) and a coefficient of variation of 15% for a limiting
minimum stress. Similar „y variations were obtained from Wastlund's
(ow) and Woiglor and Becker's (,W,B; W,B-1) data.

Table 3.2.3.1
MAXIMUM STRESS THEORY
(Maximum Stress)
= K
G-t
State of Mix No. of Specimen Max„ Avg.

Authors Mix S.D.
Stress No. Specimens Size Af2;s. K C.V.
Size (psi)
(psi)
Triaxial Richart, 1 43 40" x 8" cylinder 1:2.1:2.5 0.75 0.88 -1403 1187 85
Compression Brandtzae,
and Brown 2 25 1:1:2 0.75 o.64 -1426 1251 88
Pt
3 27 PP 1:3:5 0.75 1.25 -1414 1257 89
it
Balmer
(G,GB) 4 9 60" x 12" cylinder 1:2.86:4.47 1.5 0.58 -9555 8730 92
it
Bellamy 5 6 6,10 x 12" cylinder 1:2.46:0 sand 0.55 -3467 2411 70
(C,J,B)
IT
Biaxial ** 6 8 6"0 x 12" hollow sand -4388 2645 60
Compression cylinder
I?
Wastland 7 64 5.9" cube 1:7:0 sand 1.0 -2490 1831 74
(S,W) 4000 psi
uniaxial strength
PP
Weigler & 8 30 3.9" x 3.9" x 1" 1:8.61 * 0.275 0.91 -294o 2550 87
Becker slab
(W,B)
If 11
30 If
1:6.07 * 0.275 0.67 -3930 3410 87
MAXIMUM STRESS THEORY (Cont.)
(Maximum Stress)
State of Mix No. of Specimen Mix Max. s.D.

Author W/C K C. !
Stress No. Specimens Size C:3:CA
Size (psi) /
(psi) -
Biaxial** Weiler & 10 30 3.9u x 3.9" x 1" 1:2.93 * 0.275 0.36 -6470 5570 86
Compression Becker slab
(W,B)
11 10 1:6.88 * 0.275 0.60 -3700 3250 88
12 10 1:3.44 * 0.275 0.60 -3532 3020 85

13 10 1 :3.88 * 0.275 0.40 -5280 4630 88
Compression- McHenry g 14 15 140', x 24" hollow 1:4.6:4.0 0.75 0.77 +166 85 51

tension or Karni cylinder
shear (N, K)
15 8 1:2.9:3.1 0.75 0.56 +169 109 64
16 10 1:1.9:2.5 0.75 0.41 +223 112 50
Bresler 17 9 9125 x 30" hollow 1:2.9:3.1 0.5 0.60 +187 89 48
S Pisler
(B,P-1)
(B,P) 18 22 1:4.05:4.36 0.5 0.69 +198 105 53
" (B,P) 19 20 1:2.92:3.57 0.5 0.52 +271 142 52
" (B,P) 20 20 1:1.98:2.73 0.5 0.41 +273 170 62

MAXIMUM STRESS THE02Y (cont.)

(Maximum Stress)
State of Mix No. of Specimen Mix Max. Avg,

S.D.
nuthor Ar,r, • C K C.V.
Stress No. Specimens Size C:S:CA
Size (psi) (psi)
ComT;ressicn- Tuboi and 21 5 8.30i, x 15" not rj_ven
tension or Suenaa hollow cylinder Mix No. stated 0.39 1 +151 109 72
shear (T,S) under VC
n 22 4 If
0.39 2 +106 103 97
;1 23 5 It 38 82
0.39 3 +47
if if 24 5 U 0.39 L +118 87 74
25 4 0.39 5 +70 68 96
26 5 u 0.39 6 +142 115 81
27 5 u 0.39 7 +391 :505 78
28 5 il
0.39 8 +185 183 99
29 5 It
0.39 9 +147 152 103
30 5 ft ft
0.39 18 +137 118 86
tt 31 4 0.39 19 +190 89 47
u u 32 5 If
0.39 17 +212 101 48
33 5 ft
0.39 8 +116 31 27
tf
34 5 II
0.39 10 +62 79 35
It
It 35 5 It
0.39 9 +216 95 44
tt if
36 5 ft 0.39 7 +294 130 44
MAXIMUM STRESS THEORY (cont.)
(Maximum Stres0---
State of Mix No. of Specimen Max. Avg.

author Nix S.D.
Stress A:z. :VC
No. Specimens Size
Size (psi) (psi)
Comression- Tsuboi and 37 5 x 15" Not j.ven 0.39 2 +168 100

tension or Suenaga hollow cylinder Mix No. stated
shear (T,S) under W/C
11
38 4 0.39 4 +119 99 83
t
39 4 ?I
0.39 6 +206 4o 19
it 11
4o 5 ft
0.39 16 +208 114 55
41 5 it
0.39 14 +283 147 52 1
11
it
42 5 11 it
0.39 12 +219 84 38
43 5 11
0.39 13 +239 82 34
**
value is for total a.:,;greate by volume include for completeness
mximum size 7 mm. diameter - 0- 2 = k as T = 0 for
1
this case

3.2 35
Table 3.2.3.2
112,XE.iUM ,c..;TRESL, 7H: 02Y

(Minimum Stress)
= K
3 =
State Avg. State Avg.

Aix S.D. Nix
of of K
Stress No. (psi) No.
(psi) Stress (psi)
Triaxial Compression-
Compression 1 -7944 4419 56 tension or
ii 2 -8731 4870 56
shear 22 -1063 813 76
PT
23 -719 855 119
3 -6878 5019 73
it
4 -36,170 25,380 24 -979 828 85
70
5 -15,420 25 -1040 85o 82
6760 44
26 -1001 771 77
Biaxial
Compression 6 -8612 27 -3030 2390 79
1292 15
ii 28 -1811 1557 86
7 -4930 627 13
8 29 -2325 1408 61
Pt
-6070 714 12
9 30 -1034 595 58
fi
-8160 875 11
ft
10 -13,500 1340 31 -1016 546 54
10
iP
32 -716 398 56
11 -7530 1020 14
33 -996 682 68
Pi
12 -7390 776 11
St 34 -940 609 65
13 -10,800 1360 13
35 -1089 667 61
Compression- ii 36 -768 509 66
tension or
shear 14 -1222 953 78 37 -933 463 50

15 -2125 1648 78 it
38 -520 476 92

16 -2544 2184 86 I?
39 -815 577 71
17 -1530 792 40 -1403 744 53
18 -1680 1000 60 41 -874 393 45
ii 19 -2270 1414 62 42 -824 433 53
iP 20 -3200 2030 63 43 -85o 739 87
21 -954 754 79
3.2 36
Bresler and Pister's (B,P; B,P-1) experiments for combined

torsion and compression indicated :hat neither 0 nor G is a
1 3
constant. Instead, the coefficients of variation for their data
varied from 48 to 52% for the maximum stress (Table 3.2.3.1) and
52 to 62% for the minimum stress, with a standard deviation of
2027 psi for the only mean in excess of -3000 psi. A comparison
of these values with Table 3.1.6.1 shows that the stresses are not
a constant as predicted by the theory, on the contrary, Bresier and
Pister showed that 7t decreased with increasing ratios of compression
to tension. Similar values were calculated from the data published by
McHenry and Karni (M,K) and Tsuboi and Suenaga (l,S) (see Tables
3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.2); the latter's data were even more conclusive,
varying from a coefficient of variation of 19 to 103% for K = C t
and 45 to 119 % for K =
Data from triaxial states of stress are equally scattered.

Richart, Brandtzacg, and Brown (R,B,B) found that the strength of
concrete in triaxial compression wa3 - function of the lateral stress;
G = f 4.1 01' ... 3.2.3.1

c
where f
ct is the uniaxial compressive strength. Akroyd's (TNWA-1;
TNWA-2) and Balmer's (GOB) data support this, but suggest that the
slope may be as high as 7.0. Balmer, for example, increased the
strength of his specimens from -3750 psi to -77060 psi by increasing
the lateral stress. Owing to such variations, Richart, Brandtzaeg,
and Brown's triaxial compressive data had a standard deviation of
4419 psi to 5019 psi for K = G and a coefficient of variation of
c
85 to 89 % for K = Gt. Balmer and Bellamy's results gave similar
values.
From a quantitative consideration it is evident that the

maximum stress theory has an excellent correlation with the phenomeno-
logical behaviour of concrete in uniaxial states of stress and reasonable
results for biaxial states of compression, at lcastfor the mixes
considered. However, for biaxial compression-tension and triaxial
3.3 37
compression the quantitative data indicate that the theory is totally

inaccurate for the mixes analysed.
3.2.4 Conclusions
Although the maximum stress theory has often been used for
brittle materials in uniaxiul states of stress (JCJ; EHS; AH), it is
evident that this theory is not a general failure criterion for concrete.
In uniaxial tension there appears to be excellent agreement between
theory and data, but in uniaxial compression and biaxial compression,
alt:_ough the quantitative data provide good correlation, the qualitative
information on the failure of concrete cannot be explained by the theory.
In biaxial compression-tension and triaxial compression, and even to a
certain extent in biaxial compression, it is evident that G and 0
t
and hence K are not independent of the other principal stressesand
thus violate the assumption behind the maximum stress theory.
3.3 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY

At approximately the same time as Lame and Clapeyron proposed

the maximum stress theory, Barre dc St. Venant was lecturing on the
strength of materials. In these lectures "He assumed that the maximum
strain must be considered as the basis for selecting permissible stresses."
(ST-1). Failure will occur when a positiv strain exceeds a critical
value (ST; JM; AN; FBS; HNN), obtained by loading a specimen
to failure in a uniaxial tensile testing machine and measuring the strain
at failure.
In contrast to the maximum stress theory, the maximum strain

theory considers the influence of all the principal stresses. In its
most general form the maximum strain criterion is
e
l
= e
t'
... 3.3.1.1
or, since the theory assumes that the law of elasticity applies up to
failure (JM-1 ; ST; HJC-1),
- v(c.; + ) = Gt = K. ... 3.3.1.2
2 3
3.3 38
The theory has been modified to allow for a limiting compressive

strain (Ad) and can be rewritten as
03 - v(02 = = K ... 3.3.1.3

c
The failure surfaces represented by equations 3.3.1.2 and

3.3.1.3 are shown in Figure 3.2.1.1.
3.3,2 Qualitative Analysis
If a material were to have a failure criterion conforming

to the maximum strain theory, then when the limiting tensile or
compressive strain were oxceeThd the failure would be expected to be
normal to the critical limiting strain.
Since in uniaxial tension 02 = 03 = 0, the maximum

strain theory reduces to the maximum stress theory providing, as is
assumed, that the laws of elasticity are valid. Yet in uniaxial
compression. the maximum strain theory provides an explanation for the
vertical cracking mode of failure (Section 3,1.8). For uniaxial
compression equation 3.3.1.2 simplifies to
= 0t . K. 3.3.2.1
3
Hence the vertical cracks may be caused by the induced lateral tensile
strains exceeding the critical limit, G t.
Extending this into biaxial states of stress, the maximum

strain theory provides a similar explanation for the tensile-like
splitting in the plane of the applied loads observed by Richart,
Brandtzaeg, and Brown, Bellamy and Wastlund (Section 3.1.8). The
theory also explains the splitting failure noted in triaxial
compression. (R,B,B; GGB), but does not account for the shear failure
observed by Bellamy and Balmer.
In compression-tension states of biaxial stress, the mode of

failure predicted by the maximum strain theory agrees with the failures
observed by McHenry and Karni, Tsuboi and Suenaga, and Bresler and
Pistar.
3.3 39
Hence, qualitatively there seems to be agreement between

the behaviour of concrete and that predicted by the maximum strain
theory.
3.3.3 < uantitative Analysis
equations 3.3.1.2 and 3.3.1.3 reduce to equations that

are quantitatively similar to equation 3.2.1.1 for uniaxial states of
stress, biaxial and triaxial test data must b considered to examine
the maximum strain theory on a quantitative basis and differentiate
it from the maximum stress theory.
For a material which behaves according to the maximum strain

theory when a limiting tensile strain is assumed (equation 3.3.1.2),
the biaxial tensile strength will be greater than the uniaxial
,.3-1). Work conducted by
(Figure 3.2.1.1) (FES; EHS; T,L; a'
Blakey and Beresford (B,B-1) has shown that the tensile strength of
concrete is less in biaxial than in uniaxial tension. However, more
recent tests at Imperial College (KN) support this prediction of the
maximum strain theory.
In contrast, the use of equation 3.3.1.2 predicts that the

uniaxial compressive strength should be twice as great as the biaxial
compressive strength with 0 = 0 . This is contrary to the data
2 3
published by Wastlund, Weigler and Becker, and Bellamy; these authors
all concluded that the biaxial compressive strength of concrete was
greater than the uniaxial. Yet by modifying the theory to permit a
limiting compressive strain (AN; ST) (equation 3.3.1.3), the failure
curve may be so altered as to be more in accord with the numerical
results. However, to do this a compressive failure normal to the
maximum compressive strain is assumed. Such a failure has not been
observed in biaxial compressive tests on concrete (Section 3.1.8).
Hence, there is a basic conflict between quantitative and qualitative
agreement. Therefore with equation 3.3.1.2 Wastlund's data showed a
coefficient of variation of 28% while the coefficient of variation for
Weigler and Becker's data was higher, varying from 33 to 3? % (Table 3.3.3.1)

3.3 40
Table 3.3.3.1
MAXIMUE STRAIN THEORY
0 - v(0 + 0,) =
1 2
State vg. S.D. State Avg.

of Mix K C.V. of
Mix S.D. C.V4
Stress
No.
(psi) (psi) Stress
No. (psi) (psi)
Compression 1 +665 83 13 tension or
shear 22 +196 53 27
2 +878 105 12
3 +316 100 32 23 +99 29 29
24 +171 62 37
4 +2050 702 34
25 +19 7 39
5 +1773 167 9
If +284 30 11
26
Biaxial 27 +739 86 12
Compression 6 did not convere
Pr 28 +488 118 24
7 +1480 422 28
29 did not converge
8 +1800 627 35
30 +319 59 18
9 +2420 825 34
17 31 +342 42 13
10 +4000 1320 33
If
32 +212 101 48
11 +2250 827 37
33 +116 31 27
12 +2180 720 33
ft
.54 +186 62 33
13 +3220 1160 37
35 +356 74 21
Compression- 36 +479 81 17
tension or
shear 14 +292 23 11 37 +372 78 21
15 +305 41 13 38 +193 110 57
if
16 +417 81 19 39 +317 94 30
17 +368 41 11 4o +559 79 14
vr 18 +322 85 26 41 did not converge
19 +394' 13E 34 42 +402 64 17
it 43 +384 41 11
20 +435 105 24
21 +272 43 16
3.3 41
(To compute the.. values in Table 3.3.3.1, the computer substituted

different values of Poisson's ratio. into equation 3.3.1.2 until the
minimum varia tion in K was detertined for given value of the
Poisson's ratio; these values are quoted in the table.)
In states of biaxial compression-tension, the maximum strain

theory predicts that a specimen is stronger in uniaxial tension than a
similar specimen subjected to a tensile force with a lateral compressive
force. McHenry and Karni, Bresler and Tinter, and Tsuboi and 6uenaga
have shown this to be true: for concrete, but the relationship is not
linear as required by the theory. When 0 for McHenry and Karni's
t
data was applied to equation 3.3.1.2 it had a coefficient of variation
of 11% to 19%. Tsuboi and Suenaga's data produced r, coefficient of
variation for K of 11% to 57%, and Bresler and Pister's a variation
of 11% to 34%. These values are not of laboratory standard according
to Table 3.1.6.1 but are an improvement over the coefficients of
variation computed from th,. values of K for the maximum stress theory.
Considering the actual strain, dichart, Brandtzaeg, and

Brown found no correlation between the results predicted by the maximum
strain theory and their data. On the contrary, the failur:J strain
varied from 1.7 x 10
-4
to 6.0 x 10-4. Tsuboi and Suenaga, and Grassam
(SLIG) arrived at similar conclusions.
3.3.4 Conclusions
6̀ualitatively there is good agreement between the theory and

the mode of failure observed in concrete. As a. result, the maximum
strain theory may be a criterion for concrete in uniaxial compression
and tension. For biaxial compression-tension there is good qualitative
agreement and the quantitative agreement, although not good, is superior
to that found in the maximum stress theory. In biaxial compression there
is an incompatibility between the qualitative and quantitative behaviour
predicted by the theory and that observed in concrete.
Therefore the agreement of the maximum strain theory with the

phenomenological behaviour of concrete is superior to that found for the
3.4 42
maximum stross th:, ory. Furthermore, the maxi; um strain theory has the
practical advante that the strain can usually b. measured directly,
oven in complex structures .
3.4 GUE:=3T'S MEORY, Ti MnXIMUN S-2,,R STRESS THEORY
Although ,St. tenant's maximum tr7.in theory was in popular

use by engineers at the end of the 19th century, there was doubt that the
theory was justified. In 1900 J. J. Guest (JJG-1), on the basis of
experiments on hollow cylinders of steel and brass, proposed a theory
combining the effects of shear a .1 volume change. For ductile
materials the effects of velum, change can be neglected and the theory
simplified t- whet is comrnonli referred to as the maximum shear stress
theory.
On the basis of his research Guest "Indicated that volumetric

stress of some type was an essential factor in the production of elastic
(JJG). Hence he proposed that yielding, commenced when the sum
of the shear force and a portion of the volumetric stress equalled a
constant, which was twice the yield stress under pure shear (Os).
Mathematically this may be written as

1
—c 3 + X(01 + 03 ) 20
s
= K, ... 3.4.1.1
where A and K are constants for the material. For brittle

materifs 1 approaches the value of 1, but for ductile materials
is more nearly zero. As a result, when the Guest theory is applied'
to metals the volumetric stress in normall7 neglected and eQuation
3.4.1.1 reduces to
0 —0 .20
1 3 S
K ... 3.4.1.2
This is the generally used equation of the maximum shear stress theory
and states that when the maximum shear stress exceeds a critical value,
a constant for that materi7.1, failure wil . occur (JCJ; JM; AN; JM-2;
EHS; ST; LBT). The failure surface is shown is Figure 3.2.1.1.
Th, maximum shear stresstheory has been widely used
(FBS; LET; Ail; to 5; WAS) for ductile matorials, but it
must be more closely examined for concrete, a brittle matorial.
3.4 •2 Qualitative Analysis
Since tho maximum shear occurs on a plane whose normal

bisects the angle between the; sro,tost and least 2rincipni stresses,
the maximum shear stress theory predicts that failure will occur along
a plane inclined at anangle of 450 to the direction of tho applied
uniaxial tension or compression (A1; JCJ). Luder's lines AN; EHS;
T,L) in ductile: matorials support the maximum shear theory, as do cone
failures in concrete specimens failed under uniaxial compression. Yet
in actuality cone failures are probably caused by secondary effects of
the platens (FAB-3; OYB; 2,EN-1) and concrete in pure compression
fails by cracking parallel to the applied load (Section 3.1.8). Concrete
in pure tension fails normal to the direction of l000]ing (RJ-1; NW) not at
45°. Hence the mode of failure in both states of uniaxial stress
contradicts the maximum shear stress theory.
shearing mode of failure is basic to this theory. Such

sliding, however, is not observed in concrete subjected to any state
of stress, with the possible exception of triaxial compression. In
triaxial compression some of Balmer's specimens did fail by shear, but
some of Achart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown's specimens under a similar
state of stress showed signs of splitting. More conclusively, failure
in biaxial compression isgenerally of a splittin typo (R,B,B; CJB; GW).
The modes of failure predicted by the Guest theory are more

difficult to interpret than by the inuxisurn sheer theory since the mode
of failure depends on the value of A.. With N zero the theory
predicts pure shear failures, but if K is equal to 1 the mode of
failure is not easily expressed by the: Gucst theory since it is sonic
combination of shear a-111 compressive or tensile failures. The computer
programme used to analyse the data showed the data converged to give
minimum variation of K for K in the range of 4- to 1. Hence, although
shear failuros, which ,are basie to this theory, are mo,='t lik ely to nnnur l
it is possible that some other mechanism may also be superimposed on this.
3.4 44
Therefore, on a qualitative basis the shear stress theory

does not predict the modes of failure nerally observed in concrete,
except possibly in triaxial comprossion. The Gust theory, however,
includes the influence of volumetric stress and an assessment of the
mode of failure is difficult although a shearing type failure is still
basic to the theory.
Quantitatively, the maximum shear stress theory is no more

encouraging than it was qualitatively. Equation 3.4.1.2 in not only
independent of 0 but shows that for a material to have a maximum
2'
shear failure criterion, the uniaxial tensile and compressive strengths
must be equal (JOJ; AN; T,L). Of the phenomencloical characteristics
of concrete, ono of the most widely acceTrteJ is that concrete is stronger
in compression than tension, with the tensile strength ecual to about
7 to 12% of the compressive strength (M,K; N'/). Also the effect of
cannot be ignored. Although Richart, Brandtza Brown were
inconclusive about its effect, and Tsuboi and Suenaga thought it might
have only a small effect, the data by Bellamy, Wastlund, and Weigler
and Becker showe that u-2 must be considered. In fact, by neglecting
cr- the assumption is made that the biaxial and uniaxial compressive
strengths are equal. These investigators have shown this not to be
true for concrete, where the biaxial strength is 20 to 30% greater
than the uniaxial.
That the maximum shear theory is not a failure criterion

for concrete can be shown by examining the data more closely.
a) If the maximum shear theory were plotted on a hoar-

normal stress diagram (Mohr diagram) it would appear as two enveloping
lines equi-distant and parallel to the normal stress (011) axis
(Figure 3.5.3.1a). akroyd (TNWA-1; T1JWA-2), Balmer, and Achart,
Brandtzaeg, and Brown hove shown that the failure curve for concrete
slopes at a substantial angle to the a axis. (Figure 3.5.3.1).
n

3.4 45
b) When the data were analysed to determine the value

and the variation of K in equation 3.4.1.2, the values of K were
found to have a coefficient of variation generally in excess of 50
for triaxial compression and biaxial compression-tension, although
there were a few values below this (Table 3.4.3.1). Similarly, the
data with a mean in excess of -5000 psi had a standard deviation
greater than 1200 psi. Comparing this with Table 5.1.6.1, it can be
concluded that for these states of stress the maximum shear stress
theory is not a failure criterion for concrete, However, in biaxial
compression 01 = 0 and equation 3.4.1.2 reduces to that of the maximum
stress theory (equation 3.2.1.1), and the statistical values for the
variation of K in Table 3.4.3.1 are identical to those in Table 3.2.3.2
for the maximum stress theory. These show good agreement with
standard values in Table 3.1.6.1
The Guest theory, on the other hand, has a certain similarity

to the maximum strain theory. Both theories state that a lateral
stress of the same sign increases the strength of the specimen, but
a lateral stress of the opposite sign (compression-tension) lowers
the ultimate strength. As was shown in the discussion of the maximum
strain theory, this is generally true for concrete. Yet the similarity
between these two theories is, quantitatively at least, more fundamental.
With the exception of Wastlund's, and Weigler and Becker's biaxial
compression tests (0 = 0, 0 and 3 / 0), all the previous data
1 2' 3
in complex states of stress that were analysed have been such that
0 = 6 =or 0 or 0 = 0. In any one of these cases both
1 22 3 2
the Guest equation and the maximum strain equation (equation 3.3.1.2 or
3.3.1.3) reduce to the form
K 0 + K 0 K, ... 3.4.3.1
1 1 23
where K, K1,
and K are constants for any mix. Hence for the
2
majority of the data available the two theories are identical; the
data in Table 3.3.3.1 apply to the Guest theory as well, except in
states of biaxial compression.

3.1+ 46
Table 3.4.3.1
MAXIMUM SHEAR THEORY
01 - 0 = 20S K
3
State Avg. S.D. State Avg. S.D.

Mix Mix C.V.
of K C.b. of
No. (psi) No. (psi) (psi)
Stress (psi) Stress
Triaxial 1Compression-
Compression 1 -6541 3263 50 {tension or
P. ! shear 22 -1169 723 62
2 -7305 3092 51
23 -765 819 107
3 -5464 3778 69
24 -1097 767 70
4 -26,230 17,800 68 I
25 -1111 843 76
5 -11,950 4359 36
PP
26 -1275 733 57
Biaxial 27 -3421 2098 61
Compression 6 -8612 1292 15
28 -1996 1391 70
-4930 627 13
29 -2472 1281 52
8 -6070 714 12
tt
3o -1171 496 42
9 -8160 875 11
PP
31 -1206 470 39
10 -13,500 1340 10
PP
32 -928 373 40
11 -753o 1020 14
PP 33 -1112 670 60
tt 12 -7390 776 11
34 -1119 597 53
13 -10,800 1360 13
PP
35 -1305 607 46
Compression- it
36 -1061 418 39
tension or 37 -1101
shear 14 -1388 872 63 399 36
it
38 -639 469 73
15 -2294 1547 67
39 -1021 542 53
16 -2767 208375
Pt
40 -1611 685 43
17 -1716 712 42
41 -1157 281 24
18 -1875 943 50
42 -1043 376 36
19 -2540 1370 54
43 -1426 673 47
PP
20 -3470 1892 55
21 -1105 655 59
3.4 1+7
For state of biaxial compression the Guest theory, which

neglects the influence of 02, simplifies to the maximum stress theory
(03 = K). However, as mentioned above, the influence of o is not
2
negligible.
Therefore on a quantitative basis, the maximum shear

theory is not a failure criterion for concrete, excect in biaxial
compression, where, at least statistically, there is good agreement
between theory ,,, data. Howev_r, since the influence of 0 is
2
neglected, the equations of the theory reduce to those of the maximum
stress theory. Similarly, in biaxial states of compression the Guest
theory reduces quantitatively to the maximum stress theory while in the
other states of stress considered it simplifies to the maximum strain
theory.
3.4.4 Conclusions
Although from quantitative considerations there is evidence
to support Lie use of the: maximum shear stress theory in biaxial
states of stress, when the qualitative information is included, it is
evident that the maximum shear stress theory is not a criterion for
the phenomenological failure of concrete.
The Guest theory superimposes a volumetric stress on the

shear stress. Thu effect of this is difficult to analyse qualitatively.
However, Guest based his ideas on a shear type failure which, with the
possible exception of triaxial compression, is not the general mode of
failure for concrete. The equation of the Guest theory, which neglects
02, simplifies to the maximum stress or maximum strain theory depending
on the state of stress. Although it appears reasonable to assume that
the Guest thsory is not a failure criterion for concrete, the concept
of a volumetric stress superimposed on a shear stress cannot be entirely
invalidated a failure criterion; it depends primarily on how the
equation is interpreted.
3.5 48
Owing to the suitability of the maximum shear stress theory as

a yielding criterion for ductile materials (JJG-1; JJG; WAS; CAS-1;
,,.S-4; BP), it ha s been the basis of a number of modifications. These
include the maximum distortion theory and maximum shear strain
theory, both of which reduce to the maximum shear stress theory, as
shown by Marin (JM) and by Smith (CA3-4) respectively.
3.5 INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY
3.5.1 Statement of the Theca
Coulomb, in a paper published in 1773, explained the

compressive failure of a prism by asauming that failure would occur
when the sum of a friction-like force and a shear force exceeded the
strength of the material. This reduces to a simple criterion of
failure now commonly referred to as the internal friction theory and
occasionally aU the internal energy theory.
Analogous to the resistance to motion of a block on a

table top, Coulomb proposed that the resistance to failure inside
the specimen is constant shear strength plus a friction-like force,
or, expressed mathematically (AP; JM-1; JCJ;HJc-1; BP),
/s/ = K - 40n, ... 3.5.1.1

where µ is a constant similar to the coefficient of friction, K
is the intrinsic shear strength of the material, and 's' is the
shear stress. donee the material fails when the actual shearing
stress on a plane exceeds the shear strength plus the normal force
(a compressive force increases the strength, a tension decreases it)
(WAS) times the coefficient of friction (AN; R,B,E). If it is
rewritten in terms of the principal stresses, Coulomb's theory
becomes (GUS; JCJ)
-)
("5 1
1 tan cp( C3
K = 2 j) + 2 cos Q '
... 3.5.1.2
1
where cp is the angle of internal friction related to 4 by 4
µ = tancp(GIIG), and thus is a constant for a given mix.
3.5
The internal friction theory differs from the maximum

shear theory in that the shear strength on a plane is increased by
the normal compressive force to the plane. Yet the theory still
depends on a shear type. failure (R„:3) whore the .an _ le of failure,
the inclination to the normal to t he plane of failure with the
largest principal stress, equals (T,D; GHG; JCJ; BP)
e = 45° - 9/2. ... 3.3.2.1

hence Section 5.4.2, which discussed shear failures, is also valid
for the internal friction theory. In essence it concluded that a failure
criterion that depends. on a shear type failure is qualitatively
incompatible with the splittin modes of failure observed in concrete,
except in a few cases of triaxial compression. Richart, Brandtzaeg,
and Brown came to a similar conclusion from a comparison of their
specimens with the mode of failure predicted by the internal friction
theory.
3.5.3 quantitative Analysis

Since, according to the internal friction theory, (;) is a
constant for any given material, equation 3.5.1.2 reduces to the form
K 0 + K-)0 K, ... 3.5.3.1

1 1 c- 3
where K and K are constants. This is identiaal with the
1 2
reduced form of Guest's equation 3.4.3.1, thus X and µ are
related. As a result of this comparison, the Gust theory has also
been referred to as -2, frictional theory (WAS). Except for numerical
constants the Guest and internal friction theories are quantitatively
the same. On this basis the discussion of the Guest theory in
Section 5.4.3 will also spply to the internal friction theory. However,
for the majority of the states of stress considered, G 1 s2, 02 6 3,
or = 0, and the maximum strain theory simplifies to the form of
equation 3.5.3.1. These three theories, then, the maximum strain, the
Guest, and the internal friction, are quantitatively the same for the
states of stress considered other than biaxial compression.
3.5 50
However, the internal friction theory is based on a
different concept end. it is of interest to :Iiseuss the consequences
in sore detail. To compare the internal friction theory with
available data, reference could be made to Table 3.4.3.1, but it is
easier to project the data on a Mohr s-or diagram. By doing this,
as many investigators have done, a basic quantitative fault is apparent
in the internal friction theory when it is apoJliod to concrete.
The internal friction theory is linear and assumes that p

is a constant for any .i.ven mix. When plotted on the s-011 diagrams,
this produces as a straight line inclined to the ca n axis at an angle (r)
(R,F),B) (Figure 5.5.5.1a), but the typical Mohr envelopes for concrete
shown in the remaj_nder of Figure 3.5.3.1 are not linear. Hence p is
not a constant, but dependent on the stress level. In fact, Balmer in
his triaxial tests observed tint c decreased from 50° to 20° as the
lateral stress increase d. :lzroyd (TN 'JA-1) stated that in triaxial
status of stress with high lateral ssurus 9 can decrease to zero,
thereby making the _internal friction theory quantitatively identical
to the maximum shear theory (CAS-5; R,B,B) (Figure 3.5.3.1a).
Therefor,: the basic assumption of the internal friction theory,
that pi is a constant for a given mix, is in error for concrete.
(Similarly, since p. and 7t are related and k and p arc related,
7\. of the Guest theory is also not a constant but will vary with the
lateral stress.)
The variations of K in equation 5.5.1.2 have not been

computed as they would be identical to those of Gu est's theory
(Table 3.4.3.1). Moreover, many of the investigators whose data
have been used in this chapter have discussed the internal friction
theory. Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown, Tsuboi Suenaga,
Akroyd, and Balmer all conclude, on the basis of their data, that
the internal friction theory is not a criterion for the failure of
concrete.
51
FIGURE 3.5.3.1
INTERNAL FRICTION THEORY
TYPICAL MOHR ENVELOPES
U)
tmaxi-mum shear
stress theory
(a)
internal friction theory
•Cr) rz
z
zr
Cf) / r
// z
z
/ (b)
'RICHART et al.
Mix designator 1
Internal friction theory —
-5000 (71:1 / psi -10900
c)
TSUBOI AND SUENAGA
Mix designator 33
Internal friction theory--
I
1/10 -1000 C5n)Psi -2000

3.6 .52
3.5.4 Conclusions
The internal friction theory is based on a sheer type

failure which has previously b.; shown to be incoApatible with
the modes of failure observed in concrete. Quantitatively, the
internal friction the has been shown to be mathematically
equivalent to the Guest theory and,for biaxial compression, also
equivalent to the maximum strain theory. From an examination of
Mohr envelopes it is apparent that the angle of internal friction
of concrete is net a constant as is assumed by this theory. Therefore
both qualitatively and quantitatively the internal friction theory
cannot be considered as a failure criterion for concrete.
3.6 MOHR'S THEORY
The previous classical failure theories have stated that
f(01 , 02, 03) K, ... 3.1.4.1
in which the function was categorically defined. Mohr, on the other

hand, stated that of the planes passinf7 through a point in the
specimen with the same normal stress, the weakest will be the plane
with the maximum shear stress (T,L). This is expressed mathematically
as (AN; JJG)
= f(o ), 3 .6.1.1
the form of the function being determined by experiment for each

material (JCJ). [fence the Mohr theory is a generalization of the
other shear theories (AN; R,B,B; T,L). For example, the maximum
shear stress theory is represented by equation 3.6.1.1 if
f(0 ) = K ... 3.6.1.2
However, th generality of the Mohr theory in contrast to the

maximum shear stress theory (Section 5.4.3) permits different
ultimate strens.ths in tension and compression (ENS; T,L; RVS; AN).
3.6 53
Fortunately it is not necessary to determine f(c._; )
n
mathematically for each material. Instead the values of the principal
stresses for various states of stress may be plotted on a s-G Mohr
n
diagram and an equivalent number of Mohr's circles drawn (Figure
3.6.1.1). The failure curve (Section 3.1.1) will be the envelope
of all the circles corresponding to the various states of stress at
which failure took place (JCJ; RVS; R,B,B; ST-1; AN; HMW-1; EHS).
For any intermediate combination of stresses, it is only necessary to
interpolate from the curve and the failure strength as well as the
plane of failure can be obtained (ST-1).
The Mohr theory is basically a shear theory (R,B,B), but

the angle of the failure plane in relation to the applied load can
vary depending on the shape of the curve. Figure 3.6.1.1 shows a
typical Mohr's envelope for concrete and the angle defining the
plane of failure is marked for a particular failure condition.
Thus from such a diagram it is possible to interpret the modes of
failure under varying states of stress (AN).
In uniaxial tension the angle 2 e is small, indicating

that the plane of failure will be normal to the direction of applied
force (AN). This agrees with the behaviour of concrete in tests
conducted by Ward (NW) and Jones (JR-1) in pure tension.
However, as the normal stress (6 ) changes from tension

n
to compression, gradually increases and becomes some value greater
than zero. This indicates a change in the mode of failure from the
normal failure to a shear type failure. Therefore for states of
uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial compression as well as biaxial compression-
tension the Mohr theory predicts a shear type failure. The modes of
failure observed in concrete specimens subject to uniaxial compression
are of a splitting, nature (Section 3.1.3); those in biaxial compression
(R, 3,13; GW; CJB) and some specimens in triaxial compression (R,B,B)
have also been observed to fail by tensile cracking, while in biaxial
compression-tension Bresler and Pister, Tsuboi and Suenaga, and McHenry
and Karbi noted that fa ilure was by tensilecracking.
FIGURE 3.61.1
THE MOHR THEORY 54
Na / S, psi
N‹,plam, of failure failure envelope
—Mohr circle
RESLER AND PISTER

Mix designator 19
TSUBOI AND SUENAGA

U) Mix designator 29
.
Q
FIGURE 3.6.31 tv101-IR'S CRCLES

3.6 55
Hence the modes of failure predicted by the Mohr theory,
with the exception of uniaxi-11 tension, are not compatible with the
observed mode of failure in concrete.
3.6.3 Qu,,-ntitative Analysis
Since the Mohr theory dces not specify the equation for
its failure criterion, the approach previously used in the
quantitative section of each discussion is not applicable. Instead
the theory must be studied on a more general level. Even so, two
significant points arise.
a) Mohr's theory, as do many of the theories, neglects

the effect of the intermedite principal stress, 0 (HMW-1; R,B,B;
2
GW; AN; AB). It is assumed by Mohr that this would h2ve a negligible
effect on failure since only the forces on the m?ximum shear plane
control failure and net those normal to it. If this were true, the
biaxial compressive strength would be equal to the uniaxial compressive
strength for the material under study. Bellamy, Wastlund,
Campbell-Allen (GA), and Weigler and Becker have shown that the
biaxial compressive strength of concrete is greater than its uniaxial
compressive strength and hence 0 2 does influence the failure.
Nadai (AN and Westergaard (HMW-1) have also noted this error in the
Mohr theory, but for materials in general.
b) rich art, Brandtzaeg, and Brown, Mitchell (N3M), Balmer,

and others have found that the Mohr diagra m can satisfactorily express
their numerical data (Figure 3.9.3.1). This does not prove the theory
is valid, only that when the Mohr's circles are drawn on a s-0
n
diagram a reasonably smooth curve may be drawn tangent to them. Yet
not all the investigators agree even that this is so. Both McHenry
and Karni, and Tsuboi and Sucnaga concluded that the Mohr diagram
did not fit their results, as is shown in Figure 3.6.3.1. Hence
there is doubt that the Mohr diagram will exnre6s the failure
criterion for concrete, especially in biaxial compression-tension
states of stress.
3.? 56
In general, the Mohr diagram can often be used to plot

the data from tests on concrete, but the theory itself neglects the
effects of the intermediate principal stress, which for concrete
is significant. Owing to the generality of the Mohr equation
(equation 3.6.1.2) a more comprehensive quantitative analysis is
not possible.
3.6.4 Conclusions
Owing to the generality of the Mohr theory, it has often

been used for brittle materials (ST-1; AMF), especially rocks
(AN; JCJ). Guralnick (SiG) has used the Mohr theory for the design
of beams. However, even though the failure strength of concrete can
often be represented on the Mohr diagram this is not sufficient proof
that the theory is valid. It neglects, as do the other shear-based
theories, the effect of the intermediate principal stress, and in states
of compression predicts a shearing type failure rather than splitting
as is usually observed in concrete. Therefore the Mohr theory, but not
necessarily the diagram, is an unlikely criterion for the failure of
concrete, except possibly in uniaxial tension.
3.7 OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR STRESS THEORY
A theory also based on a limiting shear and often used for

ductile materials is the octahedral shear stress theory. The derivation
of the theory is based on the equilibrium of forces about an octahedral-
shaped element within the material. The mathematical derivation is in
a number of textbooks (AN; ST), but basically the tetrahedron is so
oriented that the three smaller faces are each normal to one of the
principal stresses and then the normal and shear stresses on the fourth
face are computed. These are (AN; ST)
i (0 + 02 + 03) ... 3.7.1.1

oct
and
toct 4 /01-c2)2 +(°2-c3)2 +(C 3 1)2 - K
respectively.
3.7 57
The octahedral shear stress theory stat,L, that the

octahedral shear stress, in a material is a constant, and
toct'
failure will occur when this value, is exceeded (ST).
The failure surface for this is represented in

Figure 3.2.1.1.
3.7.2 qualitative Analysis
This theory, as did the maximum shear stress theory,

establishes a shearing failure criterion; the failure plane is
the octahedral plane. Hence a discussion similar to that in
Section 3.4.2 will be valid for the octahedral shear stress theory.
Section 3.4.2 has shown that the shear type failures predicted by
such a theory as this in uniaxial tension and compression, biaxial
compression-tension and compression, and triaxial compression are
incompatible with the splitting type of failure normally observed
in concrete, with the possible exception of some triaxial compressive
specimens. On this basis it was concluded that a theory based on a
shoarinr, failure was qualitatively in error as a failure criterion
for concrete.
The failure envelope of the octahedral shear stress theory

circumscribes the hexagonal envelope of the maximum shear stress
theory (iw) (Figure 3.2.1.1). The quantitative similarities between
these two theories is evident, since the largest deviation is 15% in
pure shear.
The major difference between the maximum shear stress and
octahedral shear stress theories is that the latter includes the
effect of 02. In this respect the octahedral shear stress is
superior to the maximum shear stress theory, for, as has been shown
previously in this cha7ter, the influence of 0 is not negligible.
2
3.? 58
However, the oct a hedral shear stress theory, as did the

maximum shear stress theory, predicts that the ultimate strength in
uniaxial tension will he equal to thu ultimate strength in uniaxial
compression (AA. . was aentionod in section 3.4.3 it is well known
that the tensile strenth of c.-.ncrete is only about 7 to 12% of the
comressive streneth and hence the octahedral shear stress theory is
quantitatively in error, least for concrete.
By computing the values of K in equation 3.7.1.2 and

studying its variation, the generally poor agreement between the data
and thy: octahedral shear stress theory becomes evident (Table 3.7.3.1).
Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown's data in triaxial compression produce
standard devis.tions for the variation in K ranging from 1539 to
1'/81 psi with coefficients of variation in excess of 50%. Balmier's
and Bellamy's results support this conclusion. Similarly, in biaxial
compression-tension, NcHenry and Karni' data hove a coefficient of
variation from 66 to 78%, while Bresler and Pister's data have a
coefficient of variation from 45 to 57%. The values computed from the
K's of Tsuboi and Sucnaga's tests have a greater spread but all the
coefficients of variation are in excess of 40%. When these values are
compared with the standards in Table 3.1.6.1, it may be concluded that for
triaxial compression and biaxial compression-tension the octahedral
shear stress theory does not predict the data.
In biaxial compression, however, there are exceptionally low

coefficients of variation, in the range from 7 to 15%, which represents
good agreement. The values of the standard deviation support this.
Therefore by including the influence of c3 the coefficients of
2
variation and standard deviation compute:, from th, maximum shear
stress theory (Table 3.4.3.1) have been slightly reduced.
In summary, the octahedral shear stress theory does not

agree quantitatively with the data analysed, except in biaxial
compression, where exceptionally good results were obtained.
3.7 59
Table 3.7.3.1
OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR THEORY
)2±(02 -03)2+ (03 - (31 ) = K

t oc t 2
State Avg. S.D. State Avg. S.D. C.V.

Mix Mix K
of K C.V. of No. (psi)
No. (psi) (psi) Stress (pz.i)
Stress
Compression 1 3084 1539 50 tension or 22 540 338 62
shear
2 3444 1740 51
23 358 386 109
if
3 2576 1781 69
24 498 365 73
4 12,550 7860 63
25 510 396 78
5 5630 2050 36
It
26 521 315 61
Biaxial 27 1560 1000 64
Compression 6 3620 548 15
28 920 665 72
7 2150 160 7
29 1136 630 55
8 2660 262 10
11 30 529 246 47
9 3580 322 9
31 535 226 42
10 5930 464 8
It
32 401 174 43
11 3300 400 12
33 500 316 63
12 3240 253 8
ti
34 494 278 56
13 4740 520 11
35 578 290 50
Compression- 36 456 202 44
tension or
shear 14 630 414 66 II
37 490 193 39
tt 15 1057 733 69 It
38 282 218 77
tt
16 1270 990 78 39 446 254 57
17 773 345 45 40 721 324 45
II 18 850 450 53 41
41 500 140 28
19 1150 650 56 it
42 454 179 40
20 1590 910 57 43 629 322 51
11 21 502 311 62
3.8 6o
3.7.4 Conclusions
Although the octahedral shear stress theory does have the

advantage of incorporating th- effect of 5 it is quantitatively
2'
in error for the states of stress considered, except in biaxial
compression. Moreover, since it is based on the concept of shear,
the theory does not predict the qualitative behaviour of concrete in
uniaxial and biaxial states of stress. Therefore, by considerin7
both the qualitative and. quantitative aspects of the theory, the
octahedral shear stress theory is inadequate as a failure criterion
for concrete.
3.8 ENERGY THEORIES
The classical failure theories discussed previously have

been based primarily on phenomenological observation. In contrast,
the energy theories presented in this suction and the Griffith
theory presented in the next suction are based on more fundamental
reasoning.
Beltrami and Haigh (T,L) established a failure theory

directly from the concepts of thermodynamics. Haigh (BPH-1; BPH-2;
BPH-3; BPH-4) deduced that a ductile material could absorb a given
amount at strain energy prior to exceeding its elastic limit (FBS).
Thus the elastic limit, not failure, occurs when
W
... 3.8.1.1
= 1((3161 "262 363) = K
where W, the total strain energy at the elastic limit, can be
determined from a uniaxial tension or compression test (JM).
The maximum strain energy as presented by Haigh can be

divided into two parts, the volumetric strain energy (Wv) and the
energy of distortion (Wd): (JM-1; BPH-1; AN; ST):
W = Wv + Wd. 0,0 5.80102

3.8 61
If the volumetric energy is neglected, it can be shown (JM_1; JCJ;

ST; NHS; AN) that
1 v, 2 2
Wd +0 +0 - I) 0 0 - 0 ) = K.
3E 1 2 32 1 02 - 2 3 13
000 3.8 .1.3
Huber, Hencky, and v. Mises (ST; RVS; R,B,B) proposed that Wd is a

constant for a material and that equation 3.8.1.3 is a criterion for
yielding. This is called the distortion energy theory, the failure
curve for which is shown diagramatically in Figure 3.2.1.1.
The one concept fundamental to matter is energy. Through

this common denominator it may b possible to interrelate the atomic,
structural and phenomenological levels. Hence, any energy theory has
considerable logic and merit.
At the structural level, let us consider that an isotropic

force system is applied to a homogeneous specimen. The effect of the
stresses will be to increase the density of the material, but will not
displace one of the crystals in relationship to the others. As a result,
when the loads arc released the specimen will return elastically without
loss of energy. However, if non-uniform forces are applied to the
specimen, a stress level will finally be reached such that the
potential energy of an atom or crystal will reach a critical magnitude
and a decrease in the energy level of the crystal or atom will take
place. This could occur if the crystal sliped into a lower energy
level or if it ruptured its bonds with adjacent atoms or crystals.
Th,., rupture of a bond releases energy, and will also increase the energy
in other particles. hence, since only the deviatoric energy will cause
a movement of a crystal, it is reasonable to assume that failure is
caused by the deviatoric energy and not the volumetric. It is for
this reason that the general formula for the strain energy was
simplified by Huber, Hencky, and v. Elise (AMF).

3.8 62
Guest also concluded that the volumetric stress had a

negligible influence on thL. yielding of ductil,, materials
(W, = 0 in equation 3.4.1.1), but that such an assumption was not
always valid (JJG), particularly for brittle materials.
That the High and v. Mises theories apply only to ductile

materials at the elastic limit is important. Both theories derive
from the second law of thermodynamics, which states that under reversible
conditions and at a constant temperature the work done by a system of
forces is independent of the order in which the forces act (BPH-3; EHS).
As soon as fracture occurs, the process becomes irreversible and the
equations are no longer valid. Berg (OYB), Neville (AMN-2), Jones (RJ-2),
Wastlund (GW), and others have noted that minute fractures develop in

concrete at stresses as low half the ultimate load. Moreover,
recent work at Cornell University (H,S,S,W) has shown that minute
fractures exist within concrete even prior to loading. Hence from
qualitative considerations it is unlikely that those equations based
on a reversible process would apply to a material like concrete, at
least net as a failure criterion (R,B,B).
Haigh fully realized this and concluded "It is not suggested

that the non-ductile fracture of a brittle material or even the ultimate
load of a ductile metal, is roverned by the thermodynamic considerations
that have boon set forth" (BPH-3). Haigh even believed that the structure
of steel (much less concrete) was too complex to apply the strain energy
criterion (BPH-1).
By multiplying and dividing equation 3.8.1.3. by 2 and

rearranging terms, the v. Mises criterion becomes (-M)
+v 2
Wd 1 6((0 -0 ) + (0 -r0 + )2) = K.
E 1 2 3 1
... 3.8.3.1
With the exception of the constants, this equation is identical to
that for the octahedral shear stress theory (equation 3.7.1.2)(ST; AMF).
3.9 63
Hence the v. Mises criterion and the octahedral shear stress theory are
quantitatively similar. Therefore the quantitative analysis of the
octahedral shear stress theory (Section 3.7.3) will also apply to the
v. Misus energy theory. This previous discussion concluded that the
octahedral shear str equation did not predict the behaviour of
concrete in triaxial compression or in biaxial compression-tension,
nor the value of approximately 10% for the uniaxial tension to compression
ratio. However, in biaxial compression a good quantitative comparison
was obtained.
3.8.4 Conclusions
Although the concept of a failure theory based on energy,

particularly the deviatoric energy, is appealing, and is in good
agreement with yielding of ductile metals (JM-2; ST; AN), it
appears in its present form to be applicable only to the yielding of
ductile materials. For brittle materials such as concrete the basic
assumptions of too theory are not valid. Furthermore when the volumetric
energy is neglected, in contrast to Guest's ideas and data by Blakey
and Beresford (B,B-1), the distortional energy theory reduces
mathematically to the octahedral shear stress theory, which provides
a reasonable comparison of data and theory only in biaxial compression.
3.9 GRIFFITH'S CRACK THEORY
The theoretical strengths of materials, based on atomic bond

strengths, are approximately two orders of magnitude greater than those
actually observed in practice (AAG-1; AMN-2). Griffith
hypothesized that to account for this difference there must be stress
raisers within the material which on a local level create high stress
concentrations and thereby local atomic failure (2'iG-1; AAG-2;
ST; JCJ). This will eventually spread and cause the failure of the
material. Griffith considered these stress raisers to be minute flaws
or cracks, which caused the necessary increase in stress because of the
extremely small radius of their leading edge. hence, in contrast to
3.9 64
the previous theories which considered the material to be homogeneous,

Griffith assumed that the material, although basically homogeneous,
centaincd discrete flaws.
Solids, like liquids, have a surface energy which must

increase for a crack to form or extend. So that the total potential
energy will remain constant, the increase in surface energy is balanced
by a decrease in strain energy (AAG-1; AAG-2; AN). Equating this,
Griffith concluded that the maximum tension at the leading edge of a
crack is (llG-2; AN; ANF)
2c — ... 3.9.1.1
t p
where 2c is the length of the crack and p the radius of curvature
of the leading •
Griffith than considered an elliptical crack in a uniformly

applied biaxial stress field, with the crack at an angle e to the
principal stresses. From a consideration of the stress distribution
caused by the crack, Griffith determined the angle e for the largest
tensile stress at the tip of the crack for any particular state of
stress. This led Griffith to conclude (A G-2; ANN-2; JCJ) that if
301 JO 3.9.1.2
then 1 = Gt K, ... 3.9.1.3

but if 3a1 + G3 < 0
then
(01 - 03)2
80 = K. ... 3.9.1.4
t (01 +03)
Note that equation 5.9.1.3 is the same as equation 3.2.1.1 for the
maximum stress theory.
Equation 3.9.1.1 shows that, according to the Griffith

theory, the strength will decrease with increasing crack size.
Griffith performed tests on glass and concluded that the critical

3.9 65
flaws were 104 times tie molecular Spacing. As with glass, concrete
is particularly susceptible to flaws. The inevitable air holes, sand,
and coarse aggregate particles are all stress raisers, regardless of
whether they are microscopic or a half-inch in diameter. Thus it
would seam that the Griffith theory is particularly suitable for concrete.
When concrete is subjected to tension and the load is

sufficiently large, then according to the Griffith theory, the specimen
will rupture along a plane normal to the critical tensile force (AAG-2).
Yet if compression is the primary force acting on the specimen, then the
material will fail along a plane at an angle e from the compression
force, where (nAG-2)
- 03 )
cos 2e =
-2- (o +07 ) •
... 3.9.2.1
In uniaxial compression e equals 30°.
However, Jaeger (JCJ) points out that, contrary to what

Griffith apparently assumed (AAG-2), the maximum tensile stress
parallel to the surface of the flaw does not necessarily occur at the
very tip of the flaw. In such a case the angle of failure would not
be that given by 3.9.2.1, but the true angle would depend on the flaw
shape and orientation to the loads. Glucklich (JG), on the other hand,
assumes that in compression the Griffith flaw will propagate parallel
to the applied compression as this is the only plane without a
compressive force normal to it. In makin such a statement Glucklich
has overlooked a major conclusion of the Griffith theory: that flaws
greatly magnify the tensile stress in the material and can thereby
propagate even through compressive fields of stress. Glucklich does
point out that the maximum tensile stress in pure compression that
would cause a crack to spread is 31 times the average compressive
stress for a flaw oriented at 35° to the direction of compression.
There arc two reasons why this flaw is unlikely to propagate parallel
to the applied compression as assumed by Glucklich:
3.9 66
(a)the magnitude of the tensile stress at the tip of

the crack, the stress which will cause the crack's
extension, depends on the orientation, 6 , of the
crack. The tensile stress is a maximum at an angle
0
of 30 to 35°to the applied c=pr ssive stress. If,
however, the compression is parallel to the long axis
of the crack, the applied compressive stress will have
no influence on the tension at the crack tip.
(b)The location of the maximum tensile stress along

the periphery of the crack is not necessarily at the
tip of the crack, but is always very near it. Thus
the crack will. extend approximately in the direction
of its long axis.
Therefore the Griffith theory predicts that the material

will fail at some angle to the appliod compressive load, although
Glucklich notes that non-homogeneities may interrupt the crack
propagation.
Qualitatively, the Griffith theory explains the failure

normal to the applied tension observed by Ward (Mb) in concrete.
However, the theory does not predict the vertical cracking observed
in the compression failure of concrete (S-ction 3.1.8).
The orientation of a flaw in a material is of a statistical

nature, so if a material is to have the Griffith theory as a failure
criterion it would be expected to behave in a manner predicted by
statistics (Vfill7). Since there is a higher probability of there being
a critical crack (size or orientation) in a larger specimen than in a
small one, it would be expected that the smaller specimen would be the
stron,er or (ST; WW-1)
(0 ) ( V, )1/m
c 1
) ( V ) ... 3.9.3.1
c 2 1
3.9 67
where V and V are the volumes of the two similarly shaped

1 2
soecimuns. This has been tested for many materials, including
concrete, and found to be valid (n;i; ST; .LMF).
When a Griffith crack is subjected to compression normal to

the plane of the crack, a larger compressive force is required to
cause the crack to propagate than when it in subjected to tension. As
a result, the Griffith theory predicts that the compressive strength
should be 8 times the tensile strenth (A G-2; EFP; ha). This is
good agreement when compared with Ward's (M'4)ratio of 7 to 12% for
the tensile to compressive strength of concrete.
To analyse the Griffith equations (3.9.1.3 and 3.9.1.4) for

the variation of the constant, K, for each set of data, the
inequality 3.9.1.2 was first solved and on this basis the appropriate
value of K computed. Thu results of the analysis arc shown in
Table 3.9.3.1. Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown's data for triaxial
compression show a standard deviation in excess of 1200 psi and a
coefficient of variation between 40 and 62%, as do Bellamy's and
Balmer's tests. However, the coefficients of variation for the
biaxial states of stress are fair when compared with Fulton's
standards (Table, 3.1.6.1).
Quantitatively, the Griffith theory predicts reasonable

results for concrete, at least in biaxial states of stress and for
the uniaxial tension to compression ratio, but the comparison for
triaxial compression indicates that the theory may not be valid for
concrete in this state of stress.
3.9.4 Conclusions
From a quantitative consideration the Griffith theory shows

fair results for biaxial status of stress. however, qualitatively the
theory does not account for the vertical cracking observed in compression
tests on concrete, although it does account for failure normal to an
applied tensile force. In summary, the basic concept of the Griffith
theory, the effect of flaws, is particularly appropriate to concrete;

3.9 68
Table 3.9.3.1
GRIFFITH'S CRACK THEORY
(0
1 3
c0
1 t or 8 0, (c5 1 + 03) K
State Avg. State Avg. D.
of
Mix S.D.
K C. Mix
V.f S.
K . C.V.
No. (psi) No. (psi)
Stress (psi) Stress (psi)
Compression 1 -4645 1855 40 tension or +246 31 13*
shear 14 -2295 309 13
2 -5340 2250 42
Pt
3 -3633 2260 62 15 -3580 580 16
4 -1580 7805 49 16 4120 1560 38
PP
5 -7649 1803 24 17 -2421 309 13
+249 56 22*
Biaxial 18 -2763 502 18
Compression 6 -8612 1292 15
+308 81 26*
7 -4930 627 13
IT
19 -3796 925 24
8 -6070 714 12
+383 94 25*
9 -816o 875 11
PP
20 -4825 962 20
10 -13,500 1340 10
Note:
11 -7530 1020 14
Tsuboi and Suenaga had insufficient
12 -7390 776 11
PP
number of specimens for adequate

71
13 -10,800 1360 13 analysis
equation 3.9.1.3 was used; all other data

was processed for equation 3.9.1.4.
3.10 69
but although the theory has been applied to rocks (RMSR) the
application to concrete (N K-3; JG) is difficult, especially to
account for vortical cracking.
3.10 CONCLUSIONS TO CHAPTER 3

3.10.1 Interrelation of the Classical Failure Theories
(Quantitative)
The procedure us in the individual discussion of the

failure theories will be reversed and the theories interrelated
quantitatively first since it has already been shown (Section 3.5.3)
that some of them are mathematically similar. Their similarities are
most easily discussed by referring to Table 3.10.1.1, which lists the
failure theories in terms of the principal stresses in column h. The
simplified formulae for various states of stress, such as 0 2 = 0
(column c), 0 = 0 (note at bottom of table), and 0 = 03
2 2
0
3
(column e), are also given. Column d will be explained in
Section 3,10.j. From this table the following generalities may be
noted:
a) As was mentioned in the introduction, with the

exception of Mohr's theory the classical failure theories state
that some function of the principal stresses equals a constant.
Yet from theory to theory the constant has a different meaning and
quantitatively a different value. Three of the failure theories
(Table 3.10.1.1) depend directly on the constant being the uniaxial
tensile or compressive strength, while the other theories can, through
a uniaxial test, be related to one or the other of these two parameters.
That the constants vary from theory to theory is a refle ction of the
different assumptions upon which the theories are based.
b) If 0 = 0 or 0 =3 the maximum principal stress,

2 2 3'
maximum strain, maximum shear stress, Guest's, and the internal
friction theory reduce to the form
0 + K0 K ,.. 3.10.1.1
1 2 3 1'
TABLE 3.10.1.1
SUMMARY; EQUATIONS OF THE CLASSICAL FilILUIRE THEORIES
a)
a b c d Le
1
1
Classical i
failure Equation with Value of Equation
General Equation
theory o--) = 0 Theoretical with
‘_
Constants * 0- = 0- = 0
in 0- = K + K a 2 3
1 2 1
K K-) K
2 2
min prob max.
. 0-
Maximum stross 61(3-2 1 = 6t
1 = j't
6 0 0 0 0-
o--.5 =o-c =0"C
3
+4 1
Maximum strain T1 -V + o-- ) ,
(3rt Ti - v 63 = 0- +1 +00 o- 1 = CT"
2 3 t to t
10
Maximum shear 61 - 0- = ay- T1 -6 = 2:5- +1 61 = 2.7-s
stress 3 s '3
0-1 - a- + “T + 0-3) = 2a- +4 ,
3 1 to 2T
Guest's theory or 0r - 6 +A(0- +0- )= +1 00 61 = 1+A
1 '3 1 3 +19
( 1 + X )cr1 - ( 1 - X )or = 20 s
3
aT
s
11-- - . 4
Internal sin 0 + 1 sin 0 - 1 00
K coo 0
same +1 +2
1
Friction COS 0 0-1 + cos 0 a3 - K °F-1 = sin0+ 1
I_ .1........

TABTT 3.10.1.1 (cont.)
d e 0 _11
a b c
I
Value of 1 ,
Classical Equation with Theoretical . Equation
failure General Equation = 0
a2 Constants * with
theory in a = K + K i = 0- = 0
3 1 2a 1 3
K T.K.
2 , -'
min. prob. max. i
t___
General
Mohr's Theory
L —
6 - 6 )2 + (a - J 2 a - aa
2 2 1
- _ _
Octahedral 1 2 2 3) 1 1 3 IS = o- = 3
shear stress 2
+ (a - a ) = 9 t 0
0 2 1 y 2 toot
3 -1 oot
oct t act
_
62 + 0 2 + 0 2 -
1 2 3
cr2 2 vao-_,- a2 =
Strain energy 1 1 .) 3
(Haigh) . 2v (a a + cr o- + a 7 ).2E;1
_ _ = 11/2EW
1 _
1 2 23 1 3 2EW
i o
2 6'1 = .7-6-
(0.. .. a.
)
't
Griffith's 1 3 + 89-t(cri + u-3 ) = 0 same - -
theory a-1 . 0-
cr = 0- - t
1 t
-- i
* Note: of the 5 equations in column d, if o'2 = g3 only
maximum strain is affected 1 2
- 2) = a-
v(0- 0.5 1 to 00 1
61 t
1 3.9
3
--I
3.10 72
where the only difference is the values of the constants K and K .

1 2
Even if the influence of 0 is known this only affects thou maximum
2
strain theory; the other four remain unaltered.
c) Similarly, the Haigh strain energy criterion will

red uce to the octahedral shear stress (or v. Mises deviatoric energy
criterion) providing Poisson's ratio equals 0.5.
d) The octahedral shear stress theory is, in effect, a

throe-dimensional maximum shear theory.
e) The Griffith theory is not so easily related to the

other theories. This is probably due to the unusual assumptions
upon which it is based. Yet when the -orincipal stresses are primarily
tensile, the Griffith theory is simply the maximum stress theory. In
more compressive states of stress the Griffith criterion is quite
similar in appearance to the Guest theory.
f) As was mentioned in (a) above, the eouations often

reflect the assumstions upon which the theory was based. Three
failure theories, Haigh, v. Mises (and octahedral shear stress),
and Griffith's, based on energy -principles are non--linear, while
the remaining theories are linear functions of the principal stresses
or are constants.
0) All the classical failure theories have one thing in

common. When two of the principal stresses are zero all the theories
reduce to the form (column e, Table 3.10.1.1)
0 = K or (1 = K. ... 3.10.1.2
1 - 3
Thus regardless of the theory used, the failure stress under uniaxial
conditions is a constant, although as noted in (a) the constant varies
from theory to theory. It was for this reason that data from biaxial
and triaxial tests were used in the quantitative anal -ses in this
chapter (Refer to Sections 3.1.6 and. 5.2.3).
3.10 73
3.10.2 Interrelation of the Classical Failure Theories

(Qualitative)
Thus despite the varied origins of the clasAcal failure

theories, there arc definite quantitative similarities between them.
Yet as a direct result of th_,se varied urisins there is no fundamental
principle expressed by all the theorius. Instead the failure theories
t of failure which appear similar
arc based on widely different cancer
when expressed quantitatively, For example, the maximum stress theory
states that the failing stress is independent of anf lateral stresses.
This cannot be reconciled with any of the other theories. In general
terms it would be possible to link the maximum shear stress, Guest's,
internal friction, Mohr, and octahedral shear stress theories as being
bacically shear thecri 8 requiring failure along a plane inclined to
the direction of the applied compressive force. However, this is
superficial, and the important conclusion is that there is no fundamental
concept expressed by all these theories, or, for that matter, any two
of them. Each is based on a different assumption as to the cause of
failure and thus the importance of the discussion of the qualitative
consequences of each of the failure theories is seen.
3.10.3 The Classical Failure Theories as Failure Criteria

for Concrete
The individual discussions of each theory in this chapter

have shown that none of the classical failure theories is an adequate
failure criterion. Quantitatively, some of the theories show good
agreement with the data for particular states of stress, for example,
the Griffith and octahedral shear stress theories are in good agreement
with the data in biaxial compression. Qualitatively the maximum strain
theory predicts the modes of failure generally observed. in concrete.
3.10.4 A Reasonable Basis for a Failure Criterion for Concrete
Although the classical failure thocriesare not in themselves

failure criteria for concrete, they do provide information upon which
a reasonable failure criterion may be founded.

3.10 74
It was shown in Suction 3.10.1.b that if 0 2 = 0 or

0 . five of the classical failure theories could be quantitatively
2 3
expressed in the form of equation 3.10.1.1, where each theory predicted
various volues for K and K . Throughout Chapter 3 the variation of
1 2
K has been analysed on the assumption that was known. Once it
1 L2
has been realized that these five theories are mathematically similar,
it is possibL: to adopt a different approach and analyse the data for
K2, observing how those compare with the values stipulated by the
individual theory. Such an analysis will provide a different technique
for testing these data, which is analo:;ous to the method often used of
plotting the data and observing which theory best fits the experimental
points (Section 3.1.4). The approach used here provides an estimate of
the error and from this an important deduction concerning the form of
the failure equation can be drawn.
To solve for K2, the equation 3.10.1.1 can be written as
= K + K 0 ... 3.10.4.1
3 1 2 1
for biaxial and triaxial compression, and as
... 3.10.4.2
01 '3
= K1 + "23
for compression-tension states of stress. These equations were
programmed into the Manchester-Atlas computer along with the data
previously used in this chapter (except for Tsuboi and Suenaga's data
where there were too few specimens in a given mix for adequate analysis).
With the data the computer performed a regression. on these equations
and computed the values for K and K for each mix. The results
1 2
(column c), includin,7 the error of the regression (column d), are
presented in Table 3.10.4.1. As the value of K in equation
2
3.10.4.2 is the reciprocal of K in equation 3.10.4.1, the
2
reciprocals of the values of K for the compression-tension data
2
are shown in brackets to facilitate comparison with the actual
theories.

3.10 75
TABLE 3.10.4.1
RESULTS OF A REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH THE DATA
OF CHAPTER 3 ON EQUATIONS 3.10.4.1, 3.10.4.2,
3.10.4.3 ,dip 3.10.4.4
b -----'-h
----
Mix oq.3.10.4.1 j Error Eq. 3.10.4.3 Error Eq. 3.10.4.4 Erro

dcsig. and 3.10.4.2
K K I KZ K
1 2 1
Richart
Brandtzaeg 1 -3173 +3.657 4.87 -952 +0.572 2.52 +1646 +1.744 3.11
& Brown
It
2 -4356 +3.692 5.49 -1299 +0.575 2.76 +2234 +1.734 3.51
VI
3 -1684 +3.944 7.28 -472 +0.597 3.67 +777 +1.672 4.10
Balmer 4 -8710 +2.87 8.00 -3075 +0.487 5.59 -6o45 -2.04 6.66
Bellamy 5 -5712 +2.799 3.03 -2117 +0.474 2.06 +4436 +2.105 2.74
McHenry
and
+0.085
f'+269 t+11.76) 16.9 +352 -0.843 3.73 +414 -1.18 5,8
Karni
PI
15 +300 +0.061
.
( +16.39)
25.9 +401 -0.883 3,60 +449 -1.13 4.77
3.1+9 +503 -1.10 4.57

(+21.74) 22.7 +462 -0.910
16 '+341 +0.046
II
Bresler +0.102 4.34 +531 -1.22 6.80

and 17 +343 (+9.804) 21.9 +443 -0.812
Pister
iP
18 +0.062
*+302 (+16.13) 44.o +414 -0.872 8.72 +432 -1.11 12.5
+0.036
II
19 *+353 (+27.78) 50.5 +5o4 1-0.915 10.2+ +482 -1.05 14.2
VI
20
+0.068
*+491 (+14.71) 37.2 +658 -0.869 5.49 +7)1 -1.14 7.46
L 1
* values in brackets arc rcciprocals of the
value of K
2
3.10 76
With the five classical failure theories rearranged in the

form of equation 3.10.4.1, K2 becomes some function of the constants
in the failure theory equations from which the allowable values, the
minimum, most probable, and maximum values of K con be comuted. -
2
These are listed in column e, of Table 3.10.1.1. For exampl,::, in the
maximum strain theoryK2 = 1/v ; therefore the minimum value of
K is 1 (y = 1) while the maximum is infinity (V = 0), but the most
2
probable value is 4 to 10 (v = 0.25 to 0.10 (W).
By. comparing K2 as computed from the data (Table 3.10.4.1)

with the allowable values in the equation (Table 3.10.1.1), a
conclusion may be drawn , to which of the five theories are moat
applicable to concrete.
a) The maximum stress theory and the maximum shear stress

theory stipulate the value of K2 as 0 and 1 respectively. In both
cases these values are too low when compared with the values computed
from the data, which are in excess of 2.8.
b) The maximum strain, Guest's, and internal friction

theories all predict values of K, that are in reasonable agreement
with the K values computed from the data; the true values are
2
unknown for these complex states of stress.
This supports the previous conclusion that the maximum

stress theory and the maximum shear stress theory were inadequate
as failure criterion for concrete (except possibly in uniaxial tension
where the maximum stress theory may be valid).
It is of more interest, however, to rotate the coordin=tes

of the data and again D rform the resression. The coordinates used
above were the 0 0 sot. Now if the data arc transformed to a set
1' 3
of axes at 450 to this, the new axes will hc1-722(0 +
3 1 )'
/7720 - G. ) (Fir;ure 3.10.4.1). A r slop. can be performed as
1
before and the constants compute for the transformed equation
3.10.'4-.1, that is
(C_ + 0,) K, + K-(0- - 0,). ... 3.10.4.3

t ) I
77
\v,<
\ 0\
• 7...) 45°
•
\ 11
r\
/
/ I \
/I \
/ I - \
I
-1
!„,,estimated
r failure envelope
1 for concrete
1
45° ROTATION OF AXES

FIGURE 3.10.4.1
3.10 78
Or, transferrinc this last equation through 900, K and K may

1 2
be calculated for
(03 - ji )= K1 + K2(03 + 01). ... 3.10.4.4
The results for the first equation are shown in column o of

Table 3.10.4.1 and fcx equation 3.10.4.4 in column g. The errors
of the rozressions are listed in columns f cmd h respectively.
The error of the regression for the transferred sot of

axes is aproximately half that for the original 01 , 0 axes.
3
Hence this form of the equation fits the data better, with less error,
and therefore is a more suitable expression for the failure criterion
for concrete.
Equation 3.10.4.) is, however, the general equation of the

Guest, internal friction, Mohr, and to a certain extent the Griffith
theory, the last of which is, on the whole, the most quantitatively
acourato of all the theories. Asimilar form of the equation has
recently been proposed by Newman (KN-1) as possible failure criterion
for concrete. The meaning of the equation, the sum of the volumetric
and deviatoric sires s, has been discussed in the analysis of the
Haigh energy criterion (Section 3.8) and was mentioned in the discussion
of the Guest theory (Section 3.4). Hence if equation 3.10.4.3 were
extended to include the effect of 0 there would not only be
2
quantitative justification for its use cisa failure criterion for
concrete, but the concept of the volumetric and deviatoric stress
components which it expresses would have considerable qualitative
merit (KN-1 ; JJG-1 ; ANF).
This is not to infer that for this equation to be valid

concrete must fail in shear. On the contrary, the Haigh criterion
has a more general form of this equation yet does not require a
shear type failure. As a result the use of equation 3.10.4.3 does
not conflict with the vertical crackin bserved in concrete under
compressive loading (Section 3.1.8).

3.10 79
Therefore eoyation 3.10.4.3 is both qualitatively and

quantitatively a likely failure criterion for concrete, providi rr
it is extended to include the influence of 6 2.
Of the classical failure theories which can be expressed

by this equatish, none is adequate asa failure criterion for
concrete. To be exact, none of the classical failure theories
was found to be entirely satisfactory. Howsver, the maximum strain
theory, althouch quantitatively not accurate as a failure criterion,
was the only theory to explain the modes of failure observed in
concrete (Section 3.3.2).
In conclusion, a criterion incorporating the concept of

a limiting tensile strain, but expressed in a more 7eneralized form
of eouation 3.10.4.3, which wcuL? include the influence of 0 is
2'
the most likely failure criterion for concrete; at least on the
basis of this analysis.

4.1 80
CHAPTER 4
THE PHENOMELOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE
COMPARM TO THE THEORIES SPECIFICALLY
PROPOSED AS FAILURE CRITERIA FOR COECRETE
4.1 =TRODUCTION
4.1.1 Objective
',with the recent increased use of c,7ncrete in complex

structures, new failure theories have been proposed specifically
for concrete. These new theories, in one form or another, are founded
on the classical failure criteria, but have been so altered as to
overcome some disadvantacse or othe rwise improve their aL;reement with
the phenomonolodical behaviour of concret. .
It is the objective of Chapter 4 to study these theories,

in a manner similar that used in Chapter 3, in order to
(Section 2.2):
a) interrelate the theories,
b) determine which, if any, of the available theories
is applicable to concrete and the extent of their
limitations.
4.1.2 Theories Proposed Specifically for Concrete
Althoush considerable research has been conducted in this

field, the major failure theories proposed specifically for concrete
reduce to the following four:
a) Internal friction-maximum stress theory proposed in
various forms by Couard (EJH, Cowan (HJC-1), and Harris (AJH);
b) octahedral shear and normal stress theory proposed

by Bresler and Pinter (B,P; B,P-1) and others (T,S);
c) Brandtzae:7's theory (AB); and
d) macro-structural model theories proposed by

Reinus (ER; ER-1) and Baker (ALLB).
The model theories will be discussed in detail in Chapter 8 and
therefore will not be included here.
4.2 81
4.1.3 Outline of Approach Used to Analyse Theories
As will be shown, theories (a), (b), and (c) are closely

related to the classical failure theories, yet with the exception
of (a) the quantitative method of approach used in Chapter 3
(Section 3.1.4) is not applicable. Therefore, although the previous
data will be used, the analysis of each theory has been shortened to:
1) statement of the theory,

2) discussion of the theory, both qualitatively
and quantitatively, and
3) conclusions.
4.2 INTERNAL FRICTION-MAXIMUM STRESS THEORY
Of the failure theories proposed specifically for concrete,

the internal friction-maximum stress theory is the most closely
related to the classical failure theories. In 1956 Harris extended
a theory by Couard (AJH) as a failure criterion for concrete. In the
discussion on Harris's paper both H. J. Cowan and R. H. Elvery note
that Harris's theory is the same as Coulomb's internal friction theory
(Section 3.5) and therefore does not account, despite Harris's attempt,
for the tensile mode of failure in concrete normal to the applied
force (RJ-1; MW).
Cowan (HJC-1) proposed a modified form of the internal

friction theory, which incorporated the maximum stress or strain
criterion so as to explain the tensile mode of failure in concrete.
Paul (BP) has proposed a similar theory for brittle failure.
In essence, Cowan's theory states that concrete will fail

according to the internal friction theory (Section 3.5 and in particular
equation 3.5.1.1) unless, as a result of the applied loads, tensile
stresses or strains of such a magnitude develop that they exceed a
limiting value. If so, the concrete fails in tension normal to the
critical stress or strain. Hence Cowan's theory is a dual criterion
composed of the internal friction theory and the maximum stress or strain
theory.
4.2 82
4.2.2 Discussion of the Theory
For tensile modes of failure as predicted by the theory

there is good agreement, at least qualitatively, with the modes
observed in concrete. It was concluded in the discussion on the
maximum stress (Section 3.2) and maximum strain (Section 3.3) theories
that both these theories were qualitatively compatible with the tensile
modes of failure in concrete.
However, Cowan's theory states that if the tensile stresses

do not become critical before the shear stresses exceed their limiting
value in the internal friction theory, then the concrete will fail
according to the internal friction theory. As shown in Section 3.5.2,
this requires that the material will fail along a plane inclined to the
applied load. More recent research has shown that in compressive
states of stress failure is by tensile splitting parallel to the
applied load (Section 3.1.8). Thus Cowan's use of the internal friction
theory is not qualitatively compatible with the mode of failure
observed in concrete in uniaxial or biaxial compression.
Quantitatively, Reeves (JSR) found good agreement between

his data and Cowan's theory. However, when the internal friction
theory, is plotted on a s-on Mohr diagram, it gives a straight
line inclined to the 0n axis at an angle (f) , the angle of internal
friction (Figure 3.5.3.1a). The remainder of the curves in
Figure 3.5.3.1 are the Mohr diagrams for actual concretes and are not
linear. Hence Cowan's use of a linear theory is only an approximation,
which with the proper choice of 9 , could be used over a certain
limited range of stresses. As Cowan observed, such a theory would
not be valid over an entire range of states of stress, particularly
high states of triaxial compression.
When Cowan's theory is extended to biaxial compression, it

predicts that the failure strength is independent of 6 2. As a
result, the biaxial compressive strength is the same as the uniaxial
compressive strength, which is contradictory to data obtained by
4.3 83
Wastlund (GW), Bellamy (CJB), onel Wei!ler an::: Becker (W,B;

who showud a 20 to 30% incr e io streath with Q,.
4.2.3 Cnclusipns
Jthouzli in compressive sts.tus 3 r Cownni!:, , thecry

n ,-,]cct 0 2 , with the pro-per values for the cmstn.nts, it may
applicable t.• concrete Jver a restricte1 cpmpressivo states
of stress. H wever, a qu:litative basis this the,Jry fails to
accc.unt for th, tensile crackinz in (.
:mpression spocinons. flion
tunsilu StroSSvs or strs.ins critical, Cowm's use f the mximum
Stress or strain theL,ry shows qualitative .7, 7ruoment with the
phohmunolic.al bohaviour of cAlcrete in tunsi n. Therufore under
c the theory prcvidu re,7'.sonablJ cuantitative
r sults, but, in E:eneral, it is not a satisfnct()ry criterion for
concrete.
4.3 OCT..H DR L SHII,R-NORMAL STRESS THEORY
Breslur and Pister (B,P; B,P-1) proposed that for the

ultinutu strength of cncrote the octahudral shear stress wos a
function of the octahedral n,:,rmal stress. In their criinal paper
(B,P-1), this was expressed
t oct f(cioct) f(13), ... 4.3.1.1

where 0 and toot arc defin,J,I. by equatiuns 3.7.1.1 and 3.7.1.2
oct
respectively, and 13, the third invurient of the stress tenser, is
the product of the three principalsu
-17 rosses. 13 was included to
account for variations observed in triaxial states of stress. A year
later a more complete paler, which sup-,
;
- osely superseded the former,
nelectud the influence of but clearly limituJ the criterion to
1
tunsi-m-coLapressi a status of stress. Mcro explicitly,
Brosler aid Pister preposud that the equati,n f failure was of the
form
t 0 0 2
oot
= ct
+ K °c" ... 4.3.1.2
f K1 K2 i 3 f' I
4.3 84
or more simply
O
toot oct ...
K + K
f' 1 4 f'
4.3.1.3
where f'c is the uniaxial compressive strength of the concrete.
From equation 4.3.1.3 it is readily apparent that the

Bresler and Pister criterion is a generalization of the octahedral
shear stress theory (Section 3.7) and the Mchr theory (Section 3.6),
both of which have been shown to be inadequate failure criteria for
concrete. The form of the function and the values of the constants
are found from experimental data, as in the Mohr theory.
The Mohr theory was limited to the s-O (functions of

n
c7 and 0 ) plane whereas the octahedral shear stress theory
1 3
included the influence of 0 Therefore, by combining the two
2.
concepts, this criterion recognizes the effect of 0 but maintains
2
the generality of the Mohr theory and provides a medium for plotting three-
dimensional states of stress on a plane (AM). Although Bresler and
Pister categorically state that the theory is limited to biaxial tension-
compression and Bellamy (CJB) shows this limitation to be true, the data
from some of the research used in Chapter 3 have been plotted on a
-0oct plane in Figure 4.3.2.1. Even though the relationships
toot
are non-linear for triaxial states of stress, there is little scatter
for all the curves.
As the data plot so neatly on the oot. -° plane, other

t loot

researchers have considered similar criteria. Shear-compression tests
by Tsuboi and Suenaga (T,S), tension-compression experiments by
McHenry and Karni (M,K), and the initial cracking of concrete studied
by Blakey and Beresford (B,B-1) show that their data can be expressed
by a smooth curve, often linear, on the t - plane. Yet for
oot Coot
similar forms of the function (equations 4.3.1.2 and 4.3.1.3), the
constants differ considerably (CJB). The inconstancy of the constants,
even for the same mix (AMF-1; R,S) was a criterion used in Chapter 3
for questioning the validity of the classical failure theories.
FIGL,7-RE. 4.3.2.1
85
0 C TA HEDRAL SHEAR-
NORMAL STRESS THEORY
7+ 8000
RICHART et al.
a.
-+4000
Mix Desig. Symbol
1
2
3 -X--
-4000 -8000 oct, Psi
•
cr)
-+3000
BRESLER & PISTER,
MCHENRY & KARNI
Mix Desig. Symbol

20
15
-2000 oct, Psi

4.3 86
hence the: main support for this theory is that the data
r m
ebresont a sooth curve cn tin: t c )1L:ne. Si-Nlarly, Duch
t, - Ljoct
of the data discussed. in Chapter 3 plotted smoAhly on the Mohr
:ram yet it was shown that in situ of this the Mohr theory was
not a failure critorion fur concrete ),,ctin 5.6).
3
McHenry Karni replette the data or. the 01 - plane
and with cquati,- n 4.3.1.3 rewritten in terms of (31 and 03 snowed
(Fi. -,ure 4.3.2.2) that with these 1-dinates tb(_e criterion did not
adequately express the data. They concluded that when equation
4.3.1.3 was used as a failure criterion it ''night permit as a close
approoximation some stress combinations which in terms of principal
stresses wou12: be found t- b, strictly inadmissible'c (M,K). Bellamy
reached sinlilar c:nclusion (CJB).
To explain this, let us consider the 12,:.:3-t basic equations

of the octahedral shear stress f- r 0, = 0, that is
2
toot
= K(01 + 0 - 0 0
1 3
,

... 4.3.2.1
and assume reasonable values for 1 and 03, say +200 psi and
-3000 psi respectively. Then the effect no. tact of chanin!T the
principal stresses can be studied. If, for example, o is doubled,
1
t will increase by 3.7%; if 0 is halved, the octahedral shear
oot 1
stress will decrease by 1.7%. In contrast, if 0 is doubled, t
oot
will increase by 96.5%. nonce any criterion of the form 4.3.2.1 will
be insensitive to changes in the tensile stress. Yet the work done by
McHenry and Karni (M,K), Berg (OYB), Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2), and
Blakey and Berosford (B,B-1), the tonsil.. .,:eodes of failure observed
by Richart, Brandtzacj and Brown (R,B,3), Weirfler and Becker (v;,B),
and cthars, as well as the conclusions to Chapter 3 (Suction 3.10.5)
concerning the qualitative a!!;rL munt of the maximum strain theory
with the piv,
nomonological behaviour of concrete all show that the
tensile strain is important to the failure of chcrete. Thus the
tonsile strain (or str,,ss) shoulJ, be emjiasized, not overshadowed,
and this would oxplain why equation 4.3.1.3, which sums the square of

87
FIGURE 4.3.2.2
COMPARISON OF DATA
WITH THE
OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR-
NORMAL STRESS THEORY
(from MI K)
-2500:-
i
7a-) \\
.. 4.-- data
\
i' \ \
0-2000-
Li \
1--- \
\\
(f)
\\
Li i
>-1500i-
(7)
(f)
Li \ octahedral shear-
4, sC- normal stress
a_
-1000- \\ theory
\
0
U - \
0 \
-500- \\
\/ 1
0 1 00 200 300 400
61, TENSILE STRESS, psi
4.4 88
a large compressive stress with a small tensile stress, does not fit
the more sensitive 01-O plane (Figure 4.3.2.2).
3
Expressing their equation in still a third way, Bresler
and Pister rewrote the criterion in terms of the invariants of the
stress tensor. They then noted that this is the equation of the mean
shearing; stress as a function of the mean normal stress. Of more
interest is a comment made by Blakey and Beresford (Discussion to
B,P-1) that, using; the invariants, Bresler and Pister's criterion may
be written as a function of the volumetric and deviatoric strains and
hence is of the form suggested by the conclusions to Chapter 3 for a
failure criterion of concrete.
4.3.3 Conclusions
The variation of the data from the failure curves is small,

yet the equation is of such a form that the apparently more critical
tensile stresses are diminished. Although the theory is one of the
most reasonable of those so far discussed, it appears to be inaccurate,
even within its strict limitations. It does, however, support the
concept that the failure of concrete is determined by some function of
the volumetric and shear stresses.
4.4 THEORY PROPOSED BY BRiiNDTZILEG (AB; R ,B ,B)

The failure theories discussed previously have assumed that

the material for which they are a criterion is isotropic, homogeneous,
and elastic up to failure (Section 3.1.2). Realizing that these
assumptions may be inadequate for concrete, Brandtzaeg in 1927 proposed
a failure theory for non-isotropic yet homogeneous materials.
Brandtzaeg considered concrete to be non-isotropic and assumed

that it consisted of a continuous array of crystals. These crystals
or elements were nearly identical, having, the same tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio, but differed in orientation
of their directions of weakness. The directions of weakness for a
4.4 89
particular element are the (directions mast susc te yielding

if acted upon by shearilw forces and are oriente'f_ in only one
direction for any given element, but an entire': ransom distribution
exists from element to element. Hence the material is non-isotropic.
As the load on Brandtzaeg's theoretical material is

increased it will be shared equally by -LI' the elastic elements until
at a certain lo.a a the most critically oriented plane of weakness will
roach its elastic limit and slide. or any element this failins load
is determined by Coulomb's internal friction theory (Section 3.5).
When this load is exceeded, the critical element will pass into a
plastic stag:, but the deformation of this :217:,stic element is limited
by the reran inder of the still elastic opntinuum. '41en a sufficient
number of the ..lements becomes plastic due to further increas;s in
load, these Clements will ber7in to interfere an brk other
obstructinr. elements. Brandtzae;- refers to this state as "disorganized."
Tensile failures are also permitted. tensile failure will

occur when the limiting tensile strength of an element is exceeded,
the failure occurs normal to the te_isile strain rear-'less of the
orientation of the element's pLone of weakness.
With this as asis, 3randtzae7 used statistics and

calculus to derive lengthy equatiAls which g:vern the failure of a
cylindrical specimen for triaxial states of stress in which
,e r a simple matter criticise

It would at first ap:-,
Brandtzae theory, like Cowan's,on its use of th internal friction
theory. Brandtzaec was fully aware that this w^S an assumption,
particularly since it is difficult to estimate the shear strength
and angle of internal friction far c.7ncret . ,t the criticism of
Cowan's theory may not be valid in ths case as there js a subtle
difference between the two. The discussions in Chapters 3 and 4
have all been thL, phonomenelowical level, but Brant tzdog proppsed
4.4 90
that two of these theories may be valid on the micro- or macro-scopic

level, and the conclusions to Chapter 3 are not necessarily valid on
these 1,vels. result the theer} cannot t ivatuly be judged on
this point, the prof how accurately the theory predicts the
properties of c6ncretes.
On a qualitative basis many f the failure theories

previously considered have failed t,o explain the tensile cracking
mode of failure so often observed in concrete. Frets the use 3f
Coulomb's internal friction theory (Section 3.5), it would seem that
Brandtzae:71 6 ro would fail alnrn:, a shear plane, but when the
internal friction theory is considered on the microscopic level tensile

cracking failures can be explained. s Brandtzaeg has shown, when the
clement slides and becomes plastic, its motion is retarded by means of
lateral tics with adjacent elastic An„ments. These are of a tensile
nature and if their magnitude is insufficient, the elements will fail
in tension alon planes parallel to the uniaxial compressive load.
This same phenomenon may occur even in states of triaxial compression;
the effect of the lateral load is to retard the development of the
tensile strains. This is in agreement with the modes nf failure
observed in c ncrcte under compressive loading.
On the other hand, if the applied loads are tensile in

nature, the limiting tensile stress for the elements will be exceeded
and failure will occur normal to the applied tension.
Hence on a qualitative basis, there appears to be good

agreement between theory and the actual me ,Js of failure observed
in concrete. Brandtzaeg has therefore provided a plausible explanation
for tensile cracks in concrete by considering concrete as homogeneous
but non-isotropic. It is now of interest to cmpare the assumed
structure with that of concrete.
First let us consider th, cement rraste which Brunauer (SB)

has studied in such detail. This consists of interlocking fibres and
is not of the crystal, sliding plane form assumed by Brandtzaeg. Yet
it is conceivable that such a failure might occur in the paste.
4.4 91
On the structural level, concrete is quite varied and the

existence of planes of weakness is not unreasonable. Brandtzaeg notes
that the structure of the crystalline .7..T7regate, and especially the
aggregate-paste bond, may be considered as planes of weakness. Yet
Brandtvieg fails to account for the varying moduli of elasticity of
the aggregate, the cement paste, and the air pockets. In other words,
he fails to recognize the difference between a cement paste and a
concrete. Furthermore, recent work at Cornell University (H,S,S,W)
and Imperial College (Chapter 13) have shown that owing to shrinkage
concrete is not a continuous medium as Brandtzaeg has assumed.
Quantitatively, the theory is difficult to apply to the

existing data as strain readings are required. Even then, certain
constants must be obtained through trial and error and it is only by
proper choice of these constants that reasonable agreement can be
obtained. Yet with the proper constants, Brandtzaeg did obtain a
good comparison with stress-strain curves from concrete until the
critical tensile stress was reached, after which there was a large
discrepancy between theory and data.
In biaxial tension-compression states of stress, Brandtzaegts

theory predicts a constant tensile strength regardless of the lateral
compression since the maximum stress theory is used. This is in
contradiction to data from Bresler and Pister (B,P; B,P-1),
Tsuboi and Suenaga (T,S), and McHenry and Korni (M,K).
For emphasis it is again mentioned that Brandtzaeg assumed

= cy , which limits the application of the theory, if not
2 3
neglecting the individual influence of 0 2.
In the light of the conclusions to Chapter 3 (Section 3.10,5),

it is of particular interest to note that Brandtzae, during his
discussion, bases much of his explanation on the idea that the
failure of the elements depends on both a volumetric and a deviatoric
stress.
4.5 92
4.4.3 Conclusions
By assuming that the material is anisotropic, Brandtzaeg

was able to explain much of the qualitative behaviour of concrete.
Quantitatively, the theory predicts the stress-strain curve in
on:acre- be until internal cracking starts, but de es not account for
the behaviour in biaxial ccmpression or biaxial tension-compression.
Moreover, to simplify the mathematical analysis, Brandtzac made a
number of assumptions inconsistent with the structure of concrete,
namely that the modulus of elasticity is constant throughout concrete
and that concrete is continuous.
As a result, the theory is not an entirely satisfactory

failure criterion, although it does provide an explanation of the
qualitative and certain aspects of the quantitative behaviour of
concrete from a consideration of the structure of concrete.

4.5.1 Introduction
The theories which have been specifically proposed as

failure criteria for concrete have been discussef! in this chapter
in the light of the known properties of concrete and the discussions
of Chapter 3. in the conclusions to Chapter 3, a few general
comments, with particular reference to the interrelation of the
theories and their validity as failure criteria (Section 2.2), are
pertinent.
4.5.2 Interrelation of the Failure Theories Discussed

in Chapter 4
The theories in Chapter 4 are most easily related to
the classical failure theories of Chapter 3, upon which the three
theories discussed in this chnptcr were based. Breslor and. Pisterls
octahedral shear-normal stress theory is Teneralization of both the
octahedral shear ctress theory and the Mohr theory, whereas the theories

proposed by Cowan Brandtzaep are based on the internal friction
4.5 93
and maximum stress theories. However, as Brandtzaeg used thsse

theories on a macrcstructural level rather than the phenomenological
approsch of Cowan, there: is little similarity between the two theories.
Despite the varyins ccncepts which these theories ambody,

they are all based on the sum of a volumetric and a deviatcric stress.
That this form of equati)n has been proposed as a failure theory
supports the conclusion of Suction 3.10.5 that this equaticn is a
form of the failure criterion. Brmdtza analysis confirms
that such an equation does not necessitate a shearing failure on the
phunomenolosical level, but is in accord with the tensile cracking in
compressive tests on concrete (Section 3.1.8).
4.5.3 The Theories of Chapter 4 as Failure Criteria

for Concrete
As those three theories were proposed specifically for

concrete, they may be expected to predict the phenomenological behaviour
of concrete with a lower error than was :::.enerally found in Chapter 3.
Cowan's theory is applicable over certain limited ranges, depending
on the constants used, while on a 0 - t clane the available
oct oct
data form smooth curves. BrandtzaeL3's theory predicts, with T)roper
values for the unknown constants, a stress-strain curve that agrees
well with the data until cracking occurs, but .agreement is poor for
biaxial c:silpression and compressive tensile states of stress.
Generally, within certain limits, these thesri_s do acres quantitatively
with the available data, but all the theories d pun_? on the determinatisn
of constants that will increase the limits of validity of the equations
for any given concrete. In the case of concrete with a very curved
Mohr envelope, for example, Cowan's linear. theory would only he
apsropriate over the limited range where the line of the theory was
tangent to the Mohr envelope; this is determined by the constant
(1:: (Figure 3.5.3.1).
Qualitatively, Cowan's use cif the internal friction theory

predicts shearing modes of failure contrary to the tensile cracking
modes of concrete. BranJtzae overcomes this and has been able to
4.5 94
explain much of the qualitative behaviour of concrete.
In sum=y, nTne of the throe therios is a

1...,cqute failure criterion for concrete. Cowan's theory, which
incorporates the internal friction theory, is qualitatively in
po-x agreement with the moes of failure in concrete. Tho
octane dral ear-normal stress theory can, like M::hr's theory,
be us._:d to i)rovide a convenient olet of the data, but the equations
derived unjerestimte the influence of the tensile stress and
therefore pre ict an erroneous relationship between the principal
stresses. Brandtza.e''s theory, althcudh it is in qualitative
agreement, fails to account for the quantitative behaviour in
biaxial status of stress.
5#1 95
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS TO PART I
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 5
In Part I of this thesis the classical failure theories and

those theories proposed specifically for concrete have been analysed
in detail, both qualitatively and quantitatively on the phenomenological
level. On the basis of this it is now possible to report on the three
objectives stated in the introduction to Part I (Section 2.2). Since
the first two objectives, i.e., the interrelation of the theories and
their validity as failure criteria for concrete, have been discussed
in the conclusions to Chapters 3 and 4, they will only be given a
brief summary here. The third objective, i.e., to study the qualitative
and quantitative errors of these theories so as to formulate a path of
logical deductive and experimental steps to obtain a better understanding
of the failure of concrete, will be discussed in this chapter, after the
summary of the first two objectives.
5.2 INTERRELATION OF THE THEORIES
The interrelation of the various theories has been conducted

on both a qualitative and quantitative level.
Owing to the varied origin of the theories, there is, at

least on a qualitative level, no fundamental principle expressed by all
of them; instead, they are based on widely different concepts of failure.
Many of them are based on shear, although the actual cause of failure is
basically different for each case. Therefore, an interrelation cannot be
made on a qualitative basis.
Yet when these principles are expressed mathematically, many

of the equations for the theories are similar if not identical. Therefore
it has been possible to interrelate many of the theories on a quantitative
level and compare their validity. For example, it was shown that of the
classical failure theories, the maximum stress, maximum strain, maximum
shear stress, Guest, and the internal friction theories have basically
the same equation.

5.3 96
The theories discussed in Chapter 4 were not easily inter-

related, but could be reduced to the classical failure theories from
which they were derived.
Hence it has been possible to interrelate and show the

similarities between many of the theories, at least on a quantitative
basis.
5.3 THE VALIDITY OF THE FAIL= THEORIES AS A FAILURE

CRITERION FOR CONCRETE
Since the failure theories have been based on such widely

varying concepts, it has readily been possible to compare them with
the observed properties of concrete. In this way definite conclusions
have been reached concerning the validity of these theories as failure
criteria for concrete.
None of the failure theories discussed is an entirely suitable

failure criterion for concrete, yet some of them are, for one reason or
another, more appropriate than the rest, although all have their
limitations. The maximum strain, Guest's, Griffith's, Bresler and
Pister's, and Brandtzaeg's criteria give the best approximations to
the quantitative behaviour of concrete. Since most of these theories
reduce to a function of the volumetric and deviatoric stress or strain,
it is concluded that the failure criterion for concrete is likely to be
of this form. From the qualitative behaviour of the maximum strain
theory, a criterion theoretically based on strain in most logical.
Otherwise the theories, as such, are not criteria for the failure of
concrete.

5.4 REASONS FOR THE L.:CK OF AGREEMENT BET= THEORY AND DATA
5.4.1 Possible Errors of the Failure Theories
Since the theories are not suitable failure criteria for

concrete, it is evident there must be an error or series of errors in
their assumptions or derivations. As the derivations are simple and
based directly on the assumptions, any errors in the theory are more
likely to be in the assumptions than in the derivations.

5.4 97
To continue proposing theories based on similar assumptions

which may be equally in error is fatuous. Hence a brief discussion
of the faults in the assumptions of these theories may be useful for
formulating future research into the failure of concrete. Thus this
section applies to item (c) in Section 2.2.
The theories and the data used to test them may be in error
due to any one of the following:
a) an assumption that the material is homogeneous,

isotropic, and elastic;
b) improper definition of the term failure
(Section 3.1.8); or
c) testing-machine influences and/or non-uniform
states of stress.
5.4.2 Errors in Assuming Concrete to be Homogeneous,

Isotropic, and Elastic
In the discussion of Brandtzaeg's theory (Section 4.4) it was

shown that considering concrete as an anisotropic material can lead to
a better understanding of its behaviour. As a result, to assume
concrete is homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic, as the majority of
the failure theories have done, may induce a major source of error.
This is supported by Timoshenko's (T,L) observation that the behaviour
of steel is not easily explained since steel is non-homogeneous on a
microscopic level. If microscopic imperfections in steel will influence
its strength, then -?; inch aggregate, much less sand particles and air
pockets, should affect the strength of concrete. For large structures
the assumptions that concrete is homogeneous and isotropic are reasonable
for computing overall stresses or strains • on a phenomenological level.
However, Brandtzaeg states: "The process of failure must necessarily
be intimately connected with the properties of small parts of the material,
in particular of those small parts where failure first begins to develop.
It would seem ... the individual rather than the average properties of
the constituent parts of the material need to be considered." (AB).
5.4 98
As Brandtzaeg has considered the anisotropy of concrete, this
will not be discussed further, but in his derivation he neglected the
variation in '
- 6he moduli of elasticity of the constituents of concrete
as well as the discontinuous nature of concrete.
Concrete, being composed of hard aggregate inclusions, softer

cement paste, and air pockets (Young's modulus of zero), is hardly a
homogeneous material, at least on the structural level. Because of
these various moduli, it is inevitable that an applied load will be
unevenly distributed over the cross section. This, in turn, causes
stress concentrations. It is conceivable that the variation in moduli
of elasticity which Brandtzaeg neglected may be more influential on
the failure of concrete than the anisotropy considered by Brandtzaeg.
In contradiction to the assumption of all the theories, with

the exception of the Griffith's theory, recent work at Cornell University
(H,S,S,W) has shown that concrete is not continuous. As Griffith has
aptly shown, such cracks in the structure interrupt the stress patterns
and cannot help but influence the failure.
Hence, in order to study the failure of concrete it is

necessary to consider its non-homogeneous and discontinuous nature.
By such an analysis it may be possible to improve the comprehension of
not only the failure mechanism of concrete, but why, excluding creep
effects, the stress-strain curv. is non-linear even at lord leads. (It
has been shown that non-homogeneous steels show a curved stress-strain
curve whereas for more refined steels the relationship is linear until
the elastic limit (JJG-1)).
5.4.3 Errors in Defining Failure of Concrete
All the experimental data bre,ented in Chapters 3 and 4 were

based on the ultimate load of concrete. In contrast, many of the
classical failure theories were originally proposed for the yielding
elastic limit of metals, not the ultimate strength. As noted in
Section 3.1.8, yielding is not readily evident in concrete and in by
far the majority of experiments on the failure of concrete only the
ultimate load has been measured. Hence it was necessary to use the
ultimate load in the analysis in Part I (Section 3.1.8).
5.4 99
However, Berg (OYB), Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2) and others (see

Section 3.1.8) have observed cracking well below the ultimate load.
Often the cracks form at a tensile strain of about 100 microstrain
(FAB-3; OYB) and from strain measurements have been found to be
localized (B,i-2; PEE-1 ). Blakey and Beresford (B,B-1) have studied
this in flexure and, using the load at which cracks form as a criterion,
proposed a theory similar to the octahedral shear-normal stress theory
(Section 4.3). Brandtzaeg has observed a radical change in the
properties of concrete prior to ultimate load, and beyond this load
his theory was less accurate. Punch (HR) has observed that the long-
term strength of concrete is 75% of the short-term strength (say a
loading rate of 2000 psi/min). From this information it is conceivable
that the definition of the failure of concrete as the ultimate load is
in error, maybe up to 50%.
Further study should he devoted to defining the failure of

concrete.
5.4.4 Errors Due to Machine Effects
Quantitatively, the assumptions upon which the numerical data

used in Chapter 3 were obtained may also be in error, although this
author and undoubtedly the original investigators made every effort
to reduce this. In the analysis presented in Part I, the conclusions
have all been based on the data analysed from an individual mix tested
by the same researcher. In this way no errors have been introduced by
correcting for mix parameters, specimen size and shape, etc. (Section
3.1.6). To eliminate the possibility of there being an error by a
particular investigator in his experimental technique, numerous mixes
by a number of investigators have been analysed. The results have been
consistent within any given state of stress. A good example is the
meef.imum shear theory (Table 3.4.3.1) for which there are consistently
high coefficients of variation for triaxial compression and biaxial
compression-tension, but for biaxial compression all the coefficients
of variation are loss than 15%. Such agreement from one mix to the
next, and from one investigator to the next, indicates that the
5.4 100
specimens have been tested with care, and that consideration has been
given to ensure that the results obtained were valid. The greatest
scatter of coefficients of variation has been for the research of
Tsuboi and Suenaga, but this may have been caused by the srmll number
of specimens used for each mix and the wide range of mixes used.
It is emphasized though, that for all research conducted in

simple and complex states of stress, the experimental equipment must
be thoroughly checked to ensure that the desired state of stress is
produced and that the machine influence is a minimum. This has been
shown by Lachance eLL; N,L) who studied the state of stress obtained
in uniaxial compression. As a result of an extensive series of tests,
he concluded that to overcome end restraint (friction b0tween the steel
platen and the concrete specimen caused by different viE ratios of the
tvlO materials) and obtain a uniform state of stress in uniaxial
compression, the height to diameter ratio of the specimen must be at
least 2.5 and the thickness of the platens should be at least half the
diameter of the specimen.
In biaxial compression, where cubes or slabs are used

(GW; W,B), the problem of end restraint becomes even more critical.
A similar criticism may be given for biaxial compression-

tension and certain cases of biaxial compressive states of stress
produced on hollow cylinders (Table 3.2.3.1) by Bellamy, McHenry and
I(arni, Bresler and Pister, and Tsuboi and Suenaga. From equations
given by Timoshenko (ST) it is simple to calculate that for a 1%
difference between the strains on the inside and outside of a hollow
cylinder with a 2-inch wall thickness, an internal diameter of 400 inches
is required; for 10% error, a 40-inch diameter is needed. The average
external diameters of the specimens used by tho above investigators is
8 to 9 inches, the extremes being 6 and 14 inches. However, the
investigators were aware of this, and in tho calculation tried to allow
for the error. Even so, it is an example of the type of experimental
error found in research and must be considered. Ward (MW), for example,
in developing a uniaxial testing machine took considerable care to
ensure he was obtaining a pure state of tension in his specimen.
101
Lateral stiffness and other machj~e effects will also

influence the behaviour of concrete. This subject is at present
being investigated at Imperial College by Sigvaldason (OTS-1).
Hence when studying the behaviour of concrete, it is

important to ensure that the state of stress obtained is known.
CONCLUSIONS TO CHAPTER 5
In conclusion, on the basis of the analysis conducted in

Part I, further research into the behaviour of concrete is necessary
in the following areas:
a) the non-homogeneous nature of concrete,

b) the definition of failure, with particular
reference to cracking, and
c) a study of machine effects and the state of
stress induced by the machine.
If information can be obtained about these three factors, then reasonable

foundations should be available for constructing a theory or criterion
for the failure of concrete.
Items (a) and (b) and part of item (c) will form the basis
of the remainder of this thesis. Before considerinG this, it must be
realized that this thesis is a comprehensive report of a coordinated
programme of research being carried out on the mechanical properties
of concrete at Imperial College, Newman (KN) is preparing a thesis
that considers on a general, overall level the structure and
properties of concrete. A summary of some of the major portions of
his thesis has been published at the 1964 Arch Dam Symposium in
Southampton (KN-1). More specifically, L2chance (LL) has studied the
uniaxial compressive test; Ward (MW) has developed a uniaxial tensile
test; and Sigvaldason (OTS-1) is at prosent studying machine effects
on the behaviour of concrete (item c), as well as biaxial tension-
compression and tension-tension in flexure. Now that Newman has
presented a coherent picture of concrete on the microscopic, macroscopic,
and phenomenological levels, and Lachance and Ward have studied and
102
overcome many of tho problems of the uniaxial compressive' and tensile

tests, it is possible to extend this work into more complex states of
stress, and study the behaviour of concrete on tho various levels
outlined by Newman (KN).
A detailed study of the effect of the heterogeneous nature of

concrete on its deformational behaviour has yet to be carried out. The
rernainder of the thesis will study the macroscopic (non-homogeneous)
structure and behaviour of concrete (item a) and how this influences
the phenomenological behaviour discussed in Chapter 3. The non-
homogeneous nature of concrete will be considered on a theoretical
basis in Part II. The study will extend into Part III, where various
experimental techniques will be used to investigate not only non-
homogeneities in concrete, but also the origin and influence of the
cracks (item b) observed in compressive tests (Section 3.1.8). As a
result of this study a definition of failure will be proposed with the
use of a practical experimental technique (item b).
In Part IV experiments will be performed to study the behaviour

of concrete in biaxial compression, having first ensured that a pure state
of biaxial compression is obtained (item c). These tests will be so
designed as to permit a study of the phenomenological level of concrete
in this state of stress and how it is influenced by the macroscopic,
non-homogeneous structure.
Part V, the conclusions to the thesis, vlill summarize the

thesis and present a comprehensive explanation of the failure mechanism
of concrete on a macroscopic "and phenomenological level.
,In this way Part I has, through an analysis of the existing

failure theories and the previous research on concrete, established a
series of logical steps to study the failure of concrete. These are a
complementary extension of the present research at Imperial College and
it is hoped \'lill provide a better understanding of the cause of failure
in concrete.
103
PART II
STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SINGLE AND
NULTI-PARTICLE NON-HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS

104
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO PART II
6.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

Part I has shown that in order to understand the failure of
concrete, it is necessary to examine the non-homogeneous nature of
concrete~ Hence it is the objective of Part II to consider theoretically
this non-homogeneous nature and its effect on the failure of concrete.
6.2 THE NON-HOMOGENEOUS NATURE OF CONCREI'E
Concrete is a complex mixture of aggregate of varying size

and shape, cement, water, and air, the aggregates being bound together
by the hardened cement. However, normal aggregates have a much higher
modulus of elasticity than does the softer mortar matrix. The result
is a material composed primarily of hard particles cemented together
by a comparatively uniform and softer cement paste.
When the macroscopic structure of steel or glass is compared

with, sny, a one-inch gauge length, the carbon inclusions or flaws are
hardly discernible, being nearly of a microscopic size.. However, when
concrete is compared with the same gauge length (B,M), a ~-inch diameter
aggregate is of a similar magnitude. Concrete, on a macroscopic level,
is obviously not homogeneous.
Griffith (AAG-1) has shovm thnt flaws in glass only 2 x 10

4
inches wide can explain why the true strength of glass is only 7% of
its theoretical strength. Similarly, Timoshenko (T,L) has mentioned
the possible effects of minute carbon particles on the behaviour of
steel. It is only reasonable that similar and possibly even greater
influence may be caused by the non-homogeneities in concrete.
Furthermore, the cracks which have been mentioned previously,

and are apparently important to the failure of concrete, are of the same
order of size as the aggregates. It is thus conceivable that the
aggregate and air pockets in cement paste may cause stress concentrations
(Griffith's concept) or areas of weakness due to their different
6.3 105
properties (PD-1; PD-2; B,S,Y). These in turn may become of such

magnitude as to cause local failure and subsequent redistribution of
the local stresses. Therefore it is not at all unreasonable for the
non-homogeneous nature of concrete to contribute to the failure of
concrete.
6.3 OUTLINE OF PART II
The true nature of concrete and its influence on the failure

of concrete is exceptionally complex. The size of the uggregate, its
shape, modulus of elasticity, and other properties will vary to a certain
degree throughout the concrete. Hence to express mathematically the
structure of concrete would be exceptionally difficult even by
statistical means. It is for this reason that few people have
considered the non-homogeneous nature of concrete.
Complex problems, such as this or the analysis of indeterminate

structures, are often best solved by simplifying the structure,
analysing the individual components and then recombining them to
complete the analysis. With this form of analysis the non-homogeneities
in concrete can be studied first in their simplest form; that is, one
stone or one grain of sand, or one' air bubble in an otherwise uniform
cement paste. When this has been studied, a more complex model, which
includes the interactions of the particles may be considered.
Following this approach, Chapter 7 will consider the influence

of a single non-homogeneity (coarse aggregate, sand particle, or air
pocket) on the stresses in an otherwise uniform cement paste matrix.
The analysis will include uniaxial und biaxial states of stress, as
well as determine where cracking is likely to first occur. In
Chapter 8 the analysis will be extended by considering the interactions
of several pieces of coarse aggregate. Chapter 9 will conclude
Part II.
106
CHAPTER?
EFFECT OF A SPHERICAL INCLUSION
ON THE STRESS DISTRIBUTION AND C~\CKING
IN AN OTHERWISE UNIFORM CEMENT PASTE
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
In Chapter 7 the simplest approximation to the structure of

concrete is first considered by studying the stress distribution and
initial cracking around a single spherical inclusion of various moduli,
of elasticity in an otherwise homogeneous cement paste. By assuming
different moduli of elasticity for the inclusion, it is possible to
simulate the effect of air voids, sand grains, and coarse aggregates.
The analysis of the stresses around an inclusion has been made by
Weigler and Becker (W,B) using elastic parameters wich approximate
those in concrete. However, their conclusions were limited to biaxial
compression and did not consider the effects of the strain concentratio~1s
on the possible mode of failure. This chapter \vill extend the analysis
to other complex states of stress and to a study of the onset and modo
of cracking. This will be compared with the observed mode of failure
in concrete (Part I). It will then be possible to observe how well
such an analysis describes the failure of concrete and whether
consideration of tho non-homogeneous nature of concrete may explain the
failures observed.
Mathematical Analysis
The mathematical analysis of the stress distribution caused

by a spherical inclusion in an otherwise uniform stress field has.been
studied by a number of mathematicians (circular crack, INS; prolate
spheroid, HE; two-dimensional disc in a plate, NIM; and cylindrical
or spherical inclusions, KS); however, the easiest solution to apply
to concrete is that of Biezeno and Grammel (B,G; VV,B).
Using a spherical inclusion in an otherwise uniform matrix

as shown in Figure 7.1.2.1, Biezeno and Grammel based their derivation
on the following assumptions.
107
Ox=o
'.
, .L
F1GURE 7·2·2·1'-
EFFECT OF rj a ON CJe
j~)j=0.3
2.01~t~g:f "
~olo I g~=1-4(7~~5) t10-8m)(~3_18m(~J
'where m = 1/J)
a = radius of inclusion
I. e /0;
cavit ~~'c/
(E = 0 ' ,l._ _ _-l_~=~.r:...-·1_°/_0_ - ! ,
1.0 ,- -:::>
,, I . rIa
, .1 .
7.1 108
a) The laws of elasticity are obeyed.

b) The state of stress is uniform except for
the effect of the inclusion.
c) The d,isplacements along the surface of the
inclusion are the sane as those in the adjacent
matrix. That is, the two are peripherally bonded.
When applying this derivation to cement paste with an

inclusion, it is necessary to make a further assumption.
d) The cement paste is relatively homogeneous when

compared to the size of the inclusion.
On the nncroscopic level under consideration this is

reasonable as Brunauer (SB) has shown that cement paste is formed
from small particles only at the molecular level.
Using the first three assumptions, Biezeno and Grammel

divided the anD-lysis into two po.rts: the stresses caused solely by
a homogeneous linear stu te of stress, 0 z' and the stresses due to
the inclusion in the stress field. The former are designated by the
superscript * and the lattcr by the superscript'. ,The sum of the
two is the total stress at a particular point in the material, or
0*+0'
r r
= 0
r
,.
°e* i;·
+ 0e. °e ••• 7.1.2.1
f
°cp +
°<P = a cp
* + s r'
s r6 = s
r e'
where °r is the total stress in the radial direction, 0e normal
to Or in the e direction, 0cp norma~ to Or in the <p direction,
and sre is the shear stress (Figuro 7.1.2.1).
The stresses due to the homogeneous linear state of stress

are as follOvls:
7.1 109
0* = ~O (1 + cos 26)
r z
0*
{1 = ~z (1 - cos 26)
0 ••• 7.1.2.2
0* =
<p
*
s r6 = --a-a z (sin 26).
The stresses 'caused by the inclusion in the stress field

ox = 0
y = 0, o
z
1= 0 are
a'
r =
06 = -2G r~
A
1 + 2 A2
A
+ 3 3 _
r5
(A2 _ 21
~
A3 )cos 2
r5
JJ
1 2(m-1)A2
(m-2)r3
~ + 9 -5 -
~.~ A2 A ~ J.... 7.1.2.3
a' = -2G
cP G-3 +
r (m-2) ? r
3 -3 - 15 3 cos 26
r r5
8(m+1 )A2 A3_1

si8 = -2G ~(m-2)r3 - 24 r5~ sin 28 ,
vlhere G = mE/2(m + 1) and m = 1/ v., E and V are the Young's

modulus and Poisson's ratio respectively for the matrix, and r is
the distance from the centre of the inclusion to the point being
considered (Figure 7.1.2.1). A , A , and A3 are functions of G
1 2
and m for both the inclusion and the matrix, of "a" the radius of the
inclusion, and of the magnitude of the stress field 0 •
z
If the elastic properties of the inclusion and the matrix
are knovln the values of A , h , and A3 may be determined. With
1 2
these, equations 7.1.2.3 may be solved for any ratio of air as a
function of 0
z
and e.
Then with equations '7.1.2.2, equations 7.1.2.1
can be solved for the state of stress at any point (a/r, e) as a
function of 0 (for r,>O). As a result it is possible to vary the
z
modulus of the inclusion for any given matrix and study the influence
of this on the stress distribution about the inclusion.
110
However, it is emphasized that tho consideration of only

one inclusion is hardly a reasonable approximation of the true
structure of concrete. The results obtained from this analysis can
only be of a qualitative nature, although the magnitude of the local
stress concentrations (e.g. a 10 ) will be of interest.
r z
APPLICATION TO CONCRErE .
Elastic Parameters
Although such a simple model obviously does not simulate

concrete, in order to obtain even general trends, reasonablo values
must be assumed for the various parameters required for the analysis.
Tho most obvious are the elastic parameters of the inclusion

and the matrix. In concrete there are generally three types of
inclusions, coarse aggregate, sand particles, and air voids. Hence
for the purpose of this analYSis the inclusions listed in Table 7.2.1.1
have been used.
TABLE 7.2.1.1
INCLUSION E (psi) v
Air void o not applicable
Sand particle infinite not applicable
Coarso aggregate (Thames Valley
10.2 x 10
6 (pc-MW)
River Gravel) 0.27
The use of such a range for the values of the variables will provide
information on the two extreme possibilities as well as realistic
values for average coarse aggregates.
The cement paste will be assumed to have a modulus of

elasticity of 2.5 x 106 psi and a Poisson's ratio of 0.25 (MA).
The effect of varying the Poisson's ratio of the cement paste will
be studied for the particular case of the air void and the sand
particle.
111
7.2.2 Effect of Inclusion Size
Fortunately the equations are so written tp~t consideration

need not be given to the inclusion size. A , A , and A3 in
1 2
equation 7.1.2.3 are functions of "a", the radius of the inclusion,
in such a manner that the equations for the stresses are functions of
the ratio air. A plot showing the influence of this ratio on the
stresses is given in Figure 7.2.2.,1 for 0e; the others are similar.
The stresses, then, are a maximum in the mntrix for the case r =a
and for r:> a drop off rapidly. So much so, that when r = 23., De
is only 5.576 of its value at r = a. For the purposes of this chapter
only the lTh.'lximum stresses need be considered and hence air =1
throughout. As a result, the absolute size of the inclusion is
unimportant.
Parameters to be Varied in the Analysis
Having eliminated the influence of inclusion size, the other

parameters which are to be considered in the analysis are:
a) modulus of elasticity of the inclusion,

b) Poisson's ratio of the cement paste, and
c) the variation of the stress with the angle 6.
The influence of the Poisson's ratio of the inclusion and the modulus
of the cement paste are not included since for the cases of an air void
and sand particle they cancel from the equation.
In order to consider each variable, particularly the

influencG of the modulus of elasticity of the inclusion, the first
part of this chapter will be divided into three sections (Sections
7.3, 7.4, and 7.5), each considering one of the inclusions listed in
Table 7.2.1.1, and for that particular inclusion, computing the stress
distribution about the inclusion from Biezeno and Grammel's equations.
Within each section (b) and (c) will be considered.
Once the general stress distribution about the inclusion for

a uniaxial state of stress has been analysed, Section 7.6 will extend
the analysis to biaxial states of stress. With this information it
112
will then be possible to consider \'lhere and at what loads cracks will
form. These loads may then be plotted to form initial cracking
envelopes, an analogous concept to the failure envelopes of Part I.
However, it must be remembered that the value of the quantitative
rosults of this analysis are limited by the severe assumptions used.
7.3 STRESS DISTRIBUTION ABOUT AN AIR VOID (E = 0) IN

CEMENT PASTE
7.3.1 Analysis
For an air void with a modulus of elasticity of zero, the

equations of Biezeno and Grammel reduce to their simplest form. Not
only do Or and sr e reduce to zero, but the remaining equations are
simplified so us to be dependent only on the Poisson's ratio of the
cement paste and tho actual orientation of the stress with respect to
the applied load (i.e., e). The results of the complete analysis are
shown in graphic form in Figure 7.3.1.1 for various combinations of
Poisson's ratio (v) and orientation (6); the notation is that of
Figure 7.1.2.1. The individual diagrams in Figure 7.3.1.1 show a
spheric~l inclusion with the stress drawn along the periphery as a
function of e. The equa.tion used is written adjacent to the diagram.
Conclusions
The following conclusions may be drawn from Figure 7.3.1.1

where a z is the uniform applied load.
a) A general examination of Figure 7.3.1.1 at b, and c,

shows that such an inclusion as an air pocket does cause local stress
concentrations about the periphery of the inclusions.
b) For nn air void a comparison of drawings a and b shows

that 06 is the most critical stress, having a maximum value of over
twice (2.02) the magnitude and of the same sign ns the applied stress,
a z at o
6 = 90 • Hence an air void causes a local stress concentration
of 2.02 times the uniform applied stress, a •
z
c) 0cp (diagram b), on the other hand, has its maximum value
equnl .to 0e at e = 0, and this is of opposite sign to oz•
113
FIGURE 7· 3·1·1
STRESS D1STRl BUTION
ABOUT,A CAVITY (E = 0)
» ~ 0.1 0
1) :: 0.2 ---;l<---
)J :: 0.3 ·······0··· .. ···
1.0 '
o
(c) ~
I .-:----
Ur=O
Sre=O a zT
1+1.0
~
!\ '
l!llllllll maximum tensile' str,ess if O"Z >0 .

~. . II U II U O"z<O
d) Both diagrams a and b indicate that Poisson's ratio
of the cement paste has only a minor effect except for small values
of e.
e) Although it will be discussed in detail in Section 7.6,
it is of interest to consider where cracks are likely to form due to
these stress concentrations. If it is assumed that concrete fails
due to a limiting tensile stress or strain, then by considering the
maximum stressGs in Figure 7.3.1.1 it is possible to determine the
most likely location .:lnd direction of crack. If (j is compressive
z
(a Z =a J7.) then the maximum tensile stress for Oe or am
't"
will
occur where the mo.ximum negative value of the ratio ~ / a or
z
a~/0z occurs. For nn air void, this is the same for both ae and
a cp a t e =0 (point Z), the location being marked by /I/ / /. As
these stresses are parallel to the surface of the inclusion, if
cracking occurs it will be normal to the tonsile stress and hence
normal to the surface of the inclusion. Thus for compression the
crack will form at e =0 or parallel to the applied compression,o 3-
If a z were positive, that is tensile, (t~) z = ( 1) the maximum

local tensile stress for 06 or a <p vlould occur at the maximum
Eositive value of the ratio 06/0 or om/a
Z Y z occurs. Diagram (a)
shmoJs this to be at e = 90 0
for a e (point X, marked IIIII). By
the same reasoning, if a crack forms due to the applied tension, it
will occur due to 0e at e = 90° (point X) and normal to the
surface of the inclusion. Hence the crack forms normal to the
applied tensile load, a 1 •
7_4 STRESS DISTRIBUTION ABOUT AN INFINITELY STIFF SAND

PARTICLE IN CEMENT PASTE
If Biezeno and G:rnmmel's equations are applied to the case

of an infinitely stiff sand particle embedded in cement paste, they are
no longer of their simplest form. Although the Poisson's ratio of tho
cement paste (v) ~nd the orientation (6) are the only variables, sre
115
and Or are no longer zero; however, 0e = a cp. The results of the

analysis are shown in Figure 7.4.1.1 for various values of V and e.
7.4.2 Conclusions
,From Figure 7.4.1.1 the folloltling conclusions may be drawn

by reasoning similar to that of Section 7.3.2.
a) As is the case of an air void, the maximum stress is

approximately b,lice (1.96) and of the same sign as the average stress
0, but unlike tho previous case the maximum occurs for 0 at
z r
e = eO (diagram b, point Z).
b) Since the shear stress is zero at 6 = 0 ° and 90 0

(diagram c), 06 , 0cp' and °r are principal stresses at these two
values of e.
c) The stresses at e = 90° are considerably smaller than

those at e = 0° (diagrams a and b).
d) Simi13r to the stresses around an air void, Poisson 1 s

ratio of the cement paste has a minor effect except for 0e (=Ocp) when
e is small (di2gram n).
G) As would be expc:cted, thf~ stress distribution around an

infinitely stiff particle is quite different from that of an air void.
7.5 STRESS DISTRIBUTION ABOUT A PIECE OF AGGREGATE IN

CEMENT PASTE
7.5.1 Analysis
In the previous two cases, it Has possible to si~plify
Biezeno and Grammel's equations. Yet, to consider the stress

distribution caused by a coarse aggregate inclusion, the most general
form of tho equation is required, including a knowledge of the modulus
of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of both the aggregate and cement
paste. In Section 7.2.1 a value of 10.2 x 106 psi and 0.27 was
assumed for the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of the
aggregate and 2.5 x 10
6 psi and 0.25 for the corresponding par~meters
116
FIGURE 74·1·1
I STRESS DISTRIBUTION ABOUT AN
vOz INC~USION -(E= INFINITY)
J} =0.1
J) =0.2 ----;~---
p=O.3 ........ -G ..... ~ ..
-10"
(r
~B
Illliillllill!! maximum tensile stress if CYz>-O

~ II II II II CYz <:: 0
117
of the cement paste. The only remaining variable was e. The

results are shown in Figure 7.5.1.1.
7.5.2 Conclusions
From Figure 7.5.1.1 the following may be concluded.
a) The stress distribution about a piece of coarse

aggregate is intermediate to that in the two previous cases, but
approximately that of the infinitely stiff inclusion.
b) The m~::l.ximum stress, (J

r'
occurs at e = 00 where
it is of the same sign as, but only 1.59 times, the average stress 0 •
3
c) The stresses at e = 90 0 ,
with the exception of 06'
are small and of opposite sign to the applied load.
d) (] e is virtually independent of e.
e) The stresses at e = 00 and 900 are principal stresses.
7.6 THE ONSET AND MODE OF CRACKING ABOUT A SINGLE INCLUSION

IN AN OTHERWISE UNIFORM CEMENT PASTE
7.6.1 Extension of Analysis to Complex States of Stress
Tho previous three sections have analysed the stress

distribution around various spherical inclusions of different moduli
of elasticity embedded in cement paste. From this analysis, it has
been possible to calculate the magnitude of the stress concentrations
caused by the inclusion. Griffith (AAG-1; AAG-2) has shown that in
glass such stress concentrations precipitate cracking and hence cause
a decrease in the ultimate strength. In Section 7.3.2 the conclusions
were briefly extended to show how this form of analysis may indicate
where cracks form and in what direction they will propagate e
This section will extend the conclusions of the three

previous sections (the three inclusion stiffnesses) to show not only
where and in what direction cracks are most likely to form, but also
at what lond stage. Moreover, the previous analysis has b~:en entirely
for uniaxial states of stress, but since it was assumed that the laws
118
FIGURE 7 5·1·1
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
ABOUT A PIECE Ot-
+ 1.0-- AGGREGATE ·1 N CEMENT PASTE
CEMENT PAS TE
. 6·
E =2·5x10, psi
)J =0·25
I
!
-1.0-
. \
119
of elasticity were obeyGd, the principlo of superposition may be used

to oxtend the analysis into combined states of stress.
Hcnce this section will pcrform such an analysis for a matrix

6
of cement paste with a modulus of elasticity of 2.5 x 10 psi and a
Poisson's ratio of 0.25. However, tho matrix will contain an inclusion
6
of zero, 10.2 x 10 psi, or infinite stiffness (Table 7.2.1.1).
7.6.2 Crack Formation About. an Inclusion
To cxtend the previous analysis to combined states of stress,

say biaxial compression, it is only necessary to compute the local
stresses caused by each individual load and then sum the results to
obtain th,.:,· combined stress at a point caused by the biaxial compression.
In this way the local stress distribution for any combination of applied
statcs of stress can be readily computed, especially with the aid of
the figures in Sections 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5.
Once the stress distribution about an inclusion is known,
it is necessary to find the combination of stresses most likely to cause
cracking. For this a cracking criterion is required. Griffith concluded
that for a crack to form, tensile stresses must be present. The
conclusions to Part I, evcn though only for a phenomenological level,
indicated that a mnximum tensile strain criterion explained the
microcrayking observed in the qualitative behaviour of concrete.
Berg (OYB), Blakey and Beresford (B,B-1), Todd (JDT), and others have
observed that microcracks often form at a strain of about 100 microstrain.
Hence it is reasonable to assume thnt a crack will form when a limiting
tensile strain is exceeded. However, a limiting tensile stress criterion
will also be considered. It is assumed thnt cracks will not form in the
inclusion.
With these two criteria, it is necessary to determine the

critical tensile stress or strain by substituting the local principal
stresses caused by the applied loads into the equations of these
criteria, equations 3.2.1.1 and 3.3.1.2 respectively. It is emphasized
that these equations are applied to the local ~~croscopic stresses as
computed in Sections 7.3, 7~4, and 7.5 and their most critical
120
combination determined for the smallest a)plied loads. Cracking will

then occur normal to this stress or strain (Section 3.2.2 or 3.3.2).
vfuen the example of Section 7.3.2e is considered in more

detD.il for a given applied tensile load,
. ° z = °1 , 06 is found to
6' = 90
0
be the largest tensile stress (Figure 7.3.1.1) at (point X).
Since 0e is parallel to the inclusion surf2ce and failure will occur
normal to the applied stress or strain, a crack may be expected to form
at X in the XY plane (Figure 7.3.1.1); i.e., normal to the applied
tensile load, a 1. The value of 01 at which this will occur can be
determined by substituting 06 as a function of °z (01) into the
equation of the cracking criterion. Hence for tho maximum stress theory
°e = K. ••• 3.2.1.1
From Figure 7.3.1.1,
°e = +2.02 0
1 ••• 7.6.2.1
which, when substituted into equation 3.2.1.1, permits an evaluation
of a 1 for initial cracking, or
a = ••• 7.6.2.2
1
Such an analysis, within the severe limitations of the
assumptions, provides an indication of where cracks are likely to
form and at what applied loads. In the notation of Figure 7.1.2.1,
Table 7.6.2.1 summarizes the relationships between the npplied load
that will cause cracking. By assuming an arbitrary 100 units
(i.e., Ie = 100 in equation 7.6.2.2) as a limiting stress or strain,
these relationships may be plotted in the form of initial cracking
envelopes (Figures 7.6.2.1 nnd 7.6.2.2) analogous to the failure
curves of Part I, Figure 3.2.1.1. That the envelopes are linear is a
reflection of tho linear analysis used.
~vi th Table 7.6.2.1 the location of the cracks and their

orientation is easily determined as the crack will form normal to the
critical stress or strain. Table 7.6.2.2 which lists for each state
of stress the point where the crack forms, whether tho crack is tangent
or normal to the inclusion, the plane in which the crack is located,
and the orientation of the crack with respect to tho applied loads.
121
TABLE 7.6.2.1
VALUE OF THE CRITICAL STRESSES i-u"\JD STRAINS ABOUT
AN INCLUSION AS A FUNCTION OF THE APPLI~ LOADS
State of Modulus of Cracking stress Cracking stress

Stress Inclusion ( critical tensile stress) (criticnl tensile strain)
Uninxial o kJ yz * = 0 xz = +2.0201 a
yz
=0
xz
= 2.01 0
1
tension
°a z == a0 1 10.2 x 10
6
Ozz = + 1 ~59 01 G'
zz == 1.4001
y
Ox =0
infinity ° zz :: +1.96° 1
Biaxial o
tension
z
('j == °1
ox =0
2
°y =0
ozz = +1 .6401 - 0.0680 2
Uniaxial
compression
o 0zx = azy = -0.5907-:; °yy =°xx == -0.5 2 2°3
0z = 03 6
ox =0 10.2 x 10 a
yy =G xx = -0.033° 3
(5
yy
= G
xx
= -0.122°3
0y =0
infinity 0
yy = 0 xx = -0.082°3 °yy = °xx = -0.068°3
-
Biaxial
compression
0
°zy = -0.587°3 + 0.065°2 0yy = -0.52~3 - 0.5 22 2 °
= °3 6
(j z 10.2 x 10 0yy = -0.03303 - 0.03302 0yy =-0.12203 - 0.1220 2
Ox = 02
0=0
y
infinity a
yy = -0.08203 - 0.082° 2
(5yy = -0.06803 - 0.0680 2
Biaxial
azx = 0 yx = +2.01 01 - O.44 0
compression
tension
0
°zx = +2.02°1 - 0.587 0 "7
:J B
az = 0
3
ex = 01
oy == 0
infinity 0xx = +1.9 6°1 - 0.082°
3
a xx = +1.64°1 - 0.0680
3
* 0 is the stress at y in the z direction
z
122
FIGURE 7·6·2·1
I Nrl-IAL CRACKING ENVELOPE,
(rnaximum- critical tensile stress )
.................... 'E =0
------ E '= 1q·,2 x 10 6 psi'
_._.-._' E = infinity .
OC
,,= -48 _-- -
+1~:I~ ~
.,..-ij::.-::::::
__
vt / _-~---- .. ,;.. ........... /'
/Y'
-3000' _--::z-o.oo
. A,- ~-o':': I
-
-1000·....
;J;~!
. ' 0
i
~,,/'i;--
' +100
--:--...:oi;;- .
, ) . : ! v"..
, ,
3 'f"'")
Vc
'.
"-.
" .
Vr
2
" -=-24 '. _ c =-3.4
" ,, Ut' at.
,,
,, -1000 -
,,
/' -2000
FIGURE 76·2· 2
I NITIAL CRACKING ENVELOPE
. (maximum critical t,ensile stral n )
~
'. . + °1?J__--,
1
-=-2.4 .. .,../t--~i-'-'-:::'';'::'"''
7:) .••••••••
01
~
..........
..,..
.,.~/.:
/. :" 0
~'.. -20PO ;~(;.:tO~~/ d"- ',+190
'U3 '''.'.'
'.
'y'
.', . "CJC '02
"0 . at =-3.8
1~1000 ·
CJC
ot-=-11.5
, ~2
-2000-- .
123
LOCATION Al'JD ORIENTA.TION OF INITIAL CRf-l.CKS

ABOUT AN INCLUSION IN CEMENT PASTE
Maximum Strain Criterion
Orientation Dia.
State of Tangent or Plane of
Modulus of Location of crack with in
Stress inclusion of crack normal to propaga- respoct to the Fig~
inclusion tion applied loads 7.6.2.3
•.•
Uniaxial Inormal to applied a
tension 0 x,y nornnl xy
tension,O 1
a
z = °1
a :: 0 10.2 x 106 z tnncscnt II xy rt b
y
a 0
x =
infinity z [tangont /1 xy It
b
Biaxio..l
0 x,y normal x:y Normal to c
tension
rn-3.ximum tension,
= a1
°z :: 6
1
° x °2 10.2 x 10 z [tangent II xy " d
°y = 0
infinity z ~angent II xy If d
Uniaxial ,
comprossion 0 x,y ~angent II xz, yz parallel to e
applied com-
O
z
:: 0 pression, °
3 3
ax =0 10.2 x 106 x,y tangent II xz, yz Il e
Oy =0
infinity x,y tangent II xz, yz " e
-
Biaxial
compression
0 y tangent VI xz parallel to f
plane of applied
Oz = °3 loads
= 02 6
Ox 10.2 x 10 y tangent II xz " f
Oy =0
infinity y ftangent VI xz " f
124
TABLE 7.6.2.2 (cont.)
~--------~-----------?---------T----------T-------~--------'----.--~----'-----~--
Orientation Dia.
State of Modulus of Lofcatiokn ~~~:~tt~r Plane of of crack with in
Stress inclusion crac propaga- respect to the Fig.
o inclusion tion
applied loads 7.6.2.3
Biaxial
compressior 0 y,z normal yz normal to applied
tension tension, 0 1 g
az --0 3
ax =0 1 6
10.2 x 10 x tangent II yz " h
a =0
y
infinity x tangent II zy " h
.
Initial Crack Location and Orientation for r1aximum stress Criterion
where Different from Maximum Strain Criterion
Biaxial o normal xy propagates to x, i

y
tension normal to (j 1
Uniaxial
compression
o z normal yz, xz parallel to j
applied com-
pression, a 3
Biaxial
compression o z normal xz in plane of k
applied loads
Biaxial
compression- o z normal zy normal to h
tension applied
tension, a 1
~----------~--------~--------~----------~.~-----~---------------------------
* The syr.1bol I I means "parallel to"

125
The crack location and orientation is shOvln in Figure 7.6.2.3.
Although it might be of interest to extend this analysis

further and examine when failure occurs, the equations of Biezeno
and Grammel are no longer valid after a crack has formed. However,
Griffith has shown that the..; crack will develop high tensile stresses
near its tip and under increasing load will propagate in the
approximate direction to the crack orientation. Hence the orientation
of the crack given in Table 7.6.2.2 and Figure 7.6.2.3 is the likely
mode of failure for the specimen in that state of stress. This is
shown most emphatically by comparing the orientation of the cracks in
the sketches of Figure 7.6.2.3 with the corresponding mode of failure
observed in c)ncrete (Figure 3.1.8.1).
Conclusions
From the information in Section 7.6, the following conclusions

may be made.
a) In Table 7.6.2.2 for any state of stress the general

mode of cracking is similar, regardless of whether the maximum stress
or strain criterion is used, or the Young's modulus of the inclusion.
Hence whether the inclusion be an air void, sand particle, or coarse
aggregate, the same crack orientation may be expected.
b) This over-simplified analysis predicts that if the

criterion of cracking is a limiting tensile stress or strain, cracks
will form normal to the applied tension in uniaxial tension, biaxial
tension, and biaxial tension-compression. Ward (M~J) has shown that
concrete fails normal to the applied tension in uniaxial tension and
Bresler and Pister's (B,P; B,P-1), and McHenry and. Karni's (M,K)
specimens fniled normal to the tensile stress in biaxial tension-
compression. In uniaxial compression the analysis in this Section
predicts cracking pnrallel to the applied tmiaxial compressive load.
Section 3.1.8 indicated that concrete subjected to uniaxial compression
does develop cracks parallel to the applied load. Similarly, in
biaxial compression the analysis of this chapter indicates that the
FIGURE 7·6·2·3
(REFER TO TABLE 76·2·2) 126 .
1NITIAL CRACK LOCATION AND

ORIENTAI-'IC<\~ ABOUT AN INCLUSIO'N
~01 ~01
!
~~ct
'""') vO-j b) c)
a v
I ~
101 ~o:
,~ 3 -0"2 IU3
normal toYi
page
~
iJ
~l02 C)2 I;
i<- -~>
I ~
c
I d) la1
\j e) t u3 f)
A
103
i . y~. G 3 i 0-3 t 01
I II 'V +02
normal to
page
'. <---
01 01
_Ir:;;::;a
0j
<-
I 10;
->
H
I
~ -r
Ig) 1U 3 . h) t U3 i) to;
,
I- U2 ~03
I VU3
normal to
page
'\J U3
Ii .1 0; 01
. rI
<-. .-::;:::=-
, ~
. \ !
l')
1 j) .~\0"3 i
!.fJ t<' "\ 03
I) r03
7.6 127
cracks are most likely to form in n plane parallel to the applied

I02ds, which is also in agreement with the behaviour of concrete
discussed in Section 3.1.8. This is summarised by a comparison of
Figures 7.6.2.3 and 3.1.8.1. It is therefore concluded that oven
such a greatly simplified analysis of an inclusion can at least
provide an explanation for the qu~litative modes of failure in
concrete.
c) For reID. tively hard inclusions, the location of initial

cracking is un,'lffect8d by tho criterion of cracking used. On the
other hand, even though the general crack orientation is the same,
the location of the cracks about an nir void is dependent on the
cracking criterion.
d) All cracks about the harder inclusions are tangent to

th e inclusion a t its surface (Figure 7.6.2.3). Thus all cracks about
a piece of aggregato are likely to be bond failures unless the bond is
stronger' than the paste. As shown by the work at Cornell University;
(H,S,S,W), bond strengths are weak, and initial cracking around sand
particles and aggregates can be expected to be bond failures.
e) Although a crack may have formed in the nnterial, this

does not necessarily mean the specimen will fail shortly thereafter.
In compression, the cracks form p~rallel to the npplied loads and if
they were to propD.gate would tend to split the specimen into columns;
but these arc still capable of supporting the load. This m~y not be
true, however, in tensile stntes of stress, where the cr2ck propagates
normal to tho local tensile stress and will tend to split the specimen
normal to the applied tension. Hence this analysis suggests that a
specimen in tension fails shortly nfter cracking starts, out in
compression.the specimen can still support the load even though the
continuity of the specimen is destroyed.
f) In concrete the compressive strength is greater than

the tensile strength (Section 3.4.3). Similarly, the analysis in this
section has shown that the cracking load in compression is greater than
in tension, tho ratio of the two varying from 3.4 to 48 (Figures 7.6.2.1
and 7.6.2.2). However, as observed in paragraph (e), the cracking
loads in the various states of stress are not necessarily a constant
proportion of the ultimate lond and hence these ratios are not an
indication of the ultimnte load ratios, but are at leRst of the
correct order of magnitude and do account for the greater strength
of concrete in compression thnn tension.
7.7 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Despite the restrictive assumptions upon which the analysis
has been based, the study has emphasized a number of important points.
a) An inclusion in an otherwise homogeneous material subject

to a uniform stress will create n disturbance in this stress field. The
disturbance is such as to create local stress concentrations of twice
the magnitude of the uniform stress.
b) The modulus of elasticity of the inclusion has a

significant effect on the stress distribution, in many cases completely
changing the sign of the stress depending on whether the modulus of the
inclusion is less or greater than the modulus of the surrounding material.
c) The modes of cracking predicted by the analysis for

various states of stress are independent of the modulus of elasticity
of the inclusion and are in excellent agreement with the crack patterns
observed in concrete (Chapter 3).
d) This analysis h3.s shown that by assuming a limiting

stress or strain as Q cracking criterion, qUGlitative agreement is
obtained between the predicted modes of crQcking and the mode of
crCtcking observed in concrete. This suggests th:::tt the assumption
of a limiting tensile stress or str~in is re~sonQble.
e) Cracking strengths were predicted on the basis of this

chapter, but, as was shown, these cannot readily be compared with the
ultimate strength of concrete specimens. However, the analysis did
stipulate a higher compressive strength than tensile strength, which
agrees with Ward's (MW) data on concrete in uniaxial compression and
tension.
129
f) Weiglcr Qnd Becker (W,B) used their analysis of the

strnin distribution about an inclusion to show that the biaxial
compressive strength was grenter than the uniaxial strength. To
explain this phenomenon they concluded that the lateral load decreased
the tensile stress at X. The o.nalysis of this ch~pter supports this,
but \veigler and Becker did not account for the fact tha t the tensile
stress at Y increases with increasing a 2- It is for this reason
that the cracking envelopes of Figures 7.6.2.1 and 7.6.2.2 show 0.
decrease in bic.xial compression cracking strength with :-tn increase

in 02.
g) Neville (AMN-2) observed that the presence of voids was
the largest single factor influencing tho strength of concrete. An
examination of Figures 7.6.2.1 and 7.6.2.2 may indicate why. From
these curves it is evident that the air void (E = 0) creatos the
highest stress concentrations and hence crD.cking will occur around
the air void at lower loads than for a coarse aggregate or sand
particle.
h) The analysis indicated that the maximum stresses occur

at the interface of the inclusion and the matrix and that for
inclusions with a Young's modulus greater than the matrix, cracks will
occur at a tangent to the inclusion (Figure 7.6.2.3). As a result,
bond failures are more likely to occur.
i) Throughout Chapter 7, Griffith's theory has been

mentioned severnl times. There is undoubtedly consider~ble
resemblence between Griffith's theory and the analysis in C~pter 7,

as both consider the stress distribution around flaws or inclusions.
However, the Griffith flo.ws were elliptic.:1l cracks, whereas the
analysis presented in this chapter considered only spherical inclusions
of different moduli. There is also another major difference: Griffith
used an energy criterion to determine when the crack would propagate,
whereas the present analysis uS0d a simpler limiting tensile stress
or strain criterion.
The effect of these differences is significant. The stress
distribution around an inclusion depends on the shQpe of the inclusion
(JCJ; Section 3.9.2). Griffith's elliptical cracks will have higher
stress concentrations than the spherical inclusions used in this
chapter. Glucklich (JG), for example, analysed an elliptical crack
Clnd obtained a stress concentration at its tip 31 times the average
applied stress, whoreas the m2ximum obtained in this analysis was
only 2.02.
However, in contrast to the conclusions of the discussion

of the Griffith thGory in Section 3.9.4, the annlysis in this chapter
has shown that a consideration of spherical inclusions or non-
homogeneities can provide a reasonable explanation for the mode of
cracking observed in concrete.
In conclusion, despite the extensive assumptions upon which

the analysis W1S based, it has been possible to explain a number of
the characteristics of concrete at least in general terms. These could
not be explained if the concrete were assumed homogeneous, which is an
even more sweeping assumption than has been used in this an2lysis.
This chapter supports tho conclusion to Part I that to understand the
behaviour of concrete it must be considered as non-homogeneous.
8.1 131
CHAPTER 8
A STRUCTURAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE INTERACTION
OF COARSE AGGREGATE PARTICLES IN CONCRETE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.1.1 Introduction
The analysis in the previous chapter was so simplified that it

did not physically simulate the structure of concrete with its innumerable
inclusions. This is a serious limitation for, as was shown in Sectio~
7.2.2, the presence of an inclusion is reflected to a distance of at

least twice its radius. Yet in concrete, the coarse aggregate is often
only separated by thin layers of cement. Hence the inclusions
undoubtedly interact.
At the other extreme, concrete could conceivably be analysed

in its true non-homogeneous, anisotropic, non-elastic form. Such an
analysis would, however, be exceptionally difficult. Therefore a more
idealized approach is required, yet one that will permit a s~udy of the
interactions of the particles.
A possible approach is to express the actual structure of

concrete in terms of an idealized model, which could consist of numerous
inclusions embedded in a soft matrix. If the model were properly designed,
it might be used to simulate the behaviour of concrete. Such a model
will be studied in this chap~er, one designed to consider the interactions
of the particles, and its behaviour under load will be comp9.red to that
of concrete.
8.1.2 The Model
It is therefore necessary to use a model that will adequately

represent the structure of an idealized concrete consisting of hard
particles in a soft matrix. A concept compatible with this was originally
proposed for the structure of cemGnt paste or concrete by Reinius (ER;
ER-1) and recently modified by Roy and Sozen (R,S) of the University of
Illinois. Baker CALLE) has criticized these models for neglecting the
higher load-carrying capacity of the stiffer aggregate structure (thrust
8.1 132
ring effect, to be explained lQter) and in turn proposed a model to

~ccount for this. Baker's model has been studiod by Anson (Hi\.) and
used by Dougill (JWD) to study the behaviour of thermal and shrinkage
stressos. It is this model proposed by R:..ker, which in its two-
dimensi~;nal form consists of four, equ~l sized balls of aggresate in
a diamond pattern interconnected by pin-jointed mortc..r rods
(Figure 8.2.1.3), which forms the found~tion for the ~nnlysis of
this chapter.
8 .. 1.3 Justification for the Use of n Nodel
It is evident that such a pin;..;jointed -model does not

represent the true structure of concrete. However, the usc of such
a model , within the limitations ()f its assumptions, can simula to the
behaviour of concrete and extend the conclusions of Chapter 7. Moreover,
there are other reasons to justify the use of a model.
a) Models are often used to simulate complex structures such

as arch dnms and indeterminate spnce frames.
b) Baker (ALLB) and Anson (~l) have found that such a

model can be used to explain many of the properties of concrete,
including vertical cracking and cone-shaped failures due to platen
effects (Section 3.1.8).
c) Brandtzaeg, in contrast to R~ker's structural model, has

used an interparticle model (Section 4.4) to explain certain aspects
of the failure of concrete.
d) J. Dougill Qf Imperial College, during a personal discussion

with the author, showed how his intorpret~tion of Baker's model c~n be
expressed in the form
) + K2 (01 + ..... +03) :S; A,
0;:>
• •• 8 ,1. 3 .1
where K , K , ~, Qnd A nre constants. This equation is in
1 2
effect the sum of the deviatoric and volumetric stresses and is therefore
similar in form to the equation suggested ~s a failure criterion in
Section 3.10. Hence the model approach is compatible with the conclusions
of Part I.
8.2 133
However, a model is limited by its basic assumptions and it

is only through careful development and by comparison with actunl data
that a model can be used to give :1 simplified explanation of the
mechanism cGusing the observed behaviour.
8.1.4 Objective
It is the objective of Chapter 8 to extend Baker's model to

represent a more complex and hence closor approximation to the non-
homogeneous structure of concrete than was used in Chnpter 7.
This \vill be accomplished by;
a) using the model as proposed by Baker, but in its more

general three-dimensional form (MA);
b) interpreting the model so that it depends on the basic

parameters of concrete such as tho mix proportions;
c) analysin~ the model on Q mathematical basis using stiffnoss

coefficients and programming a computer to simulate its behaviour; and
d) studying the behaviour of the model both qualitatively and

quantitatively in the light of the actual behaviour of concrete.
If the model is developed successfully and can be shown to

predict at least some of the phenomenolo~ical behaviour of concrete
then it may serve as a simplified explanation of how the macroscopic
structure of concrete reacts to applied loads.
8.2 BASIC ASSUMPSIONS
8.2.1 The Model Structure
The simplified structure of the model is the basic assumption.

Let us consider a freshly mixed concrete made with a uniform-sized
coarse aggregate. During vibration of the mix, the nggregntes will
tend to settle in the mortar, wedging themselves between lower stones
in an arr~ngement analogous to a pile of cannon balls (Figure 8.2.1.1a).
It is for this reason that Baker's model is prefero..blo to the squnre
model proposed by Roy and Sozen (R,S) (FiGure 8.2.1_1b).
FIGURE 8·2·1·1
&&&&&o~O&
00000000
88888888
00000000
134
(a) (b)
Idealized Packihg , . Ideal i zed Pacl<.i ng
Used by Baker Used by Roy & Sozen
1- ~,~
Ii
~
_I
, I
'Forces in IVlodel Stones I nterconn eel ed

by Mortar Colurnns
. FIGURE 8-2.1-4 i- FIGURE 8·2·1·.5
p ~ Two Dimensional
Pin-Jointed Moder
....... -......... '
I " A" \
" ' I\ ~\, ,
, / /\". .
,/'I
/', I,' \,
'///;:' i/-!- <f ~~,', '
, --<./ / /I \
'cr' I""
I "">---..,
/ ," / I I' ' , , " "
<
I B~'
/\-I--+-'-T-~ ~(" \
. "~-.>--'-:.::::::
I ~ I '\'
. C I\
\ '~ ~, "
---1--'-----/\ I
, '.~ I ! 1 / .'
' - '......
-/, " !, I / , / ......, _/
' , " 1 ,~\ / ,
/ /~ .
......): ;-
""
, ......"" h- ij-.{ /.
...... ~ ";,,, d'J /
" ......
"~NY'
~. ~ ./' " Restraint Effect at the
I U I Aggregate-Mortar I nterfac e
,
\ '- D
-_/ /
I
8.2 135
Examining Figure 8.2.1.1a in more detail (Figure 8.2.1.2),
Baker noted that because the coarse aggregate particles had a higher
Young's modulus than the mortar (in Chapter 7 the ratio of the moduli
of the aggregate to the mortar was assumed to be 4 to 1), the stress
distribution would not be even throughout the specimen. Dantu's
(PD-1; PD-2) data confirm this. As a result, the paths ABb and ACD
(Figure 8.2.1.2) share part of the load P with AD. As the stiffness of
ABD and ACD increases in comparison with AD, they will assume a larger
portion of the applied load P. This is referred to as the thrust ring
effect and was mentioned in Section 8.1.2. Anson (MA) has shown that
the thrust ring does, in fact, exist.
For equilibrium of the forces in Figure 8.2.1.2, a tension

stress must occur between Band C.
It is thus possible to approximate the structure in Figure

8.2.1.2 by a system of hard particles interconnected by softer mortar
columns as shown in Figure 8.2.1.3. To be in equilibrium with a
compressive force P all the members of the structure vlill be in
compression except BC. Baker assumes that the tensile stress in BC
is essential and when the tensile strength of BC is exceeded, the
member fails by cracking parallel to the applied compressive load P.
The structure of the lattico is then destroyed, and the load is carried
by the column structure AD.
To simplify the analysis, it is further assumed that each of

the columns is pin-jointed at the centre of the aggregate balls
(Figure 8.2.1.4). Thus the model comprises a series of pin-jointed
struts, which represent the structure of the concrete. The
characteristics of the struts are obtained from the properties of
the mortar and the aggregate.
That the struts are pin-jQinted is a major assumption for

which there is little justificRtion except to simplify the analysis.
As Figure 8.2.1.5 shows, the strain distribution at the aggregate-
mortar interface is likely to be complex. In fact, due to friction
ana be~ at the interface, the mortar is in a state of triaxial compresion
(MA). Bending moments may also occur. However, there is no way of
8.3 136
estimatin~ these additional forces and so the struts are assumed to

be pin-jointed to maintain a simple model and emphasize the macroscopic
structural behaviour of the thrust ring.
This is the model nssumGd by Baker; Anson (~\), in a series

of experiments with preplnced aggregates and rubber models containinG
harder rubber inclusions, studied the intern~l strains in the model.
Anson not only showed that the thrust ring does exist, he also extended
the model to three dimensions (Figure 8.2.1.6). However, his subsequent
analysis was primarily of a qualitative nature. Anson concluded that
futuro work should extend the theory through a quantitative analysis.
On this basis, a quantitative analy,sis is presented in this chapter.
8.2.2 Other Major Assumptions
a) The cement and aggregate phases are initially bonded.
b) Each phase when considered individually is elastic but

not necessarily linear elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic.
c) The struts may fail in tension; the criterion of failure

is Q limiting tensile strain in the mortar or at the mortar Qggregate
interface. The justification for such a criterion was given in
Section 7.6.2. Moreover, the conclusions to both Section 3.3 and
Chapter 7 have sho~1 that it permits a good qualitative comparison
between theory and the behaviour of concrete. As a result its use
will be continued in this chapter.
8.3 THE ANALYSIS
8.3.1 Introduction
Using the structure proposed by Baker as a found2tion, this

author h(ls built the followinG nn3.lysis to simUlate m'J.themntically the
behaviour of concrete. The .::tnnlysis hGls been kept in 3. general form,
so that if in the future the analysis is extonded tc other load
conditions the basic work need not be repeated.
8.3 137
The AnQlysis of the Indetermin~te Structure
Considering the indeterminate frnme of Figure 8.2.1.6, the

structure m~y be analysed by either the flexibility or stiffness
method (JliLH). The use of flexibility techniques would require solving
only three simultaneous equo.. tions \l/hereCls D. stiffness Ctn:llysis
necessitates s::.lving fifteen equo.tions. Yet stiffness coefficients
have the adv8.ntage thCtt they mo..y bo added o..nd, since it will be
necessary to :c:lter the stiffness of the members during computCltion
(non-line::.r Young t s r;10dulus), the stiffness method is simpler and
Vlill provide tJ. cle:lrer picture of the interQctions between the hnrd
and soft constituents.
To derive the 15 equntions for a stiffness nn~_lysis let us

consider the pin-jointed structure in Figure 8.3.2.1. The elongntion
of member AB in its new position A'B' is
= •.. 8.3.2.1
Yet P, the stiffness coefficient, is
P =
( L )
(AE) fiB
J-i.
... 8.3.2.2
where L is the length of member AB, :lnd f.
.Ii. and E are its area
and Young's modulus repsectively, and hence the force in AB is
dAB
= = cos €}
PAB AB
•••
At each joint there are five pin-ended members which must be in
equilibrium with the applied lO2.d at that joint, or
Wi + L!ijcos 8 ij = 0,
i j
where the unknowns nrc: tho deflections in F ..•
lJ
If joint Q (Figure 8.2.1.6) is now assumed to be the axis
contre and fixed, then five joints are able to move in any of three
directions. Thus there nrc fifteen urucnown deflections, but from
FIGURE 8·2·1·6
138
THREE DlIViEI\lSIONAL
PI N-JOINTED MODEL.
·,~rW1
,1
V
~~2~
h '
II \)FW3
o. f' P
. "~ :.j/1
J./ ~
~O/
[V] ~
,~-=--,:"""""""r--~----'-""
~
"1 \ ;~\i Y
,-W3 \, I //-:1
~\~ .
Q''3--__ .
--~v
f,~-W1 ' A
"0 ,
DEFINITION OF .TERfvlS
USED TO DESCRIBE MODEL
LETTERS CODE DESCRIP-I COMPUTER
DESCRIPTION IN FIGURE TION USED FOR' CODE
8·2·1·6 DISCUSSION
.
centre diagonal (X axis) . RS C2"" 1
" (y " )
II
MP C3 4
II 11
(Z II
) NQ C 1 0
diagonal (XY plane) RP , D23 5
II II II
, .. ~
PS ' D23 5
II II
" S l\~ D23 5
II II
" N1R D23 5
diagonal' (YZ plane) NP D13 3
II 11 II
PO D 13 3
II II II
OM D13 3
11 II II
MN D13 3
diagonal (XZ plane) NS 012 2
" II 11
SO D12 2
II II II
'OR 012 2
II ' II
" RN 012 2
'-;;'C2 means Centre member' in VV2 direction
139
. F-IGURE 8·3·2·1
DEFLECTJON OF A -TYPICAL MEMBER
i
I ., -
.________________~~
I~
Cfl"omJALM)
140
equation 8.3.2.4 there ~re fifteen simult~neous equations relating

the loads and the deflections of the members. This mc.y b0 written
in matrix ~lgGbra 11S
= .~. 8.3.2.5
where [1/~ is a 15 x 15 stiffness matrix, [!J ] the deflections

of the nodes, and [w J the applied lo~ds Q t the nodos. The c1eriva tion
of equation 8.3.2.5 is straightforwnrd, o..lthough tedious, o..nd hence is
not shown. Equation 8.3.2.5 is given in Table 8.}.2.1 where during the
derivations it was assumed tho..t PRN = PNR' etc.; that is, the
members are symmetrical 2.bcut their t1id-Iength. s
This is n re~n.able
assumption since the balls of aGgregate hnve the same diameter.
If the stiffnesses are known, this matrix equation may be

solved for the deflections of each member for any givon set of applied
loads. FroQ this the stresses and strains in each member o..s well as
in the entire model mo.y be computed.
Symmetry of the Hodel
To nuke the analysis comprehensive, equ::t tion 8.3.2.5 has been

kept in its most genero..l form. Fortunately, for the requirements of
this thesis it is not necesso..ry to solve fifteen simultaneous equations
beco..use they m:::ty be reduced to three from considerations of symmetry.
Since the theory will be used entirely for pure sto.tes of

unio..xinl o..nd bio..xial compression, it is only necessr.!.ry to consider
applied lo~ds W1 ' and \1 in Table 8.3.2.1; the remaining
3
lOQds will be zero. Moreover, the model itself has three .planes of
symmetry, consisting of three 4-member diamonds (Figure 8.2.1.4) with
two cross tics ench. For any individual di~mond 0.11 the members must
ho..ve tho snme stiffneSS, hence
P RN = P RQ = P
SQ = P
SN = P2
P = = P = P = P3
MN P HQ PQ PN 8.3.3.1
•••
P RP = P ::= P = P ::= P
RM MS SP 5
(for definition of numerical subscripts refer to Figure 8.2.1.6).
J'
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
. J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
TABLE 8·3·2·1 (Cant.) 142
..
- r
0 +Srp .+Srp 0 +Srri 0 . +Srn Arx =+W2
0 +Srp·. +Srp 0 ·0 0 0 D. ry Wry
0 0 0 0 +Srn 0 +Srn ~ rz wri
0 0 '·0 0 0 0 0 D.m
..
0 0 +2$mp 0 0 .. Smn +Smn D.m +W3
0 '0 0 0 0 +Smn +Smn ~ mz Wm

.... .',~
Ssn-Ssq +Ssp -ssp 0 +ssh 0 -Ssn ~ sx -W2'
0 . -ssp +Ssp 0 0 0 0 D. 5y W5Y
-Ssn-Ssq 0 0 0 :..Ssn 0 +Ssn ~ 5Z Wsz

,',,..,,,.
..
0 -Srp-Ssp Ssp-Srp O. 0 0 0 1:::. px Wpx
.
0- Ssp-Srp D Spn-Spq' ·0 +Spn -Spn ~ py -W3
0 0 Spn-Spq ... S~r},·SPC1 0 , ... Spn +Spn ~ pz: Wpz

.....
.-Ssn '0.: 0 0 -Srn-Ssn 0 Ssn-Srn I::::.. nx Wnx
0 0 't Spn -Spn 0 -Smn-Spn Spn-Smn ~ ny Wny
+Ssn 0 -Spn '+Spn Ssn-Srn Spn-Smn E ~ nz -W1

,
D= -2Sm p -S pn-Sr p-s pq -S5 P
,E= - 2Snq -:-Srn-srnn -Spn -Ssn
- I
-- .' I
These in turn infer symmetry of some of the jeflections. For example,
at Node N the stiffnesses in the X direction nre equo.l and hence
.0. NX = 0 Clnd .0. NY = O. By similar re['.soning,
.0. NX = 6 NY = 6 RY = 6 SY = .0. PX = .0. MX = 0
6 RX = -6SX
6 MY = -~Y
... 8.3.3.2
6 RZ = .0.SZ = 6 MZ = 6 PZ = ~~'JZ = 6
Z
Therefore by substituting equations 8.3.3.1 and 8.3.3.2 into
equation 8.3.2.5 nnd by considering only W' and the last
1
equation reduces to
(..£. + -1 1
+-) ..1 J.. .0. sx ~V2
P1 P2 P P5 P2 =
5
1 (..s.P + -P1 1
+-)
P
1
P3
6 py W3
"5 4 5 3
1 1 2 1 1 6 W
(- + - +-) Z 1
P P Po P2 P
2 3 3
.. ~
After the deflections have been determined from the nbove equations,
the forces in each member may be computed by
F = 2~ =
26
SX
o
b ~
1 1
= 1'21> 2 (6 Z +.0. SX) = ffp3 ~ Z + .0. PY )
1
= = ffP5 (6py +.0. sx)
••• 8.3.3.4
when the forces nre known, it is possible to calculate the stresses and
strains for each member as well as the over:tll stress and strnin, from
which the Poisson's ratio and modulus of elnsticity of the model m~y be
computed. The last two values can be compared with those measured in
concrete.
8.4 144
8.4 MEMBER STIFFNESSES
8.4.1 General Consider~tions
To obtain the deflections of each member, a knowlGdge of the

individual stiffnesses is required. Since the stiffness of each
member is
EA ••• 8.3.2.2
L
these three factors, the length, the ['.reCl, and the Young's modulus,
are required for each of the stiffnesses in equation 8.3.3.3.
This CQn be simplified by a more detailed examination of an
individunl member. In the actual model ono of these members would
consist of two rods of aggres:::tte separated by 'J. rod of morto..r as shown
in Figures 8.4.1.1 and 8.2.1.4. ~ch portion (segment) of the member'
has n ch3..Y:tctoristic length, aren, and modulus of el:::tsticity. To salvo
equntion 8.3.3.3 for tho deflections in the model, vGlues for 83ch of
these quantities must be determined, the stiffness of ench segment
added, and the total stiffness of the member used.
8.4.2 Area of the Aggregate Sogment, An
A particular piece of aggregate in the model will be subjected

0
to forces from mortar segments at five locations (four at 45 and one
parallel to the X, Y, or Z :J.xis). Thus the actual surface area of the
aggregate subtended by 3. member is difficult to determine. Conceivably
it could vary from near zero to half the surfnce of the stone. It is
also likely th2t the mortnr mombors may overlnp near the piece of
aggrego.te. Thus at this sta3G in the analysis no value can be set
for the interface arGo. between mortctr and a8sreg.:l..te.
8.4.3 Area of Hortar Segment, Am
For a member in tension, Ghnpter 7 showed that tho mDst likely

location for the failure of one of these members is nt the cement-aggregate
bond. Hence for this case
Am = An • ••• 8.4.3.1
.. FIG,URE 8'·4·1·1
...
-.
',
'I
I
__p~~~ggr_ega.te ~ort.ar ~ggr~gat~ . P . _,__
.A.aJEa AmJ Em Aa, Ea 'pin-joint'
I II . . .... ,I
f' lf- +-Im , 1f -~i
TYPICAL MEMBER' OF THE. MODEL
~
(J1
146
On the other hand, if the member is in compression the bond

strength is less critical. Nevertheless, the maximum stress
concentrations can be expected at the interface and equation 8.4.3.1
will still be valid. However, it is conceivable that owing to the
complex state of compressive stress at an interface (Figure 8.2.1.5),
the failure of the mortar would not originate here but in a more
central location in the mortar segment. In the centre, ~~m could
be as large as
.... 8.4.3.2
As the load or stress will tend to spread in the mortar matrix,

the longer members (0, 1, and 4) may be expect'2d to have larger areas
than the shorter members (2, 3, and 5). Hence the area of the longer
members will be equal to
x'Aa, ••• 8.4.3.3

where x' is a constant.
8 .. 4.4 Modulus of Elasticity of the Segments, Ea and Em
The modulus of elasticity of the piece of aggregate, Ea, is

a physical property and can be measured. For the aggregate used
throughout this thesis Ea = 10.2 x 106 psi.
Similarly, the modulus of the mortar, Em, can also be measured

in a uniaxial compressive test on a mortar specimen. However, this
value is likely to be non-linear for one or more of three possible
reasons:
a) -creep of the mortar phase,
b) the failure of "minute models il in the structure of the

mortar and/or cement paste, and
c) changes in the modulus of the mortar caused by restraint

at the aggregate-mortar bond as shown in Figure 8.2.1.5. Anson (MA)
has observed such a restraining effect. However, its influence on the
modulus of the cement segment is unknown.
8.4 147
As an approximation to any non-linearity which may occur in the

mortar matrix when it is subjected to increasing loads, Em is expressed
Em = K + f(a), ••• 8.4.4.1

,,,,here K is a constant and a- the stress in the segment. The function
may be either negative or positive; a negative value decreases the
stiffness of the member and a positive value increases it.
8.4.5 Lengths of the Segments, La and Lm
Since tho member connects the centre of onc aggregate to the

centre of another, than La/2 must be equal to the radius of the
aggregate (Figure 8.4.1.1). As the coarse aggregate has been assumed
to have a uniform size (Section 8.2.1), La will be a constant for all
members.
The length of the portion which is mortar (Lm) is the clear

distance between the pieces of aggregate. For the three centre members
of the model (members 0, 1, and 4) the mortar segments will be longer
than for the remainder of the members.
Therefore let Lm re~resent the length of the mortar segment

in the shorter members 2, 3, ~nd 5. From the geometry of the model,
the length of the mortar segment Lim in members 0, 1, and 4 must be
Lim 1 .414 Lm + 0.414 La l
•••
Hence the overall lengths are:
a) members 2, 3, and 5: Lm + Laj and
b) members 0, 1, and 4: yT(Lm + La). ••• 8.4.5.2

8.4.6 Overall Member Stiffnessos
Since tho total stiffness of a member is equal to the sum of

its individual stiffnesses, for members 2, 3, and 5
L La Lim
EA: = - - +EmAm
EaAa - - •• t 8.4.6.1
and for members 0, 1, and 4
L la Lim
EA = -+~~~-
Ea.Aa x t AaEm •
••• 8.4.6.2
8.5 148
Of the values on the right-hand side of equations 8.4.6.1 and 8.4.6.2,

la, E:., and Em are known or are measurable, Am is assumed equal
to Aa for all cases, leaving x', Aa, and Lm as unknown quantities.
As will be shown in tho next section, Lm is related to the

mix proportions. There is, however, no way to determine Xl and Aa.
Instead they must be considered as arbitrary constants and the effect
of their variation determined.
Hence by assuming suitable values for x' and Aa, the

stiffnesses of an~ member may be calculated and equations 8.3.3.3 and
8.3.3.4 solved for any given set of loads.
8.5 RELATIONSHIP OF MODEL TO MIX DESIGN
8.5.1 Introduction
In the previous section it was shown that La, Ea, and Em

were measurable properties and that Lm could be related to the mix
proportions. This section will determine this relationship. The
equations derived will be in the form of ratios in order to avoid
using absolute quantities of the in~rodients of the actual concrete.
8.5.2 1m as a Function of the Mix Parameters
Since La is fixed by the aggregate size, Lm will determine

the physical dimensions of the model. Hence the volume that the model
occupies can be calculated as a function of Lm or
model volume = ~CLa + Lm~.3 ••• 8.5.2.1

The aggregate volume, considering parts of aggregates from adjacent
models, is
0.667it 1a3 , ••• 8.5.2.2
and from this tho aggregate-mortar ratio for the model is
=-----~~-
0.667 itLa3
••• 8.5.2.3
(t2CLa + Lm~ 3 - o.6671t La3 •
This in turn mn.y be equated to the aggregate to mortar ratio
of the concrete. Since the mix parameters are known, the only unknown
8.6
in such an equation will be Lm, which may be expressed as
Lm=La. [ 12
. 1 [23 B'
TI: (' (1+E') + m(1+Er) + Ds(1+E') +
c'
~ .+
1TI =~ 6
2.65
where ••• 8.502 e 4
B' = water-cement ratio by weight
C' = coarse aggregate-cement ratio by weight
D' = sand-cement ratio by weight
E' = air voids by per cent volume.
The coarse aggregate and sand have a density of 2.65 while the cement
has a density of 3.15 of coarse, other values can be used for different
aggregates or cements.
However, it is emphasized that this equation determines only

the physical dimensions of the model, not its chemical or strength
properties. Thus a variation in the water-cement ratio will alter
Lm, but will also alter the intrinsic strength of the mortar phase.
Equation 8.5.2.4 does not account for the latter variation, rather,
such a change in strength is reflected in the limiting tensile strain
criterion and equation 8.4.4.1
8.6 THE MODEL, ITS USE AND ITS MACROSCOPIC BEHAVIOUR
8.6.1 Analysing the Model
To use the model, the equations are solved in nearly the reverse
of the order in which the:y he,ve been presented during the previous
discussion. The procedure is outlined below.
a) with the mix parameters and the coarse aggregate diameter

known, equation 8.5.2.4 is used to compute Lm. Once Lm has been
determined, the size of the model is known.
b) The values of 1m, La, Em, and Ea., which are now known
or are measurable, and the assumed values for Xl and Aaare substituted
into equations 8.4.6.1 and 8.4.6.2 to determine the member stiffnesses.
8.6 150
There are two variations to the calculations in (b). The

first is to the area Aa, which depends on a central angle and the
aggregate radius. Since the aggregate radius may vary from one mix
to the next, it is more convenient to use the central angle as the
unknown constant from which the are.:} Aa is computed for any aggregate
size. Secondly, it may be desirable to consider Em as non-linear.
If so, the simplest form of equation 8.4.4.1 is
Em 0 = Em + xO , ••• 8.6.1.1
where Ema is the modulus of elasticity of the mortar segment at any
stress a in the members and x is a constant determined, at least for
uniaxial states of stress (Chapter 18 will Dodify this for other states
of stress), from tests on the mortar.
c) The values for the stiffness of each member are substituted

into equation 8.3.3.3 and hence for any loading conditions the deflections
of the model may be obtained.
d) From equations 8.3.3.4, the forces and hence the stresses

and strains for each member may be calculated. If equation 8.6.1.1 is
used, an iteration technique is required. Convergence of the results
is rapid.
e) From the member stresses and strains, the overall model

strains may be calculatod, as well as Poisson's ratio and the modulus
of elasticity of the entire model. These values are analogous to those
measured in concrete.
8.6.2 The Macroscopic Behaviour of the Model Under Load
To study the model' s behavi·o~r under increasing loads,

equation 8.3.3.3 is solved for higher and higher load stages. With
the exception of triaxial compression, certain members will be in
tension; the m:lgnitude of the tensile stress also increases with
increasing load. If, as in Chapter 7, a limiting tensile strain .
criterion is used (Section 8.2.2), then at a certain load stage the
member will exceed the limit and fail at the aggregate-mortar inter-
fnce (Chapter 7). After failure, the modulus of elasticity of the
8.7 151
mortar segment and hence of the entire member (equations .8.4.6.1 and
8.4.6.2) becomes zero. Thus the member can no longer transmit any
load, which is therefore transferred to other members.
Such a redistribution of load is automatically performed by

equation 8.3.3.3. Since the stiffnesses are additive (this is a
primary reason for using tho stiffness approach, Soction 8:3.2), the
stiffness coefficients of the failed member in equation 8.3.3.3 need
only be set to zero and tho equation will analyse the model, neglecting
the failed member.
The loads may then be Dlrther increased until other members

fail and the model becomes a mechanism.
CONPUTER PROGRAMME
Reason for Including Programme
The calculation procedures outlined in Section 8.6 are lengthy,

especially if equation 8.6.1.1 is used and it is necessary to iterate
through equation 8.3.3.3. Therefore a computer programme was written to
perform this analysis.
Although it has not been the policy of this thesis to include

programmes (three were used in Chapter 3), this particular programme
is complex and required seventeen modifications during its development.
Therefore for future application the programme must be included.
The Computer Programme
The programme is written in Hercury Autocode (Hl\.M) or CHLF/3

(CHLF/3) and can be used on the Atlas computer. The programme shown
below is in two computer 'Chapters' with chapter 0 logically preceeding
Chapter 1. However, actual computer operation requires chapter 1 first.
The inputs, with the exception of the loads, are at the beginning
of the programme. Their meaning and the equivalent thesis notation are
shown on the print out (Table 8.7.2.1). This explains some of the
unusual notation used in the above derivations. In the above discussion
the following four inputs were not explained.
8.7 152
TABLE 8.7.2.1
COMPUTER PROGRAMME TO ANALYZE MODEL
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON COMPUTER UNIT ROUTINE 905 REQUIRED
WRITTEN IN ACCORDANCE WITH (CHLF/3)
CHAPTERo
VARLlBLES1
HALT
JUMP25
0)1071,0,0,0
25) NEWLINE
NE\rJLINE
N=3 rParameter for Routine 905

READ(A) I Critical Tensile Strain
READ (Hn) Critical Compressive Strain
READ(B) AG8regate di;meter (Ia)
READ(D) Angle subtendin3 Aa
READ(E)
~
Young's Modulus of mortar (Em)
READ(F) Y. oung' s modulus of the aggreGate (E:'l)
'" inputs
i
READ(Q) (See Chapter 18)
READ(X) Factor in equation 8.6.1.1
READ(Y) Iteration error
READ(Xn) Area corrections for C1, C2, and C3
RE.i'lD(Bn) water_cement ratio
READ(Cn)
READ (Dn)
READ(En)
Fn=En+1
Dn=0.37736Dn
lCoarse aggregate-cement r~tio
Sand-cement ratio
Air void content
Cn=0.37736Cn
Gn=¢DIVIDE(BnF'nTDnFn+o.31847Fn+CnE'n,Cn) Step (a), Section 8.6.1
Gn=Gn+1 computes 1m from mix
Gn=o.66666666667£Gn !parameters, equation 8.5.2.4
Gn=¢LOG(Gn)
Gn=o.3333333333Gn
Gn=¢EXP(Gn)
C=0.707107GnB-B?
H=B+C
u=1.414214c+o.414214B
w=1.414214H Step (b), Section 8.6.1
Z=¢COS(D£/180) computes member length
Z=1-Z and urea.
D=0.5£BBZ?
Xn=XnD J
8.7 153
TABLE 8.7.2.1 (Cont.)
1=0(1)5
EI=E
VI=EI Step (b)
REPEAT sets member Young's
G=1/H modulus
Z=1/W J
9) NEWLINE
CAPTION
itPPLIED LOADS W2 W3 W1 Step (c) reads in
NE\vLINE applied loads, and prints
1=0(1)2 thorn on output
READ(UI)
PRINT(UI)01 4
REPEII.T
1)Xo=¢DIV1DE(FVoW,VoB+FU)
X1=¢D1V1DE(FV1W,V1B+FU)
X2=0DIVIDE(FV2H,V2B+FC) Step (b) computew Young's
X3=0D1VIDE(FV3H,V3B+FC) modulus of each member
x4=0D1V1DE(FV4I.rJ, V4B+FU)
X5=0DIVIDE(FV5H,V5B+FC)
Fo=XoZXn -1
F1=X1ZXn Step (b) computes member
F2=X2GD stiffness (equation 8.4.6.1
F3=X3GD
F4=x4zXn
F5=X5GD
1=0(1)2
J or 8.4.6.2)
B1=U1
REPEAT
Ao=2F1+F2+F5
A1=F5
1
A2=F2 Step (c) forms matrix
li.3=2F4+F5+F3 equ~tion 8.3.3.3
A4=F3
A5=2Fo+F2+F3
JUMPDOWN(R905) Step (c) solves
J
_. equation 8.3.3.3
8.7 154
Ho=¢DIV1DE(2FoB2,Xn)
H1=¢DIVIDE(2F1Bo,Xn) Step (d) computes stress
H2=¢DIVIDE(0.707107 F2B2+0.707107F2Bo,D) in each member,
H3=¢DIVIDE(0.707107F3B2+0.707107F3B1,D) equation 8.3.3.4
H4=¢DIVIDE(2F4B1,Xn)
H5=¢DIVIDE(o.707107F5B1+0.7o7107F5Bo,D)
K=o Stops (b) and (d)

Zn=X iteration process if
Zin=¢HOD(Zn) equation 8.6.1.1 is used
JUMP6, 0.01 >Zn
1-0(1)5
Yn=VI
Yn=¢MOD(Yn)
JUHP5 , 0 .01.>0Yn
GI=¢HOD(HI)
JUMP26,I=0 Separates centre members
JUHP26,I=1
JUHP26,I=4
WI=EI +XGI
J
J
(see Chapter 18)
Equation 8.6.1.1
JUMP27
26)WI;::EI
JUHP5,Q=O
Yn=X/Q
WI=EI+YnGI
1
27)JUMP18, WI>o Stops analysis if
NE\VLINE Young's modulus is
CAPTION reduced to zero by
E=o, FAILED J equation 8.6.1.1
JUMP17
18)v=¢D1VIDE(WI-V1,VI) Checks error of con-
V=¢HOD(V) vergence, if too large
JUHP4, V>Y computer resolves matrix
JUHP5 using new Em values
4)K=1
5)REPEAT
JUHP6,K=0
1=0(1)5
V1=W1
REPE.3..T
JUMP1
6)ACROSS11/1
17 )READ(H)
JUMP17
8.7. 155
T.\.BLE 8.7.2.1 (Cont.)
END
¢COS
¢LOG
¢EXP
CLOSE
***T
TITLE
LATTICE THEORY ANALYSIS G ROBINSON U-797
CHiiPTER1
J~I.+5
B·,.2
U~
E'!o-5
F ..··5
G~5
H~5
V..,.5
W~5
X""'5
y.~
C~5
D·-:-2
Z-"">:5
l
11)S=0
1=0(1)5
Yn=VI
Yn=¢JvIOD(Yn) checks if critical strain
JUMP8, o. 01>Yn has been ~xceeded; if so,
YI=¢DIVIDE(HI,VI) sets Young's modulus to zero
JUl'1P8 ,A';" YI
VI=o
EI=o
vJI=o
YI=o
NE~vLINE
J
-, If a member fails in
CAPTION tension, number of momber
CRITICAL STRAIN, TENS ION F. :~I1URE is printed on output and
NEVJLINE computer resolvos matrix
PRINT(I)1,0 to redistribute the stress
S=1 in the model
8)REPE.'.T
JUMP14,S=0
ACROSS1/0
8.7 156
~step
14) NElrJLINE
CAPTION
JVIORTAR E, STRESS, STRAIN
NEvJLINE (d) prints out value
1=0(1)5 of Emo (equation 8.6.1.1)
NE\VLINE nnd th0 stress nnd strain
PRINT(VI)0,4 in e2ch mortar segment
PRINT(HI)0,4
PRIN'r( YI) 0,4
REPEAT
NE~ILINE
CAPTION
MEMBER E,
NEWLINE
STIFFNESS, STRI~IN l I!
1=0(1)5
NEWLINE
PRINT(XI)o,4 Istep (d) prints out the
PRINT(FI)0,4 YounG's modulus, stiffness,
ZI=XI and strain in each member
ZI=¢IvIOD(ZI)
JUMP10, .001~ZI
HI=HI/XI
PRINT(HI)0,4
JUMP12 I
10)620,27
620,6 I
620,0
12) REPEAT j
NEtvLI:NE
CAPTION
APPLIED STRESSES, DEFLECTIONS, OVE~lLL E,
OVERALL STRAINS
NE\VLINE
1=0(1)2 Stop (0) prints out
NE~VLINE applied stress, deflection,
DI=GGUI Young's modulus and overall
PRINT(DI)0,4 strains for model as a whole
BI=2BI
PRINT(BI)o, ~.
ZI=BIZ
DI=DI/ZI
PRINT(DI)0,4
PRINT(ZI)0,4
REPEAT J
8.7 157
Do=Bo/B2
D1=B1/B2
D2=B1/Bo
NEWLINE
C.L"l.PTION
POISSONS RATIO X/Z, y/Z Y/X Step (e) prints out
NElrlLINE Poisson's ratio
1=0(1)2
PRINT(DI)0,4
REPEAT
NEll/LINE
CAPTION
VOLUIvIE CHANGES DV/V , Vn-V
NEWLINE J
Un=o • 1666667ttJiiVW
Vn=o .5WW+o. 5B1 W+o .5Botv+o .5B1 Bo
Vn=o •3333333Vntv+o .3333333VnB2
h'n=Vn-Un
Vn=Wn/Un
l Step (e) prints out
Ivolume changes in model
PRINT(Vn)o,4
PRINT(Wn)o,4 J
I
l
R=o
.I=o( 1)5
JUMP15 ,HI~ Hn
NEWLINE Checks if limi tine;
CAPTION jcompreSSion is exceeded
SPECIMEI\T FAILED IN COHPRESSION DUE TO LOAD,
I
NEWLINE
PRINT(I)1,o
R=1
15) REPEAT II
JUMP16,R=o i
-...>
ACROSS17/o -lSends computer on

16 )i~CROSS9/0 Ito next load stage
CLOSE I
-~
8.7 158
a) The critical tensile strain is the failure criterion

used for the individual members that is, a macroscopic not a
phenomenological strain. The value of the critical tensile
strain is a reflection of the strength of the mortar and hence
is closely related to the mix proportions. Ho\vever, there is
as yet no empirical rela.tionship between them, or for that matter,
between the critical tensile strain in the mortar member and the
phenomenological strains measured on the surface.
b) The critical compressive strain is an arbitrary

value in excess of the expected maximum strain, which prevents
the computer from producing endless results if the model does
not collapse.
c) A constant labelled alters the value of x

for the centre diagonal members, as Will be explained in
Chapter 18.
d) The error of the iteration is used only when equation

8.4.4.1 is required. The use of this equation necessitates
iterating through equation 8.3.3.3, each time taking a closer
approximation to the true value of Ema for the str3ss in the
member (equation 8.4.4.1) •. When the error of the iteration is
within the error specified, usually 0.1%, then the iteration
stops and the analysis continues using the last values of the
deflections from equation 8.3.3.3.
The programme has been arranged so that when the computer

has performed the calculations with the first set of loads, it
jumps to label 9) (Table 8.7.2.1) and reads in the values for the
next load stage. In this way the load stages may be set at any
interval without repeating all the other inputs. The computer
automatically jumps to t~e next specimen (comp18te set of data)
when an asterisk (*) is found at the Gnd of the data being analysed.
159
8.7.3 The Outputs
For any load stage, the output from the computer consists
of:
a) the applied loads;
b) the modulus of elasticity, stress, and strain in

each mortar segment;
c) the modulus, stiffness, and strain of each member of

the model;
d) the applied stresses, overall deflections in the X, Y,

and Z directions, overall Young's modulus, and the overall model
strains;
e) the Poissonts ratio; and
f) the volume changes.
Of these only tho computation of the applied stresses needs

further comment. Those are computed by dividing the applied loads by
the cross-sectional area of the model. However, depending on the
orientation of the member, its loss dU8 to failure may decrease the
effective aren. This adjustment has not been included in the computer
programme, but it is a simple correction and has been m:J.de by hand
where necessary. The areas n8eded for the correction are printed out
at the very beginning of each output.
There is still, however, another type of output. When a

member fails due to its tensile strain exceeding a limiting value in
the mortar segment, the computer, besides setting the member stiffnesses
to zero, prints out that a member has failed in tension and then the
number of the member. Similar acknowledgements are made if the
limiting compressive strain is exceeded or, by the use of equation
8.4.4.1, the modulus of elasticity of a mortar segment is reduced
to zero.
8.8 160
8.8 THE INFLUENCE OF THE INPUTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE MODEL

8.8.1 Influence of the Inputs
Three of the outputs listed in the previous section are most

important: tho modulus of elasticity of the model, the overall
Poisson's ratio, Gnd the load at which the first member fails in
tension. These arc the ch8racteristics that can most readily be
comp?,red with those of the actual concrete.
Moreover, most of tho inputs are measurable or otherwise

known quantities whereas the anglo subtending Aa (henceforth
referred to as D) and x' are arbitrary, and the limiting tensile
strength (A) of the members is difficult to measure. In effect, those
last three variables must be determined for each mix through trial
and error. Therefore prior to testing the theory it is expedient to
determine, in particular, th8 influence of these three variables on
the outputs mentioned in the previous paragraph.
Figures 8.8.1.1, 8.8.1.2, and 8.8.1.3 show respectively

the effect on the modulus of elasticity of the model, its Poisson's
ratio, and the load at which tho first member in the model fnils for
a variation in each of tho inputs. These figures were obtained
directly from the computer programme by altering one parameter at a
time and studying tho effect.
8.8.2 Conclusions
From these three figures as well as a study of the influence

of those inputs with increasing axial compressive load, the following
conclusions may be L~de concerning their influence on the model's
behaviour.
a) The initial modulus of elasticity of the model is

independent of the critical tensile strain (A) and virtually independent
of variations in x. However, as the load increases and the member
stresses become significant, x will h2ve a major influence and cause
thG modulus of the model either to increase or to decrease, depending
on the sign of x. If, on the other hand, x is zero, the other inputs
161
FIGURE 8·8·1·1
EFFECT OF MODEL PARAMETERS
ON THE tviQDULUS' OF ELAST I CITY
. / "4
.' /
/
t:J
/
X//
/" . ~
/' . "... ..
W
/" E~ .. ~··
I
r- /
.
.
,~".
~...,....--
~--
.
LL ./. ~.
.~..
~",rc--
-,.-
-----E a
.
o , / . . :.,..;""'"
>- ... ,. .................~.............. I( /~'?:;::::-
r- ~ , ,,~ . .. ...............';;;t.':;':;'' ~ .......:.. ~~ .v. '........... ~ ...
. .... ·.... · .... · .... · .. · ..x
NOTE: see text for explanation

. . of symbols
. f,\ .. 4 .....
~ .O~01 'A ..0002 in/.in .0003 -')-- .0004

,0 30 o 40 degre~ 50 e 60,
,,0 3X10 6 Em 4X10 6 psi 5x10 6 _ .. -IJr- .. - 6X106
.0 8X10 6 , 'Ea 10x10 6 psi 12><106 .... ~~"---- 14X106
0+1000 ' X 0 -1000 ...... ~:>' ....... , ~
-2000
. 0 . 1.0 X' 2.0 3.0 _.-£3._.• 4.0
/
FIGURE 8·8·1·2 162
EFFECT OF MODEL PARAMETERS

ON POISSON'S RATIO
0.26
, \1.
0.24 \
'\ '
'\
\
o .\'XI
,
~ 0.22 '\ , NOTE: see text for explanation.

of symbols
~'
""
0.18
0.16', ",
, ,
T"
0 ,0001 A, .0002 inlin .0003 ~~ ..0004
.0 30 D 40 degree 50, 0 60
",0 3x10 6 Em 4X10 6 psi 5x10 6 , _ .. -A-.. - " 6X1'06
0 8x10 6 Ea 10X10~ psi '12x10o -~~-- 14x10o
0',+1000 X 0 -1000 ....... *....... I
-2000
'0 1.0 ....:. . ...g._.-
X' 2.0 3.0 4.0
FIGURE 8·8·1·3 163 j
EFFECT QFMODEL PARAMETERS

ON THE APPLIED LOAD AT WHICH.
,THE' FIRST 'MEMBE:R 'FAILS
If)
0. -5000
)c••••
' .•...X
.
' . ... ,
.
'. '.
'
I-
It.;
' .....
(f)
a: -3000
"
' .. '.
"
"
LL ,
".
I
U
-
I
3
o
« , .
9 -~ .
NOTE: see taxt for @xpJanaiion
of symbols
, I
I
0 .0001 A .0002 inlin .0003 ~ .0004
0 30 D 40 degree, 50 G 60
-.0 3x10 6 Em 4X10 6 psi 5x10 6 _.-A- .. - 6x106.
0 8x10 6 'Ea 10Xl0 6 psi 12x106 -...;..~--- 14x106
0 +1000 X 0 -1000 ........>'...... ~ -2000 '
0' 1.0 e. X' 2.0 3.0 ~'-lii1'-'- 4.0
8.8 164
will not significantly alter the vulue of the modulus as a function

of the load unless a member f~ils.
b) It is to be eXPGcted that as the Young's modulus of the

mortar or aggregate increases, so will the modulus of the model
(concrete) (TJH; TCH).
c) The inputs with the greatest influence on the modulus

of elasticity of the model are D and x', the true values of which
are not measurable.
d) The initial Poisson's ratio of the model is indepondent

of x, A, and D, and is only slightly affected by En and Em;
the major influence is the factor x' requ.ired to adjust the arens of
the centre diagonals.
e) A variation of Poisson's ratio with load will be caused

by x, Em, and D, where for smaller initial values of these inputs
the Poisson's ratio will decrease more for a given change in load.
f) The load at which the first member fails in the model is

influenced by all the inputs except the modulus of elasticity of the
aggrega.te.
It is apparent from these observations that the most critical

factors are Xl and D, neither of which can be measured. Since they
are so significant, a uniaxial test must be performed on the concrete
under consideration in order to determine the values of these two
parameters as well as the third u~~nown parameter, A, the critical
tensile strain, unless it is subsequently found that the values of x'
and D once detGrmincd are VGlid for nll concretes. However, this is
unlikely.
That these paro..mcters h:?ve such a me.jor influence, facilitates

the determination of their proper value in the cOll1puter analysis. First
the modulus of elasticity and ~oissonts ratio are measured in a concrete
specimen. Xl is then o.djusted until the Poisson's ratio of the model
is equal to that of the concrete (this is analogous to a technique used
by Reinius (ER), and Roy and Sozen (R,S»). Then D, which has no
8.9
influence on th2 Poisson's ratio (Figure 8.8.1.2), is adjusted until

the modulus of elasticity of the model corresponds with the modulus
of the concrete. The critical tensile strain, which affects neither
the Poisson's ratio nor the Young's modulus, is altered until it is
in agreement with th0 behnviour of concrete (this will be more clearly
understood after Part III where a technique is studied to detect major
cra.cking in concrete.). Thus tho unknown inputs C:ln be determined
from a single uniaxi~l compressivG test.
That it is necessary to conduct a ~ninxial test to determine

the unknown constants at first appears to be 3. major drawback to the
model's use. However, all tho theoriGs discussed in Part I required
data from a uniaxi~l test, g0ner:J.lly the ultim3.te str0ngth, to determine
their cc·nstants. Hence the other theories also h3.VC this disadvantage,
but possibly to a lesser. degree sinco strain meClsurements nrc not
generally required.
COMPARISON OF MODEL t'llITH AN ACTUAL CONCRErE
Mix and Inputs
By determining the appropriate vCllues for tho inputs it

should now be possible to observe how the theory compares with the
behaviour of concrete. Since testing has not yet been described in
this thesis, Ward's (MW) mix, dosigna ted 1:::;, will be usee,. This hets
an aggregate-cement ratio of 4.5, of which 40% is sand, a water-cement
ratio of 0.425, and eUl assumed air void content of 1.596.
The inputs used are:

A, critical tensile strain, v:lried
H', critico.l compressive strain = -0.003
B, aggregate dio'met0r (La) = 0.75 inches
D~ angle subtending An = 40°
E, modulus of the mortar, Em = 4.1 x 106 psi
F, modulus of the aggr2gato, Ea = 10.2 x 106 psi
Q, (to bo explained in Chapter 18) = 1
x, factor in equntion 8.6.1.1 =
-500
y, iteration error = 0.001
x', area correction for members C1, C2, and C3 = 3.1
Bt, watcr-cemGnt ratio = 0.425
C' co~rse aggreg~tG-cement ratio = 2.7
D~ sand-cement rntio = 1.8
E~ air void content = 0.015
8.9 166
These are followed by the loads \v 1 = W2 = 0 and W3 which incrcases

in increments of -300 psi. After the loads the input tape has an
Gsterisk to restrict the programme for the next set of datn if so
desired.
8.9.2 Results
The results of the analysis .J.re plotted in Figure 8.9.2.1

for various values of the bond strength. For a limiting tensile
strain of 0.0004 the results are re~sonQble and encouraging. At
a longitudinal strain of -700, the error in stress is ~ 2.5%.
Above this vL1lue tho:; discrepancy increases.
For wec..ker bond strengths, members 0, 1, and 2 (or to make

it easier to visualize them, the members C1, C2 and D12 respectively,
Figure 8.2.1.6) f3il almost simultaneously at a lower load, changing
the Young's modulus of the model. In concrete t}~!is would correspond
to cracking. It is E;rr~phasised that the limiting tensile: strain is a
macroscopic strain in the mortar segment, whare,::ls tho strains shown in
Figure 8.9.2.1 are the overall phenomenological strains as predicted
by the model and measured on the surface of the concrete.
These results conflict with the behaviour determined by Anson.

He assumed that member D12 would fail at 30% of the ultimate land and
members C1 nnd C2 at 907j. As a result he dre-v-J Ll. stress-strain curve
with a disco~_ltinuity at each of these lo::tds. The quantitntive n.nalysis
of this Cho_pter shoVls thn t !~nson' s assumption W1S in error. Nemner
D12 docs fail first, but its effect en the remainder of the model
(something Anson only briefly mentions, but does not allow for) causes
members C1 and C2 to fail immediately thereafter. The result is a single,
large discontinuity in the stress-strain curve Cfigure 8.9.2.1) ..
It is evident from this eXElmple that with the proper constants,

good agreement can be obtained between theory and data, at least-before
the first momber in the model fails.
FIGURE 8·9·2·1
COf\!IPARISON OF TEST 167
DATA .WITH MODEL
~ 2' Specimens (W/C=0.425, A/C=4.5)
-.-~.... - Model (A=0.00015)
" . ---£1-- Model' (A=0.0002)
!,- -7000 -~'-i'.-'.. Model (A=0.b003)
..·...... ·b···...... 'Model (A=00004)
(J Stress at 'which major. '
cracks form
--6000
-- --
tf) -4000
0.
<f)~
<f)
W
0::
I-
(j)
--2000
NOTE: ,at,cr('», G(a), 0"(+), model

members, C1, C2, 012 fail'
~ _ _- . I I_ _ _ _ J ,
-500 '-1000 -1500
~TRAINJ in/in ' .
8.10 168
8.10 THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL BrillAVIOUR OF 111HE ~10DEL
From Q g~neral consideration of the model, it is possible to

discuss its phenomenological behaviour on a qualitative and quantitative
basis similar to that used in Part I. The theory's qualitative behaviour
will be considered first.
In uniaxi2l compression (W = -03)' the centre members C1

3
and C2 and the shorter diagonal ties in the XZ plane (member D12;
Figure 8.2.1.6) are in tension. When W3 is of sufficient magnitude,
the tensile strain in member D12 will exceed the critic3l tensile strain,
and member D12 will fail first. The remaining members of the model must
now readjust themselves to compensate for the loss of member D12. As
membor D12 tended to act like a belt about the girth of the model, in
effect holding the model in, this action must now be performed by
members C1 and C2. As a result their tensile str,:?,in will greatly
increase and they will fail shortly, if not immed:L:.'l. tely, aftor member
D12. This will leave thrust rings PNM, PQM, P~I, and PSM as mechanisms
unable to support any of the applied lOD.d W ; the entire load will be
3
carried by centre member C3, a column. Members C1, C2, and D12 are all
normal to the applied load W , and since n member fails norm~l to its
3
long axis, the failure in all three members is p::trallel to the applied
compressive load (Figure 8.10.1.10.). This in effect simulates cracking
in the concrete, and offers an explanation of why cracks form parallel
to an applied compressive load, as is so often observed in concrete
(Section 3.1.8). Hence for uniaxial compression, there is agreement
between the mode of failure of the model and of concrete.
In uniaxial tension (VJ

1
= +°1 ), members C1, D12, and D13 are
in tension vJhile members C2, C3, and D23 are in compression (Figure
8.2.1.6). As
W is increased, th8 tension in member C1 will finally
1
exceed the critical tensile strain and member C1 \'Ilill fail normal to the
applied tensile load. The stress in member C1 will be redistributed in
the model, increasing the tensi10 stress in members D12 and D13. As a
result these will f3il shortly, if not immediately, after member C1.
FIGURE 8·10·1·1 169
MODES OF . FAILURE OF THE MODEL

(ALSO .SEE. FI C?URE . 3·1-8·1)
....
(a) (b)
uniaxial compr'e-?sion uniaxial tension .'
I u- .
~ . 3
(c) I (d)
biaxial tension- .' biaxial 'compression

. compression
8.10 170
The rDsult is ultimate failure along a plane approximately normal to

the Z axis or applied tensile load W (Figure 8.10.1.1b). This is
1
only approximate because members D12 and D13 will not fail noITt1al to
the Z axis, but normal to their O\'ll axis. However, member C1, which does
fail normal to ti
1
, is x' times the area of members D12 and D13
(equation 8.4.3.3) and therefore dominates the failure. Moreover, if
a series of models were used to simulate concrete rather than a single
one, the entire plane of fo.ilure would be jagged, but normal to the
applied tensile load. Therefore the tensile mode of failure in the
model is generally in agreement with the uniaxial tensile modes of
f2ilure observed by Ward (r-n-J) in concrete.
If a compressive force (W
3
= -03) is applied normal to the
tensile load (W = +01) discussed in the above paragraph, it will
1
increase the tensilv strain in members C1 and D12, but decrease it
in member D13. The eff~ct will be to cnuse the fnilure of member C1
at a correspondingly lower tensile load than in the uniaxial states of
stress described above. Again, after the failure of member C1 the
stresses in the model \vill be rodistributed and member D12 can be
expected to fail immediately thereafter. Thus thrust rings PNM and
PQM will become mechnnisms and the compressive load W3 must be carried
entirely by members C2, C3, and D23. As a mechanism, the compressive
strain in mmnber D13 is zero due to , but for W W member D13 is not
3 1
a mechanism and hence ".Jill fail in tension due to W • Thus for biaxial
1
compression-tension, the failure of members C1, D12 and D13 will create
a plane of failure normal to the applied tensile lond (Figure 8.10.1.1c).
This is in agreement with the modes of failure observed by McHenry and
Karni (M,K) for concrete subjected to biaxi2;.1 compression-tension.
However, those authors also noted that the mode of failure

depended on the ratio of tension to compression; low values (high
compression) tended to produce failure in a manner analogous to a pure
compression failure. This will also occur in the model if the compressive
load, W' is sufficiently large comp~rGd to W• It is certain that,
3 1
regardless of tho rela ti ViJ mo.gni tudes of \'11 and members C1 and
171
D12 will fail first. However, if W3 is sufficiently larger than W

1
member C2 rather than member D13 will f~il next. Hence members C1,
C2, and D12 ~ill have f,:;..iled; this is the mode of failure observed in
uniaxial compression. Therefore there is good qualitative agreement
between the modes of failure in the model and in concrete for biaxial
tension-compression.
In biaxial compression (\"3 =

3
-° -°
, vJ2 = 2 , W1 = 1 = 0) the °
only member in tension is member C1, which will be the first to fail
when the loads are sufficiently great. Failure will be parallel to
the plane of the applii.:;d lO3.d (W , W ) or normal to \rJ • However, as
2 3 1
soon as member C1 fails, thnlst ring p~mQ must be kGpt in equilibrium
solely be a tensile force in member D12. Hence the compressive force
c2used by W in member D12 is decreased. If W3 is increased while vl
2 2
remains relatively constant, there will finally be a ratio of W3 to W
2
at which member D12 will develop a high enough tensile strain to fail.
When this happens, the plane of failure will be parallel to the W W
2 3
plane (Figure 8.10.1.1d). Thrust ring PRrvIS \>/ill still be intact, since
the specimen will have split into 3. series of plates with their plane
normal to the W direction. Such a mode of failure is in goneral
1
agreement with the failure observed by Wnstlund (G\v) , Richart, Brandtzaeg,
and Brown (R,B,B), and Bell~my (CJB) (Section 3.1.8).
In equal triaxial compression :111 the m0mbers of the model will

be in co~npression. T3nsile failure will only occur if \V is sufficiently
3
larger than \'1 , then membGr C1, will fnil par3.l1el to the applied
1
compressive load "'3.
This corresponds to the vertico.l cracks observed
by Rich:lrt, Brandtzaeg~and Brown (R,B,B) in triaxial compression tests,
but does not account for the shearing typo failures often observed.
From this discussion nnd a comparison of Figures 8.10.1.1

and 3.1.8.1, it is reasonable to conclude that thE~re is good
qualitative agreement between the behaviour of the model ~nd the
modes of failure in concrete, with the possiblo exception of triaxial
compression.
172
In uniaxial compression, Section 8.9 show0d good agreement

between the theory and WQrd's data until members C1, C2, and D12
failed in tension. After this agreement was poorer, and the
prediction of the ultimate lond inaccurate. Hence in its present
state of development, the model cannot be used to predict ultimate
loads.
However, it is of interest to note that Ward's curvo is

reasonably linear until a stress of about -4000 psi, after which the
non-linearity of the stress-strain curve increases. Up to this
point there has been good agreement between theory and data, but
afterwards both curves deviate from the nearly linear direction.
Tho model would indicate that the curvature of the stress-strain curve
in Ward's specimon is due to internal cracking and therefore the theory
would be in agreement with the recent research at Cornell University
(H,S ,8, W) (sec .also Chapter 12).
To provide bettor agreement beb..,oen theory and data above

this point on the stress-strain curve, the model would have to be
modified by one of two methods.
a) The usc of a network of models to simulQte the behaviour

of concrete. When a member in one of the models failed, the modulus
of the entire network would decrease slightly and hence cause
curvature of tho stress-stretin relationship as more and more members
failed.
b) The use of a single model in a manner analcgous to

Reinius (ER) or Roy and Sozen (R,S), where the areas of the members
are altered gradu9.lly. The eff0ct is a graduo.l decrease; in the Young IS
modulus and honce a stmss~trQin curve similar to thnt obtained by
Ward (Figure 8.9.2.1).
Therefore the model used in Chapter 8 is over-simplified. Yet

the th~ory does apparently account for the londs at which internal
cracking starts. This nuy be significant and will be studied in more
detail in Part III.
8 100 173
In uniaxial tension, member C1, the most critical member,

is directly subject to the applied load \rJ whereas in uninxinl
1
compression member D12 is the most critical and the tension is
caused by the requirement for equilibrium in the thrust ring. As
Q result, the ratio of th~ tension stress in mGmber D12 to W3 is
less than the ratio of tho stress in mGmber C1 to W • Hence the
1
uniaxial compressiv~ strength of the model is grentor than the
uniaxial tensile strength. For the dati). in ,soction 8.9, this ratio
for the loads when the first member fnils due to WW3 and
1
respectively is 5.1. Hmvever, this is not the ratio of the ultimate
10C'-ds. In thu qualitative anD-lysis, it was shown that in uniaxial
tension failure would occur shortly, if not immediately,after the
first member failed. However, in uni3.xial compression even after all
the tensile members have fa.iled the centrCll column (member C3) of the
model still supports the load. Honce for ultimate loads, the value of
the compression to tension ratio would be greater than 5.1 and thereby
more in agreement with the values obtained by \vnrd (8.5 to 12.5) and
others.
In biaxial comprossi8n-tension, the tensile strain in member

C1, for n given load will be increased due to Hence the
compression normal to will decrease the value of W that will
1
cause failure in G1ember C1. In other words, for increasing ratios of
W3 to W1 the value of W1 needed to cause member C1 to fail will
decrease. This is in general quantitative agreement with the data of
Bresler and Pister (B,P; B,P-1), Tsuboi and Suennga (T,S), and
NcHcnryand Knrni (H,K).
In triaxie.l compression, the tensile strains are either non-

existent or reduced by cOQpression in three directions. Hance, as the
member can only fail by tension, the value of W3 required to cause
cracking will be incrc3.sed, depending primarily on the value of W•
1
This is compatible with the very high strengths obtQined for concrete
in triaxial compression by Balmer (GGB) , Akroyd (TNWA-1; TNWA-2), and
Rich3.rt, Brandtzaeg, and Brown (R,3,B). However, under such high loads
it is conceivable that crushing or other CQuse of f~ilure may occur.
8.10 174
In biaxial compression member C1 is the most critical. Both

W and W3 contribute to the tensile strain in member C1 and·, since
2
the critico..l failure strnin is a constant, as W increases the va.lue
2
of W3 at which member C1 fails must dGcrease. Yet Wastlund (G\'l) ,
\veiglor and Becker (\v,B), and Bellamy (CJB) have shown that as W
2
increases W3 at ultirmte 1021d nlso increases. The theory may account
for this. When members C1 and D12 hnve failed, the loads
\'12 and W3
are still supportGd by the plnte-likG thrust ring PRHS in tho plElne of
the loads. Therefore, in a manner analogous to th0 column strut in
uniaxiQl compression, this plate will continua to support the load after
members C1 and D12 have failed. Thus tho ultinnte load in biaxial
comprossion could be greater than llL uniaxial even though cracking
will be less than in uniaxial compression. This is an entirely
different explanation from that given by Anson who, in order to account
for the increase in strength due to a 2' had to assume thnt member D12
had already failed. No reC1.son was given for this assumption. With
this divergence between the values of W3 at crncking and ultimnte
lond, a biaxial compression test to determine~the effect of
W on
2
the cracking and ultimate loads of concrete may serve to study the
theory in more detail.
From Section 8.9 and this discussion, it is evident that the

model may account for some of the general quantitative behaviour of
concrete, particularly the cracking load. However, owing to the over-
simplified structure of the model it dOGS not adequately predict the
numerical values of the ultimate lond. Even though numeric:J.l values
for the ultimate loads arc not availnble, it is possible from the above
discussion to drnw hypothetical crncking and ultimate l':)ad envelopes
(Figure 8.10.2.1).
8.10.3 Conclusions
Quantitatively the theory is in good agreement with the modes

of failure observed in concrete in complex stat0s of stress.
Qualitatively, however, the theory m~y only be applicable up to the
loads at which members fail (cracking). Yet the importance of this
l\01
, "CJc . , ',' ,° 1
r o-3~. . . L./ ' ,
_._._._._._.·.·,. t.01 11 /
_.-.-. -.~~-.-. ..-.-.--:;~:......................... ~....
.....
r I . _ _ .. - ·
'.
-'-'r
/
///
•.",' ~ ~ .~
~. .
103 aO> ..
..•
• •
I :f
•• • • • •
t : /
)i
,.02
I
/' CJ"3 .' ....... //

. .... f'\: //
I '..p/vpv /
/ A A, .... /
" i'·. /(
.I ~ ~"" /
.r CJ.2 02 ....... / /
I /
/'
I /
i I 0"'3 // FIGURE 8·10·2,1
" /
HYPOTHETICAL CRACKING AND
,1
.I
. / ,
" I
/
//
/ /'
.
ULTIMATE LOAD CURVES
BASED ON A GENERAL
'
. /
I // DISCUSSION OF tHE MODEL
"I). // ~
"'-.J
\ SECTION A // (Jl
L
8.11 176
should not be overlooked since, from Section 3.1.8 and Part I in

general, cracking is likely to be fundamental to the failure of concrete.
Since the theory indicates, that for concrete in biaxial compression the
initial cracking and ultinnte loads should diverge:; with increasingW'
2
the biaxial compressive test may be a way of exnmining the quantitative
behaviour of the theory further.
8.11 COMPARISON \1ITH OTHER THEORIES
8.11.1 The Classical Failure Theories
There is little similarity between the classical failure

theories discussed in Chapter 3 and the model theory derived above.
Therefore it is best to compare them by studying their differences.
a) The classical failure theories were based on the assumption

that the material is homogeneous, whereas the model theory, in agreement
with SGction 5.4.2, has its origin in the macroscopic, non-homogeneous
nature of concrete.
b) As a result, the model theory is in qualitative agreement

with the modes of failure observed in concrete whereas of' the theories
in Chapter 3 only the mnximum strain theory could provide similar
agreement.
c) The model theory, in contrast to those in Chapter 3, and

Chapter 4, attempts to relQte the behaviour of concrete to the
constituents of the material. The size of the model, the modulus of
the mortar, x, and the limiting strain can all be related either
directly or empirically to the mix parameters.
d) The model theory establishes a theoretical relation between

stresses and strains on both 2 phenomenological and macroscopic level.
As a result, the model provides information about the stress-strain
curve, the modulus of elasticity, and Poisson's ratio.
Hence, when compared with the classical failure theories, the

model theory is more than a failure theory applied to concrete. It is
an effort toe,xplain not only the failure, but the general behaviour of
concrete in terms of its macroscopic structure.
8.11 177
8.11.2 Brcndtzaeg's Theory
Brnndtzaeg tried a similo.r o.pproach, but instead based his

model on tho anisotropy of concrete. Yet tho non-homogeneity of concrete
is far more obvious and, ~s Chapter 7 showed, is likely to have s
significant influence on the failure of concrete. Thus the model theory
is believed to be on sounder foundations than Brnndtzaeg's theory.
Since the model theory is so closely related to the macroscopic

structure of concretG, it h2s been possible to link the theory to the
mix proportions. This is not possible with the entirely theoretical
structure assumed by Brandtzo.eg.
Owing to the general nature of the derivation in Chapter 8,

the model theory can consider the influence of a 2 (W ), whereas
2
Brandtzaeg because of his choice of coordinates is unable to separate
the influence of a and
2
Despite these differences, there is a number of similarities
between the two theories.
a) Both theories involve complex derivations and lengthy

equations and therefore would be difficult to apply in practical design.
b) To solve the equations both theories require the adjustment

of arbitrary const::tnts, which h:J.ve 0.. physical meaning although their
true value is not measurable.
c) Qualitatively, Brandtzaeg's and the model theory providds

a relationship between stress and strain which agrees well with the
observed behaviour of concrete. Finally, at a certain lo~d both
theories predict the occurrence of a disruption in th0 concrete, after
which the qualitative agreement is poorer.
d) Of greatest significance, however, is that both theories,

particularly the model theory, have bevn able to deduce the behaviour
of concrete, at least in qualito.tive terms, from a consideration of
the structure of the material.
8.12 178
8.11.3 Conclusions
In conclusion, the modol theory is, as was Brandtzaeg's,

an advance over the classical failure theories, which considered
concrete as homogoneous, isotropic, and olastic_ Both Brandtzaeg's
theory and the model theory are closoly rc12ted, but it is believed
on the basis of Part I and Chapter 7 that a consideration of the
non-homogeneous, m2croscopic structure of concreto is basic to an
understanding of the failure mech'lnism of concrete.
8.12 CONCLUSIONS TO CRI\PTER 8
This chapter hEls shown th2.t from n i2,imple model of the structure
of concrete, proposed originally by Baker, it is possib10 to derive
equations based on tho concept that aggre~~tes will naturally pack in
3. diamond formation and when subject to load will create thrust rings.
To maintain equilibrium within a given ring tensile forces must develop.
At a critical load these will fail, signifying a crack formation in the
actual concrete. Such a concept has been expressed mnthermticnlly and
tho size of the model related to the mix proportions.
The results of n preliminary analYSis and of general

qualitative and quantitative discussior-s show good agreement with the
behaviour of concrete and hence are encouraging. However, the model
may be too simplified to predict the ultimnte londs, but until cracking
(failure of a member i:1 tension) occurs the theory is in good ngreoment
with the data. Thorefore, to consider the theory further, cracking in
concrete should be studied as well as the ultimate lond, particularly
in biaxial compression.
In considering the modol as a prospective f':tiluro theory, the
main objective of this chapter should not be forgott~n; this w~s to
determine how tho inclusions inter~ct in n soft matrix. Tho thrust.ring
effoct, tho devolopment of tensile stresses, thu resulting mode of
cracking, and the agrt-?(?ment with the behaviour of concreto h2ve all been
shown. Honce it is rensonable to conclude that by considering a model of
the non-homogeneous macrostructure of concrete, an adequate theoretical
description can bo given of tho interactions of the constituents of the
concrete and how these interactions lend to the failure of concrete.
9 179
CHAPTER ,9
CONCLUSION TO PART II
It was the objective of Po..rt II to study on a theoretical

basis the non-homogeneous nature of concrete and observe whether by
considering the macroscopic structure of concrete i~might be possible
to comprehend its behaviour, particularly its failure mochanism.
For the sirnplcst structure of one inclusion in a soft c~ment
paste matrix, it was evident that stress concentrations were created

due to the difference in Young's modulus between the inclusion and the
matrix. Depending on the modulus of the inclusion, the strcES concentra-
tions could be as high as twice the average applied stress. Hence whon
the stress concentrations were tensile, cra.cks were likely to form due
to these high local stresses or strains. From the direction of the
tensile stresses it was possibl(;: to deduce the orientation of the
crack. For any particular state of stress the orientation of these
cracks, regardless of the Youngts modulus of the inclusion, was in
excellent agreement with the crack patterns in concreto. Extending
this, cracking curves were predicted which in biClxiElI compression did
not agree with the quantitative ultimate loo..d data of concrete, but it
was observed that this analysis showed that in compressivG states of
stress the ultimo.te load would be considerably higher than tho cracking
loctd.
This analysis was extended to consider the interactions of

more than one fnclusion by assuming D-n ide3.lized structure (model)
to simulate concrete. Anson (HA) h:lS shown that due to the
relatively high modulus of the aggregnte, thrust rings develop within
the concrete. These in turn create tensile strains. tvith increD-sing
load the tensile member of the model fails, simul.':l ting internal
cracking in concreto. \fuen the theory wns studied nl'lthematically
and compared with concrete, it agreed well with the qualitative and
quantitative data observed in concrete. However, when a member
failed in the model the quantitative agreement wns poorer and did not
express the ultimate load. This wi,!l be given more consideration Inter
in the thesis.
9 180
As a result, it has been possible to explain many of

the qualitative and que:.ntitative properties of concrete from a
consideration of its non-homogeneous structure. At least
theoretically it may be concluded th~t the non-homogeneous structure
of concrete is critical to its behnviour and m8ch3.nism of failure.
Hence, a logical explanation of the behaviour of concrete can only
be given by considering the macroscopic non-homogeneous structure
of concrete.
181
PART III
EXPERIMENTAL . NErHODS FOR. MEASURING THE
FORMATION AND PROPAGATION OF HICROCRACKS

10.1 182
CHAPTER 10
GENERAL INFORMATION AND DESCRIPTION OF
EQUIPHENT FOR THE TESTS OF PART III
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 Introduction
Section 3.1.8 listed a number of investigators who have

observed minute cracks forming in concrete even when subjected to
triaxial compression. The most notable of these are probably Berg
(OYB), Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2) , Evans (RHE-1), and Neville (AMN-2). The
theoretical analysis in Part I I showed that these cracks are most likely
caused by tensile stresses developing within the concrete, and that the
tensile stresses are primarily due to the non-homogeneous nature of
concrete. 1tlhen such cracks form, the material becomes discontinuous
and, as mentioned in Chapter 8, this is likely to influence its
behaviour by causing a decrease in the modulus of elasticity, which
affects the concrete's ultimate strength (Section 8.10.2). Since these
cracks, which Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2) and others refer to as microcracks
because their width is measurable in micro-inches, are of such
importance to the behaviour of concrete, their cause, origin,
propagation, and influence on concrete must be studied in detail.
10.1.2 Characteristics of Microcracks
When a microcrack forms it has a certain length and width.

If it is on the surface, the crack may be detected with powerful
microscopes. Berg (OYB) and Evans (RHE-1) have both used such a
technique for observing surface cracks, but the technique is tedious
because of the minute size of the cracks. To overcome this, Evans used
an extensometer to observe when a sudden increase in the tensile st.rain
reading occurred, indicating that a crack had formed within the gauge
length of the extensometer. A careful search was then made in the area
for the crack. Blakey and Beresford (B,B-1) used electrical resistance
strain gauges rather than an extensometer to detect the formation of
microcracks.
However, such a technique is limited to the surface of the
concrete and may not give an indication of the extent of microcracking
in the interior of the specimen. When a microcrack forms inside a
specimen it becomes, in effect, a discontinuity filled with air or
water. If sound were propagating through the concrete normal to this
crack and intersected the crack some of the sound would be reflected
and some would find its way around the crack and continue on its path.
Yet,' due to the differing acoustic properties of the air or water and
concrete, very little sound would be transmitted across the crack.
Therefore if a crack formed between a receiver and an emitter, two
phenomena could be observed: a decrease in the amplitude of the sound
as a result of the loss due to the reflected component of the sound
wave; and an apparent decrease in velocity, since the sound detected
by the receiver was required to circumvent the crack and would therefore
take a longer time for its propagation through the specimen. Jones. 'las
measured the velocity of sound through concrete, and concluded that in
uniaxial compression cracks form parallel to the applied load at a
fraction of the ultimate load and are of a tensile nature. Jones and
Kaplan (J,K) used the same technique to show the influence of various
coarse aggregates on the formation of microcracks. L'Hermite (RLH)
compared the decrease in pulse velocity with the stress-strain curve
and concluded that the decrease in pulse velocity is nccomp~nied by a
decrease in the Young's modulus of the specimen (see Figure 8.9.2.1).
Rusch CHR), on the other hand, studied the decrease in the amplitude
of the sound as it traversed the concrete and observed a marked decrease,
which indicated the presence of cracks well below ultimate load,
tvhen a crack forms, it is not unlikely tfr'l. t strain energy will

be transformed into other forms of energy. Griffith (AAG-1; AAG-2)
assumed that the decrease in strain energy was equalized by an increase
in surface energy of the crack. However, there is also an inevitable
loss of energy in the form of heat and sound. Although there is
apparently no increase in tempGrature of the concrete under load,
184
the energy loss due to sound can often be quite audible even at load
stages below ultimate. Both Rusch and L'Hermite have plotted this
noise or its integral as a function of the load and concluded that
above a certain load internal cracking sounds are heard and that
these increase until failure occurs.
These last two techniques are indirect, neither providing

an actual observation of the crack inside concrete. Nielson (KEeN)
developed internal gauges for studying concrete, but these have the
disadvantage of influencing the local strain patterns and may precipitate
failure, especially in comparatively small laboratory specimens. Another
alternative is radiography. Evans and Robinson (E,R) used X-rays to
measure slip between prestressing wires and the adjacent concrete.
Radioactive sources have been used by Forrester (JAF-1 to 6) to detect
reinforcing in concrete structures. More recently, in fact since
Part III was started, Cornell UniverSity (H,S,S,ld) has used X-ro..ys to
locate microcracks in thinly-sliced concrete specimens. Such a
technique provides a method for actually observing microcracks regard-
less of their location in the specimen.
Thus there are a number of ways to detect and study the

origin, propagation, and influence of microcracks on concrete. It is
important .to realize the1. t these techniques (optical, pulse veloc i ty,
acoustic, and X-ray) are non-destructive testa applied to concrete
being loaded to failure. As a result, the testing techniques do not
in themselves interfere with the behaviour of the concrete.
10.1.3 Objective of Part III
It is the objective of Part III to conduct a comprehensive

and coordinated study, in which three of the above-mentioned techniques
are used to determine experimentnlly how the non-homogeneous nature of
concrete influences the formation of these microcracks and how, in turn,
the microcracks influence the behaviour of concrete. In this way the
conclusions to Part I and the analyses of Part II can be either
disproved or confirmed on an experimental basis.
10.2
10.1.4 Outline of Testing Programme
The acoustic (Chapter 11), the pulse velocity (Chapter 12),

and the X-ray (Chapter 13) techniques were used to study the origin
and propagation of microcracks in concrete. The optical d~tection
method used by Berg and Evans was not included because:
a) it is too time-consuming,
b) it is limited to the surface, and
c) it repeats information that can be obtained through
the X-ray tests, since X-r~ys detect surface cracks as readily as
interior cracks.
To obtain the optimum results, each of the testing techniques

was improved or altered as required. Then, by using all the techniques
to test specimens from the same mix, a correlation could be obtained and
an assessment made of the properties measured by each test.
Proper design of the mixes permitted a study of the influence

of the non-homogeneous nature of cbncrete on the formation and
propagation of microcracks. With strain measurements taken during the
test, the influence of the microcracks on the behaviour of concrete
could be ascertained.
10.2 PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS
10.2.1 Materials
The ordinary Portland Cement used throughout this series was

delivered in one lot from the Cement Marketing Company, Kent Works,
blended, and stored in air-tight steel drums until batching.
Thames Valley river sand from the Stone Court and Ballast.
Company (Rickmansworth Pit) was used. Before the sand was batched,
it was slowly dried on a 2 kilowatt pan at a temperature less than
100°C (KN-2) and then passed through a 3/16-inch sieve. A represent-
ative sieve analysis is shown in Table 10.2.1.1. This sand conforms
to the Zone 2 limits of British Standard 882: 1954.
10.2 186
TABLE 10.2.1.1
SIEVE ANAIJ YS IS
B.S. sieve size Cumulative per cent pass=i!!E.

3/16 100
7 89
14 65
25 42
52 13
100 2
F.M. = 2.89
Thames Valley river gravel, an uncrushed gravel irregular in
shape, was obtained from the s~me pit as the sand and passed through a
i-inch sieve.
10.2.2 Mix Design
The mixes were designed with a two-fold purpose.
First, in order to show the influence of coarse aggregate

on microcracks, the amount of coarse aggregate was gradually increased
in six mixes, varying from a pure mortar to a mortar containing 6
pre~aced aggregates. However, regardless of the number of pieces of
aggregate in any specimen, all the mixes had the same mortar. The first
mix, designated Nix A, was a mortar with a water-cement ratio of 0.42 and
a sand-cement ratio of 2.0. The next mix, B, contained one i-inch
approximately spherical piece of aggregate slightly off-centre along
one axis of each specimen (the purpose of the eccentrically placed
aggrega to ",Till be shown in Ch2.pter 13). For each specimen, the third
mix, C, contained a single centrally located piece of i-inch aggregate.
The fourth and fifth mixes, D and E, euch contained four piecos of
aggregate per specimen in the form Of a two-dimensional model (Figure
8.2.1.4). Mix F consisted of the mortar with six pieces of aggregate
in the shape of a three-dimensional model in each specimen. Table 10.2.8.1
summarizes the positions of the piec8s of aggregate in each specimen for
any given mix. Three concrete mixes, labelled Hixes G, H, and J, were
also poured.
10.• 2 187
Secondly, each mix was poured in one batch, but the batch
was of sufficient size to supply at least two specimens for each test.
This eliminated batch-to-batch variation when comparing the techniques
and ~oreover, by providing two specimens for each test, the average of
the results was more significant.
10.2.3 Aggregates Used
The pieces of coarse Thames Valley river gravel used in the

specimens were specially chosen to be approximntely i-inch in diameter,
spherical, and smooth-surfaced. In this way the surface texture, size,
and shape v~re kept constant and only the number of pieces of aggregate
varied. Smooth aggretate was chosen as its texture was more easily
definable. Moreover, Jones and Kaplan (J,K) have shown thet smooth
aggregates will cause initial cr~cking at lower stresses than crushed
aggregates and Alexander (KMA) concluded that smooth aggregates have
a lower bond strength than crushed aggregates.
10.2.4 Method of Locating Preplaced Aggregates
When the location and type of aggregate to use had been

decided, it was necessary to find a method' that would place the
aggregate, hold it during vibration, yet have no influence on the
strength of the specimen. vlliat, in effect, was needed was a material
that would disappear after vibration. Ship's cotton appeared to be the
solution as this fluffy string is strong yet highly absorbant. The
string separated into thin strands when wet, absorbed the paste, and
could not be located later by X-ray examination, since it had become a
part of the mortar.
To attach the string one end was glued to the stone and the
other to a metal wire cross (Photograph 10.2.4.1). A wooden jig was
used to ensure that the strings were of the proper length. Also, two
minute pieces of metal were glued to the aggregate surface to assist
in identification of the aggr8gate with X-rays (Chapter 13). This
technique proved quite successful (Photograph 10.2.4.2), although in
one or two instances the string became so unravelled that it parted
188
Phot ograph 10.2.4.1

1dire Cross Used to Hold Preplaced Aggre ga tes during Vibra tion and
Wooden Jig Us ed to Ensu re the S trings to/e re the Corre ct Length
Photogr aph 10.2.4.2

Plane of Failure Through Hix E Showing Loca tion of
Prepla c e d Aggr ega tes (3 of the 4 Stones Are Missing)
Photograph 10.3.1.1
200 Ton Capacity Uniaxial Compression
Testing Frame and Controls
196
The specimen's surface was prepared for the gauges by

scraping off the excess cement p:tste, cleuning with acetone, and then
the gauges were fixed in position with Schnellklebstoff x-60 made by
Hottinger Messtechnik, a rapid har~oning (5 min.) epoxy adhesive.
For each specimen, two longitudinal strain gauges were used,
one on either side of the specimen.
Lateral Strain Gauge
A 1 inch gauge length, nlthough reasonable for the longitudinal

strains, may not have sufficient accuracy for the much smaller lateral
strains, especially since the cracking may originate outside the 1 inch
length. To ensure that all the effects of any lateral expansion were
registered, a 4 inch (2 i" for the X-ray specimens) demountable gauge
was used. These have been described in detail by Newman, L::tChance, and
Loveday (N,L,L) and are shown in Photograph 10.3.3.1.
To use the gauge, the concrete surface upon which it rested

was scraped clean. The gauge was lowered in place and an initial
strain of 500 microstrain was preset to hold the gauge in place. The
lateral pressure of the gauges was negligible.
Creep of the gauges was a major consideration, especially in

the X-ray tests, which took two hours to complete. Creep was measured
over a half-hour period and found to be less than 1%. Rigid
temperature-humidity (68°F and 500;6 RH) controls were set to reduce
drift.
Aluminium standard specimens were used to calibrate the gauges

and check repeatability. The aluminium specimens were in turn calibrated
with a Sogenique lineQr displacement transducer (Photograph 17.4.3.1).
Although repeatability tests gave satisfactory results, good repeatability
was not obtained during actual testing. It appears that during testing
the calibration factors varied. Ward supports this conclusion (pc-MW).
Although the relative lateral readings for anyone specimen are
acceptable, consider~ble caution must be used when comparing the
absolute values of the lateral strain from one mix to the noxt.
-- ~-- -- - - ~ - - .- ._- - - - ~ ...... -. _ --
..... ~- - " ~ - .
-;; ~'."".: " ~"'t

}
. -:.<. :
~{ . "f
1 . \..~. ::" : .
., . ,~ I V .
: :f~~· . ..)
" . ". 1.J
t, ,v' . ;v..~;.
~
~.
-'::1,,: . :\
.~'"
~. :!
I
I
Photograph 10.30301 \
Lateral and Longitudinal Strain Gauges, and ~ I

the Three Types of Com}?ression Specimens Us ed. CO
-.l I
L --- .- - ._ - - - ~.-- , . - -- - - .- --- - - - - - -- -- - - --- --
I
10.4 198
As u result, all Poisson1s ratio values have been divided by the value
of Poisson's ratio at the first load stage to eliminate calibration
errors. The value of the volumetric strains is also affected. The
lateral gauges were removed just prior to failure in order to prevent
damage.
10.3.4 Strain Gauge Reading Equipment
With two strain gauges on the demountable lnternl gauge and

two longitudinal strain gauges on oach specimen, tho time required for
testing would h2vo been greatly increased had it not boen for tho
availability of a Solnrtron automatic data loggor. This scanned the
gauges at a rate of 10 per second by pulsing each gauge and then
printing out tho reading directly in micros train. The calibration
voltage of tho Solartron was varied over tho range requirod by tho
different gauge factors used Qnd w[ts found to give accurate readings.
Tho data logger was also found to have negligible drift over the
period of testing, provided the gauges were only read once or twice
at each load stage. Pulsing the gauges more than this would cause
heating of the gauges and drifting.
With this equipment the strain gauges could be road to an

accuracy of ~ 2?/o or 4 microstrain, whichever was larger.
10.4 GENERAL TESTS
10.4.1 Non-destructive Tests
Primarily for correlation purposes, a number of standard

tests was performed on each mix. The 20-inch long flexural specimens
were used to measure density, pulse velocity, resonant frequency, and
damping factor (RJ-3). The proceduros used ho.vo been described in
detail by Ward (MlrJ). The equipm~nt, with the exception of the Avory
30 kg cnpacity pan bo.ln.nco used for weighing tho npecimens, will bo
described in Ch~pters 11 and 12. The average results from two
specimens nrc shown in Table 10.2.8.1. It is observed from this table
that the damping factor varied considerably. Ward noticed n similar
effect. The variation is probably caused by large energy losses through
the supports and transducers (O,D) •.
10.4 199
10.4.2 DcstructivG Tests
The two floxurQI specimens, together with tho two tension

and throe compression specimens, were then tested destructively in
the machines mentioned in Section 10.3.1. Th0 compression specimens
wore lOQded at a rate of -700 psi per minute and tho flexural and
tensile spi~cimens at 110 psi per minute. The ultimate loads are listed
in Table 10.2.8.1
All standard tests were performed at 72 days from the date

of pouring the mix.
11.1 200
CHAPTER 11
A STUDY OF MICROCRACKING IN CONCRETE USING

ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Introduction
One of the characteristics of microcracks discussed in

Section 10.1.2.is their association with energy changes and energy
losses. Some of this energy loss is in the form of sound and with the
proper equipment can be detected, recorded, and analysed. Both Rusch
and L'Hermite have studied these sounds, and plotted the results
against load. Their conclusion was that cracks form at a load well
below ultimate, after which the emitted sounds increase, indicating
the formation and extension of more cracks, until failure. Rusch
also observed that the frequencies of these sounds were in excess of
2000 cycles per second.
However, there is yet another non-destructive acoustic technique,

which has hot been applied to concrete for detecting microcracks. It was
observed in Chapter 8 that internal cracks will cause a decrease in the
Young's modulus of the specimen. The dynamic modulus, which is related
to the Young's modulus (RJ-3; MW), will be similarly affected. The
dynamic modulus,in turn, is a function of the fundamental resonant
frequency of the specimen (RJ-3);
E = 4(fr)212p
••• 11.1.1.1
g
where E is the dynamic modulus, fr the longitudinal resonant

frequency of a beam of length 1 and density p, and g the accelera-
tion due to gravity. Since E will decrease when a crack forms, from
equation 11.1.1.1 the resonant frequency will also decrease. This decrease
may be measurable.
Similarly the damping factor, Q, is a measure of the energy

dissipation in a specimen. Jones (RJ-3) states that this quantity is
related to the presence of voids, cracks, and other imperfections.
201
Therefore it is reasonable to assume that the damping factor may also

indicate the formation of cracks'.
11.1.2 Objective and Outline
These three acoustic techniques, the emitted sound, resonant

frequency, and damping factor, will be developed and applied to concrete
for detecting microcracking. However, to measure tho damping factor, tho
resonant frequency must first be determined, so these two techniques will
be considered together (Section 11.3). Section 11.4 will consider tho
emitted sound tests.
11.2 ACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS A.ND ASSOCIATED E~UIPMENT
11.2.1 Acoustic Transducers
In order to study sound originating in concrete (sound emission)

or the behaviour of sound traversing concrete (resonant frequency and
damping factor tests) it is necessary to have equipment to convert
acoustic energy into electric ener.gy or vice versa. The most convenient
method is through acoustic transducers (not to be confused with the linear
displacement transducers used in this thesis to measure deflections).
Although there are many types of acoustic transducers, they all perform
the function of converting an electrical signal into a mechanical
vibration. This, in turn, is propagated through the concrete as sound.
To pick up a sound \"ave, the sound excites the transducer which in turn
emits electrical signals. These can then be amplified and studied.
11.2~2 Transducers Tested
~fuich type of transducer provides the best se~sitivity and response

depends on the characteristics of the material being studied and other
associated electrical equipment. In order to determine which of the
available transducers was most suitable, a short series of tests was
conducted.. The available crystals wore two mounted barium titinate
crystals (described in A:t!;C) with a 100 kilocycle resonant frequency,
two mounted lead based crystals of 0.5 megacycles and 1.0 megacycles
resonant frequancy, six unmounted Rochelle salt crystals (RJ-2) of
11.2 202
unknown resonant frequency,- and a crystal pick-up removed from a

standard resonant frequency apparatus (HW). The electro-magnetic
driver from the same resonant frequency equipment was also included.
Phonograph pick-up needles have also beon used (A,N), but are of limited
use since they only detect sounds and cannot emit them. .As none was
available, needles were not tested.
11.2.3 Determination of the r.1ost Suitable P3..ir of Transducers
For the tests of Chapter 11, the most suitable pair of

transducers (an emitter and a recoiver) would be that pair which for
a given input signal would provide the maximum output and the greatest
sensitivity. To test all combinations of the av~ilable transducers in
both the emitter and receiver positions, the equipment shown in
Figure 11.2.3.1 was used.
To test any given pair of transducers the input to the emitter

transducer was kept at a constant 20 volts while the frequency of the
input was varied from 500 to 30,000 cycles per second by the alternating
frequency generator. As the frequency (the exact value of which was
determined by a frequency counter) was varied, the amplitude of the
output from the receiver was measured with a high impedence valve
voltmeter and the wave form studied with an oscilloscope. This provided
a plot of output amplitude against input frequency (Figure 11.2.3.2),
from which it was possible to determine the resonant peaks. This
procedure was repeated for all combinations of transducers. By comparing
the amplitude-frequency plot for the various pairs of transducers
(Figure 11.2.3.2), it was possible to determine which pair of transducers
gnve the maximum response for a given frequency and how this response
varied with frequency. The complete results are summarized in Table
11.2.3.1 where the response is described as good, fair, etc. The
resonant frequency and the amplitude in volts of tho receiver output
at resonance are also stated.
The sensi ti vity of the transducers to shar~;' cracking-like noises

was ascertained roughly by simulating the cracking sound with a motallic
. .
FIGURE 11·2·3·1
. EQUIPMENT SET-UP
FOR THE TESTS OF CHAPTER 11
Advance TypeJ-2 Advance
20 A.F. Transducers
(l\ Gener- emitter . receiver Voltmeter
V ator (valve)
volts II! ' ,)
t--------j
,--!--""""""-~ 4" Concrete

cube.
Foam rubber I
or othe r support
Frequency
counter Osci Iloscope
f\)
.0
Advance Type TC1 Solarscope CD 1014.2 w
0~6'" ) ~O.225
RESPONSE FRO[vfJ VAR lOUS 0.204
TRANSDUCERS A,S A FUNCTIO I
FIGURE 1"1·2:3·2
0.14r,. OFFREOUENCY ..
......)':....... ....... ~
0~2!..
"
DRIVER
bari urn ti tin ate,'
'
. ,'
. "
. ...... ...
.. ~ ... :........... ~--,.... ~ ...1-.............. ..'. " . .
.
: I
\
~..... : ........ ~ ......... ···t····· ... ···x· ...................... .
,
. •••.••• '" ...... ~ ••••••••••••••••• ;?Co
RECEIVERS: ' . "

x - barium titinate \
rno-, 0 - - - lead (0·5mc) .
~
i
.-..' a _.-.- lead (1·0 mc) . ':~
~ b _ .. - R.F. crystal (M\Wv) ,
O' .
"> x ... :..... Rochelle Salt \
~ ~,
:d O.8- : \ :
.:) I : .!
?-1 f ~ 1 \
: : !:
"a 06- I ! " \
L. " x. I: I. : ~
\ ::
« /\ : I: !\
~\ !
f \
\
f\
li\ :
\}:~ l "."
It .,' \ ~ .f:
/\/1
\" \
:
\ / \~: \ I \J: \ \
, , " i{\ ~ A I (9~ \.
"<
~~
'1/ "'yf k . \,
~, .
.J\ ,l tl> ! \\ (\)
f
0,21" . \
: I
,
" \"
"
:"'," q,""
I
A.
~
.
r.l
In
,,,,\
/'\.t
(,!J
/
/
'
•
\bR 0
~
C>\\
',Q
~
-t¥:- .f!,. hA-~ '. .....~ )1...: .ef ~. '6 ;f .~

..• -A, }t . y'""' .... 0.. / , _-""\-.. . " . .....et'
- .,(Y "A. __ .G:e~ -;bfQ.e- 4 G-- oS-"0- -e KJ- -d a-" ~- ',J _ " - .. -. ~ . --' -- '-,_
01 ~;:"-'4~.-==.-=-:c"-A.·~-P , -,~.-.-,~.-.:tl:,-.-.-~ ,13
, - ft -,;.A P' I . " . -' I ".. • • • I •
12000 '" 1600(0 20000 24000 28000
-. FREQUENCY (cps)
LL.
Table 11.2.-3 .1
SUMMARY OF TESTS TO DErERNIHE THE RESPO.:.iSE AND SENS ITIVITY
~
OF VARIOUS CO~ffiINATIONS OF ACOUSTIC TRIUJSDUCERS ~
•ru
r--'-'
I
-----l·~-···'---'·---'!'--
~-.
RECEIVERS
·'~---~----·-·------~---·---·--------~'·--'---I
,-,-"~--"~-",---.--.,,,,,--,-,,~,"'.--,,"---'---'.-.---,---.-,.----~~~
I
. ,'--.. -.. '.. . ,...."'.... _',- '''·---'''-1
~
I
I
i
j
I
t
Barium
Ti tina te
Lead
(0.5 me)
Lead
(1.0 me)
Rochelle
Sal t
Unknown
e~_ys__t~_l__f
I
I ; I ---~.... --~,.'-----'--~-.... ,
i 1 En. r Very' good poor poor good I
T·t:~U~ f 23,031 28,888 29,276 No response 22,563 t
" ~ lllU e , 0.225 V 0.00049 V 0.00008 V 0.145 V I
f
}
Lead
(0.5 me) No response Not tested No response
~
lJO response
.
No response
I
i
I
:
Lead
( 1.0 me) 1-
poor
28,808
No response Not tested
poor
29,273
0.0098 V No response
!EHITTERS t 0.0038 V
Ii Rochelle
Ii poor poor
28,676
! Salt I 0.0063 V
No response No response Not tested 20,108
0.0035 V
I I
I i fair fair
! Magnetic 21,701 No response No response No response 20,135
, ' 0.0109 V 0.035 V i
I r '1
i s 't .
i! ensl 1. V1.. t
Yf i d
goo f
high . poor N0 response good I
i
i requenc1.es 1
IL____J i only i
I I .___. .,,~__~._.~~.. . . _. _,_____________ .~_,,______~.___,___~_____._,.__,~ __._._.
____
I\.)
o
\J1
11.2 206
tap on the concrete and observing the responso on tho oscilloscope.

The results are quoted at tho bottom of Table 11.2.3.1.
11.2.4 The Transducers Usod
Table 11.2.3.1 and Figure 11.2.3.2 indicate that barium

titinate transducers, as emitter and receiver, should be used throughout
the acoustic experiments.
When this had been decided, the barium titinate transducers were
checked for their own resonant peaks. Their response to different input
frequencies was not linear, but there were no significant discontinuities
in the range of 500 to 30,000 cps. Thus the peaks in Figure 11.2.3.2 are
not caused by the transducers, but either by resonances in the concrete
or mutual resonances between concrete and transducer. This will bo
considered in more detail in Section 11.2.5.
11.2.5 Transducer-Concrete Coupling Media
If the transducers were held against tho clean surface of

concrete, little acoustic energy would pass from one to the other
since an air bond is an inefficient sound transmitter. To overcome
this some investigators have used oil (RJ-1; RJ-3; RJ-6; L,C; l\.EC) ,
water (L,C), and other media to transmit the sound. The efficiency of
this bond is critical to acoustic testing and must be considered in some
detail. A short series of tests was performed on various compounds,
primarily greases and glues. The glues were used to determine whether
the peaks in Figure 11.2.3.2 might have boen caused by interaction
between the surface of the concrete and the transducers. These tests,
thon, had a threefold. purpose:
a) to determine tho most efficient coupling material;
b) to determine the effect, if any, of the bonding material

on tho resonant peak; and
d) to determine whether the transducers vibrated against the

concrete to cause some of the peaks in Figure 11.2.3.2.
207
The experimental set up was identical to that shown in

Figure 11.2.3.1. The bonding rmterials are listed in Figure 11.2.5.1
together with a graphical represontation of the results. The correct
resonant peak was determined by pulse velocity m0asurement and found
to be the peak marked in Figure 11.2.5.1.
11.2.6 Coupling Media Used
Figure 11.2.5.1 shows the effect of the bonding media on the

amplitude of the output signal. Silicone grease CRelcasil 7) is the
most efficient and was used for all subsequent experiments as well as
the transducer tests in Section 11.2.3.
The effect of the coupling media on th0 frequency at which

resonance occurs is small for the two most efficient bonding agents.
However, stronger but less efficient.bonds caused an increase in the
resonant frequency.
It was shown in Section 11.2.4 that the peaks adjacent to the resonance
p0ak arc not caused by resonanee of thG transducers, but might be due to
inter.actions (chattering) of the transducers with the concrete. Tho use
of glues as bonding agents prevents this chatter yet the peaks still
exist. Therefore these pe.Cl.ks adjacent to the r0sonant frequency are
probably causod by internal reflection or interferences within tho cube.
11.2.7 Tho Transducer Holder
Ii device was needed \'Jhich \"Jould hold the transducers in place

against the specimen, yet not be so stiff as to have its own resonance
in the range of frequencies near tho resonance of concrete. To accomplish
this, a flexible holder was necessary and the holder shown in Photograph
11.2.7.1 was designed to meet these requirements. To hold the transducers
in place, elastic cords were stretched betwoen two aluminium plates, which
in turn wero connocted to the transducers through a combination of foam
rubber and coppor bellows. The transducers protruded from the bellows,
but were completely isolated by foam rubber. The entire apparGtus was
suspended. from tho ball seating of the 200-ton capacity testing framc~
Tho holder worked well.

OW 11'111111911z_
I'
ototrash 1 1.2.7.
Acoustic Transducers and Holder i Pssiis
11.3 210
The bellows were calibrated to provide a measuremont of the

pressure on the side of the specimen. This did not exceed 5 psi, a
negligible amount.
11.3 RESONANT FREQUENCY efr ) AND DAHPING FACTOR ('1) TESTS·
11.3.1 Theory
The theory of resonance is complex and as n result the work in

this section would not have been possible without advice and assistance
from Mrs. E. Corliss of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Basically,
if a vibration is forced on a body, sympathetic vibrations will be set up
within this body at a frequ0ncy dependent on the frequency of the
vibrating source and on the body's density (A,U,L). The actual mode
of vibration (longitudinal, flexural, etc.) depends on how the spocimon
is mounted and tho relative location of the transducers (LO; RJ-3).
For a given mode of vibration and for any given material and specimen
size, there will be a fundamental frequency of vibration. This is
referred to as the fundamental resonant frequency, which, as mentioned
in Section 11.1.1, can be related to the dynamic and elastic moduli of
elasticity. Thus when a crack forms and causes a decrease in the Young's
modulus of the specimen, such a change should be detectable through
resonant frequency measurements.
11.3.2 Methods of MeAsuring Resonant Frequency
The resonant frequency is not difficult to measure providing

the correct equipment is available. With the apparatus shown in
Figure 11.2.3.1, a plot similar to th9.t in Figure 11.2.3.2 can be
obtained by varying the frequency at a constant input voltage and
measuring the voltage picked up on the opposite side of tho concrete
cube (at least for longitudinal modes of vibration). A sharp rise in
t~e output voltage is indicative of resonancc, but as shown in Figure
11.2.3.2 this is not conclusive since other pe2Jcs can also be obtained
from various interferences or secondary resonances. Measurement of the
pulse velocity can be used to confirm which is, in fact, thc resonant
pe,::l.k.
11.3 211
A more conclusive method of determining f is by measuring

r
the phase angle between the input and received signals. When the
specimen is at resonance these signals will be in phase. With an X-Y
oscilloscope or special phase-angle equipment, this technique is quite
simple. Both methods of detecting resonance are described by a number
of authors (3,S; A,U,L; LO; CEG;
O,D; RJ-3) who have applied the
techniques to non-destructive testing.
11.3.3 Damping Factor

Although a measurement of the phase angle vJil1 confirm a
resonance, the equipment will not provide any information about the
shape of the curve on either side of the resonant penk (Figure 11.2.3.2).
This shape is also important and can be obtained only through the use of
equipment similar to that in Figure 11.2.3.1. The shapo of this curve
is a measure of the dnmping capClci ty of the Ula torial. bJhen n ma. tcrial
is set in vibration, energy will be lost, and part of this loss is
thought to be caused by voids, cracks, etc. within the waterial (RJ-3).
Thus the more imperfections the greater the losses. The shape of tho
frequency-amplitude curve is a measure of this but can be expressed in
more explicit terms by defining the d::mlping factor (Q) as
~ergy storage capacity

Q = power dissipation capacity •
The technique for measuring Q is described by Jones (RJ-3) and

Obert and Duval, (O,D).
11.3.4 Effect of Hicrocracking on fr and Q
It can therefore be expected that f and Q will vary as

r
cracking or deterioration occurs in concrete. Furthermore, Mrs. Corliss
suggested that as the load on the specimen is increased the relative
changes of these parameters may indicate the size and/or type of crack
formation. In a discussion with the nuthor she based her reasoning on
the following two equations:
Q =
~kH
~., and .•• 11.3.4.1
11.3 212
f
r = ••• 11.3.4.2
where k is the stiffness, M is the mass, and R is a damping factor.

Q and f
r
may vary duo to cracking in the following m~nner.
a) If a few large cracks were to form parallel to the applied

compressive load, they would tend to split the specimen into columns
and therefore decrease the stiffness (k) of the spocim~n. Hence a
decrease in both Q and fr' \vhich depend on ("k:' may indicCtte the
formation of a few large cracks.
b) Small cracks, on the other hand, would not hCtve a great

influence on the stiffness, but would increase the dCtmping, R.
Therefore since Q is most sensitive to R, a decrease in Q and
a constant f with increasing load may indicate the formation of
r
small cracks.
c) If bond cracks were' to form of such a sizG that the aggregate

were to become effectively detached from the mortar, then this would
represent a decrease in the mass of the continuum. Hence 13.rge bond
cracks may be occurring if it is found that as the load increas0s Q
decreases and f increases.
r
Therefore this technique, when applied to concrete under load,
has 'the potential for detectin?; the size and the type of crack occurring
within the concrete. However considerable development of these ideas is
required.
11.3.5 Influence of Support and MCtchin0 RlJstraint
Since the v2lue of the resonant frequency and damping factor is

sensitive to the length and mCtnnor in which the sp~cimen is supported
(Section 10.4.1), a study must be made of the mnchine effects on f and
r
Q, as the loading frame is likely to alter their value. However, their
true value is not required, all that is needed is a relative value. Yet,
once an initial load has boen applied, f
r
and Q must be shown to be
independent of any increase in land 12er so. If not; it will be difficult
to distinguish whether the resonant frequency change is due to nn increase
in load or to the formation of a crack.
11.3 2'13
However, there was a furthGr complication. As no X-Y

oscilloscope or phase-angle measuring equipment was avnilable, it
was necessary to rely solely on tho test equipment shown in Figure
11.2.3.1. Although checks on the value of fr were obtained through
pulse velocity me~surGments, the formulae used are only QPproxim~te and
do not account for end restraints and other influences of the testing
machine (LO; E,F). Therefore Q test W.:J.S conducted to dete):,lnine the
effect of the testing ~~chine .:J.nd load on the resonant frequency.
The various methods of supporting the 4-inch cube and tho corresponding
amplitude-frequency curves are shown in Figure 11.3.5.1. From this
graph it is evident that it is not difficult to measure resonant peaks
when the specimen is properly supported, but once the cube has been
placed in the testing frame there are no longer any dominant peaks.
As the formulae for pulse velocity confirmation of resonance are no
longer valid with those support conditions, it is impossible to determine
which peak is the fundamental resonance without the assistance of phase-
angle equipment.
ltlith peaks of this size, the shape of one peak will often
overlap and influence the shape of the adjacent peak. As a result
Q measurements are inaccurate.
Although theoretically the technique has promise, it w~s
impossible to apply it to concrete without using phase-angle equipment.
11.3.6 Alternative Testing Technique for Detarminj;ng fr

In order not to abandon the resonant frequency tests
completely, other possible techniques were considered.
Obert (LO), in testing the effect of pressure on f, loaded

r
the specimen in compression through platens supported on knife edges
to reduce the machine influence:3. \rJhen studying concrete this is not
acceptable, as even large platens will bend appreciably when well
supported (N,L), much less on a knife edge. 1-1. curved platen, in turn,
will cause stress concentrations in the centre of the specimen and
precipitate failure.
FIGURE' 11· 3· 5,1 ~
,-_ ---:1<--- -
I
'. _ EFFECT OF S;PECrMEN SUPPORT ON
O~41 AMPLITUDE-FREOUENCY DISTRIBUTION
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FREQUENCY (cps)
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11.3 215
Even so, with thc knife edges, Obert used a pulse regeneration
technique that would determine the resonant frequency. .l similar but
greatly modified set up was tested with spare pre-placed agsregate
sp(~cimens. A Cintel delayed pulse and sweep genera tor was connected
to both the emitter transducer and the output of a Cossor Hodel 14ll-9
amplifier attached to the receiver transducer. Thus the generator
pulsed the emitter transducer, the resulting acoustic energy was
trnnsmitted through the concrete, r:.;ceived, amplified, and returned
to the generator to act as' a trigger for the next pulse to the
emitter trnnsducer. In this 'vvD.y the system regenerated itself and the
frequency of pulsing was measured by a counter. Considerable difficulty
was encountered bocause of instability, but a preliminary test was
conducted. i{ mortar specimen with six pieces of nggrega te ',was loaded
to failure and the frequency reading taken with the pulse regeneration
apparatus. The results are shown in Figure 11.3.6.1. No strain measure-
ments wore taken as this w~s only a preliminary test. The results agree
well with rGsearch by Obert on tho effects of pressure.
11.3.7 Conclusions
From tho pulse rogeneration tests, it would etppear thnt, oxcept

for initial loads, the resonant frequency is virtually independent of
loading. This is in agreement with Elvery and Furst (E,F), who have
tested concrete and the variation of its dynamic modulus under sustained
load. They observe0 that upon loading there was an initial decrease in
the dynamic modulus. However, their loads did not exceed -2500 psi and
hence would not indicate whether, as is shown in Figure 11.3.6.1, at
slightly higher loads the dynamic modulus is independent of its applied
load. If further tests substnntinte th~s, then the resonant frequency
technique could be used to study microcracks since any chCtnge in resonant
frequency would be a reflection of changes in internal structure of the
specimen and not due to additional restraint caused by the applied load.
The curve in Figure 11.3.6.1 may also indicate that the resonant
frequency technique is insensitive or that the specimen is failing by a
series of small cracks or bond failures (Section 11.3.4). To determine
216
FIGURE 11·3·6·1
PULSE REGENERATION TESTS
. .
EQUIPMENT SET-UP
freqUeil:-JY Advance I 0,
counter TC1... V 3
(~l . \l
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IbJ .d r _0>- I [r-,~-~
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TEST RESULTS
2L\ OOO r
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20 00 0 l l . - . , !_ _ _ D g , r,
o -2000 -4000 -6000 -8000

LONGITUDINAL STRAIN, 'u3 (psi) .
-'
11.4 217
the sensitivity of the techniques, resonant frequency, damping factor,

and pulse velocity tests were conducted on two companion beams, 20 inches
in length, one of which was cracked. Including specimen to specimen
variation the crack caused a decrease in f
r
of 21.8%, a change in Q
of 8.1%, and a pulse velocity decrease of 2.8%. Therefore the resonant
frequency technique was the most sensitive to the existence of the crack.
However, for these tests the 20-inch beam was properly supported; the
effect of the testing frame may decrease the sensitivity. The slight rise
in resonant frequency just prior to ultimate load of the specimen is so
small as to be hardly significant, although it may indicate the formation
of small cracks (Section 11.3.4).
The pulse regeneration technique was plagued with instability

problems and difficulties in measuring Q. As an example, it required
two weeks to obtain Figure 11.3.6.1. Therefore it was decided that
although the technique was promising theoretically, it could bost be
tested with phase-angle measuring equipment when available.
11.4 SOUND EMISSION. TESTS
11.4.1 Introduction
As mentioned in Section 11.1.1, when a crack forms some of the

energy of the specimen will be lost in the form of sound. Although the
energy loss is small and the sound is often faint, it is sufficient
to be picked up by transducers, amplified, and studied. Both Rusch (HR)
and L'Hermite (RLH) have recorded these sounds and concluded that they
are in fact caused by internal cracking. L'Hermite has compared the
occurrence of the cracks with the stress-strain curvG, while Rusch has
integrated the sounds. Both investigators concluded that cracks start
to form in a specimen at a load less than ultimate, generally about 50
to 8~fo of ultimata load.
Such tests on concrete may furnish consider~ble information

about microcracking because:
a) a study of the energy of tho sound may help to differentiate

between major and minor cracking;
11.4 218
b) a plot of emitted sound against load will indicate at

what loads cracks occur; and
c) a study of the frequency distribution of the sounds may

identify bond or mortar cracks.
11.4.2 Testing Technique
The test set up for the sound emission tests was similar to
that shown in Photograph 11.2.7.1 except that only one transducer was
used. The other was in position solely to balance the trans~ucer
holder. The actual location of the transducer on the specimen is not

critical as concrete is Q good acoustic conductor (RR). The receiver
transducer was wired to an Advance valve amplifier and this in turn
,connected to a Philips tape recorder.
The specimen was first loaded in compression to -120 psi, the

strain gauge drift checked, and then initial strain readings were taken.
Immediately afterwards the tape recorder was started at its fastest speed
(highest fidelity). The spGcimen was then tapped lightly three times and
a stop watch started on the third tap. This coordinated tho watch with
Ithe tape recorder. While the tape recorder continued to record, the load
was increased to the first load stage, the time noted, strain readings
were taken, the time was again recorded, and the load increased to the
next load stage. Meanwhile, the recorder was registering all the sounds
produced by the concrete, both during loading and at the various load
stages, but since both recorder and load were a function of time it ""as
possible to separate the two loading conditions during tho analysis.
The time to failure was 6 to 9 minutes.
To reduce extraneous background noise, the following precautions

were taken:
a) all tests were conducted at night, and
b) the control panel for the 200-ton capacity testing frame

and the Solartron data logger were removed to an adjacent room.
11.4 219
11.4.3 Analysis of Data, General
With the sounds permanently recorded on magnetic tape, they

could be thoroughly processed by different analytical techniques. By
replaying the tapes and studying the sounds with different equipment,
a thorough analysis of their major characteristics W2S possible.
The electronic equipment described below was to a large extent

borrowed from the Electrical Engineering Department of Imperial College,
to which the autho"r is grateful. Moreover, appreciation is expressed to
Messrs. R. Alford, L. Jncovides, and D. Pedder for not only arranging
for the use of the appnratus, but also helping the author to set up and
operate it.
11.4.4 Sound Energy
When a crack forms, the strain energy transformed to acoustic

energy appears as a sharp sound (referred to as a pip), the amplitude
of which can vary considerably. Rusch, in his sound emission tests,
integrated the sounds; the area under such a curve is proportional to
the acoustic energy received.
If this form of analysis is used on the sound pips recorded from

the specimens in Mixes A to J, the results would indicate the effect of
increasing the proportion of coarse aggregate on the energy of these pips.
The required electronic apparatus is shown schematically in Figure
11.4.4.1. ~Jith the Solartron analogue tutor (TY 1351), the output
from the Philips tape recorder was first negatively biased and then
rectified. (A positive bias was also used, but the results were very
similar, indicating that the positive and negative portions of the pips
were reason~bly symmetrical). This in effect removed all background noise,
but also removed any sound pips whose amplitude was so sm211 that they
were hidden in the be-ckgrounc1 noise. The remaining pips were integrated
and plotted against time on n Bryans Aeroequipment X-Y coordinat0 plotting
table (No 1806). The load-time curves drawn from data obtained with the
stop watch during testing were used, .:J.nd tho abscissa of the graph was
converted to true load in pounds per square inch.
FIGURE 11·4·L]··1
0-1
oscilloscope
EQUIPMENT USED TO INTEGRATE SOUND " I

.
r L-=rl...
_ __. ___________ ~l ~ :.~
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tape ~_ I - J '=~ Y axis,""'-O

recorder I - I integration circuit '~I rll..----o-;-i___ --I
: ' Solartron Analogue Tutor l : - I

I . TY 13 51~: I
,- i<G bias ! A=amplifier :
X axis
4.5v _ 3 t I
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I =!- ~
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11.4 221
The results arc shown in Figures 11.4.4.2 to 11.4.4.8 together

with the accompanying strain measurements. The scales for each of the
curves as well as tho type of line used, (dotted, broken, etc.)are shown
parallel to the ordinate. The loads are indicated along the abscissa,
the heavier short lines being the load stages durin3 which the load was
maintained constant while strain readings were taken. Tho energy of the
pips is the arGo. under the heavy continuous black line drawn by the X-Y
plotter.
Harked on eCtch curve is tho load at which the Poisson's Ratio

begins to increase and is designated a • At approximately the same
pr
load, the Young's modulus starts to decrease more rapidly than it had
previously. It is evident that at this load a major change in the
structure of the concrete has taken plnce: a change significant enough
to cnuse changes in the Poisson's ratio and modulus of elasticity. o
pr
will bo discussed further in Chapter 12.
In studying these curves their limitations must be remombered.
a) The small pips have been lost due to biasing and subsequent
rectification.
b) The amplifier in the Solartron analogue tutor will only

respond to a certain frequency range; any sounds with frequencies
outside the limits will bo ignored. To reduce this loss, the tape
recorder ,"vas replayed at half speed (3.75 in./sec), which roduced the
effective frequency of the recorded pips by one h'J.lf. As tho nnximum
frequency which could be recorded at 7.5 in./sec on the tape recorder
was 20,000 cps, when played back at 3.75 in./sec this frequency would
be reproduced at 10,000 cps. This value was within the capabilities of
the Solartron amplifiers. However, some of the high frequency pips may
h~lve been lost.
c) BeCause of acoustic energy lassos in the concrete, and

VOltage losses in the olectric,::>.l equipment, the energy curves shown
are not to scale, but are indicative only of the relative amount of
acoustic energy being emitt8d.
INTEGRATION OF EMITTED SOUND 222
l- 0 0
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MORTAR . A/C=2.o W/C=0.42 I
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INTEGRATION OF E1ViITTED SOUNr)/223
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MORTAR A/C=2.o W/C=0.42
MAXIMUM LOAD= -8710
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FIGURE 11. 4·4·6 224
INTEGRATION OF EMITTED SOUNDS
MIX 'G' /
CONCRETE A/C=4.5 W/C=0.45 /
MAXIMUM LOAD = -7060 /
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FIGU.RE 11.4·4·7
INTEGRATION OF EMITTED SOUNDS ,
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MIX 'H' d
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CONCRETE A/C=6.0 WiC=o.50 i I
MAXIMUM LOAD: -5550 ; /
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INTEGRATION OF EMITTED SOUNDS
MI)( 'J' 1'1' I.
tri.:r
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MAXIMUM LOAD= - 5260· /:1 ~ Z-.-
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11.4 226
11.4.5 Sound Pips as D. Function of Load
Although the data in the previous section nre of considerable

interest, they show only when large .:.margy losses start to occur. This
leaves unanswered the question of when cracks actu~lly start, especially
small ones. This can be shown by connecting the output of the tape
recorder to a Savage and Parsons direct writing oscillograph recorder
(RG32-12/15). 'llhe writer was set up with a type 103/A galvanometer whose
natural frequency was 10,000 cps and which had a D.C. sensitivity of
30 mA/cm. The tape recorder was again run at hQlf speed to reduce the
sound frequency to a lovel that could be handled by the galvanometer.
The print-out paper, Kodak linagraph RP 12 stabiliz0d with SO-308, was
run at 5 inches per minute. No effort was m~de to filter out background
noisos sinco this would also affect the sound pulses. TherGfore, with
all the sound pips printed on pnper and with Q knm1ledge of tho speed
of the oscillograph recorder, the 10C\.d stnges could be plotted directly
on the paper. The load stages were positioned to within 3% of the linear
distance along tho paper.
At a run-out speed of 5 incheS per minute, the print-outs were

lengthy and only the critical sections are shown in Figures 11.4.5.1 to
11.4.5.7. Each figure contains three segments of the print-out, one at
low loads, one containing 0 (location marked), and tho third at high
pr
loads near failure. On each segment a da~k line ~ inch thick runs across
tho length of the page. This is the background noise, the occasional'
brenk in which is cnused by an internal marking device in the o~cillograph
recorder. Tho sound pips are dark lines extending above the background
noise. The first one is adjacent to the symbol a in Figure 11.4.5.1,
although Figures 11.4.5.6 and 11.4.5.7 show the pips more clearly.
Tho load stages during which the loads were held ccmstant for
strQ..in readings are nnrked.
Since theso r0cordings are from the same specimens as thoso used
in Section 11.4.4, the same stress-strain curves are applicablo.
EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11 ·4·5·1 MIX ;t\
-2420
I .
-- - -- - - .. _- _.- .__ ._. - "--- -
EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11-4·5 ·2 MIX 'e'
'. ,
EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11.4.5.3 MIX 'D'
-970
40001mat
) 14 -1460
I,141.11....6111.10•111010.' • • ."-J
-5840
EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11 4.5-4 MIX 'F'
EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11.4.5.5 MIX 'G'
-2890
°A*011011111.1411010337°Fw
k -5360

EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11 4.5 6 MIX 'H'
-490 -970
„6011,140kulitt.0.144)41
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EMITTED SOUNDS FIGURE 11.45.7 MIX 'J'
-970
-1940
pr
11.4 234
11 .4.6 Frequencies of tho Emitted .Sounds

Both tho energy and occurronce of tho sound pulses h~vo been
studied. Yet, there rcm:1.ins anoth0r importnnt chnro.ctcristic of sound,
its frequency. Rusch not,ed that the frequoncy of tho sound W:1.S in oxcess
of 2000 cps, but of more int~rest is whothor there nre any particular
bnnds of frequencies present, and if so why. For example, an aggregate-
mortar bond failure might be expected to ho.vG 0.. different frequency than
a mortar-morto.r crack.
Although thore is a number of Qutom::ttic frequency nn3.1ysing

machines available, theso ar0 c~pable of studying only continuous sounds,
not sharp pulses. To overcome this, the tape recorder was connected to
a Cav.dco:ll Romscope 741 Storage oscilloscope, which was sot to trigger
when a pulse occurred. The pulse wo..s then displnyed on the oscilloscope
and a Sho..ckm2n oscilloscope camera (No. AC2/25) londed with Ilford 5G91
film recorded the shape of the pulse.
As it \10uld have beon a momentous task to annlyse nIl tho pips,

40 to 50 were arbitrarily chosen from each specimen. The photographs
(typical snmples nre shown in Photograph 11.4.6.1) were projected so that
the pulse widths (fr(~quencies) of tho pips could be measured. This
provided [l large amount of (1'1 to., which when plotted formed two distinct
bands of frequencies, one [t t ,:?.n equi va10n t frequency of .:lpproxim2 tcly
2,000 cps 2nd the ,)ther nt 13,000 to 14,000 cps ,..,ith very few pips in
between. The dn t~1. were sepo. ret ted into these two eli visions, 0. statistica.l
analysis was nlnd8 and is presented. in Table 11.4.6.1. For each mix there
nrc two major sections, one for 8nch b:tnd of froCiucncies. In G:tch of
these major sections thor~ Gre four COlU~lS, tho left-h:tnd column
containing tho londs in psi. For tho pips Ctn2.lysec1 between any load
stages, the tGble lists the nver:tge of a value (f) which is directly
proportional to the pulse length and frequency, the standard deviation
of f, and its coefficient of vnriation. At the bottom of the table is
the nverage, standard deviation, and coofficient of v~rintion of f for
the entire specimen.
235
Photograph 11.4.6.1
Oscilloscope Presentation of Sounds

Emitted from Concrete under Compression
11.4 236
Table 11.4.6.1
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF EMITTED SOUNDS
HIX A
Load
(psi)
AVG.
f*
S.D. C.V.
Load
(psi)
Avg.
f * S.D. c.vl
---
-350 3.2 1.1 34 -350 22 2.5 11
-700 3.2 1.0 33 -700 22 2.7 12
-1200 3.1 0.5 17 -1200 20 2.5 12
-2200 3.2 1.2 37 -1950 20 1.5 8
-3100 3.2 1.4 43 -2200 21 1.4 7
-3650 2.7 0.3 11 -2700 18 3.5 12
-4050 3.4 0.2 6 -3100 19 0 0
-4350 4.8 - - -3400 18 1.7 10
-5100 2.6 0.6 23 -3650 21 6.2 29
-5750 2.5 0.7 28 -4050 16 2.1 13
-6100 3.4 1.4 41 -4350 80 - -
-6300 2.6 0.2 7 -4600 16 1.9 12
-6600 2.8 0.9 3 -5650 20 0.8 4
-7050 2.4 0.3 12 -6100 20 11.5 58
-7300 4.3 0.8 19 -6600 17 2.4 14
-7500 2.9 1.1 37 -7050 28 10.7 39
-8000 2.8 0.9 34 -7500 16 1.7 11
-8000 28 10.7 75
-" ~
for entire specimen for entire specimen

.;') )lO 1.• Q 33 • 20.7 • 9.2 44
11.4 237
Table 11.4.6.1 (cont.)
MIX C
Load Avg. Load Avg.

(psi) f *
, S.D. e.v. (psi) f *
S.D. e .V
----
-350 3.8 0.6 16 -350 28 2.5 9
-480 3.8 0.4 11 -500 25 7.3 29
-750 3.6 1.1 29 -750 23 2.6 12
-1200 3.4 0.2 4 -1200 22 2.1 9
-1700 3.8 0.4 11 -1700 21 2.0 9
-1920 3.3 0.5 17 -2200 21 1.1 5
-2200 4.1 1.0 25 -2420 20 1.3 7
-2650 3.5 0.7 20 -2650 20 1.7 9
-3100 3.1 0.7 24 -3100 20 1.9 1o
-3360 2.9 0.4 13 -3380 19 1.8 1o
-3650 3.0 0.2 6 -3650 20 0.9 5
-4100 3.2 0.7 23 -4100 19 3.1 16
-4350 3.4 1.0 29 -4400 21 0.8 4
-4600 2.9 0.4 14 -4600 19 2.1 11
-5100 3.2 0.6 20 -5100 19 1.9 1o
-5350 2.8 0.2 5 -5600 18 1.1 6
-5600 3.1 0.4 13 -5820 20 -
-6100 3.1 0.4 13 -6300 18 1.0 6
-6600 2.5 0.6 24 -6600 23 18 8o
-6820 2.8 0.7 25 -6820 33 ::32 96 I
-7100 2.4 0.2 7 -7300 18 0.7 4
-7500 2.8 0.5 18 -7500 82 28 8
-8000 3.1 0.7 22 51
:--" -
for entire specimen
---_ _--,---..
for entire specimen
3 .22~', 0.8.::·:;· 24 22.2 ~J.8
--,..... _-------
4
~J
11.4 Table 11.4.6.1 (cont.) 238
MIX D
-
f Loud Avg.
f * S.D. C.V. Load
(psi)
Avg.
f*
S.D.
(psi)
-100 2.7 0.8 29
"----
-350 30 3.7 12
-210 3.2 0.4 14 -500 29 0.6 2
-350 3.2 0.9· 29 -700 27 1.4 5
-500 3.8 0.2 6 -1200 24 1.4 6
-700 3.2 Oa7 22 -1700 23 1.8 8
-960 2.8 0.2 6 -2200 22 1.8 8
-1200 3.3 0.5 15 -2450 21 108 9
-1450 3.4 0.3 10 -2700 22 2.1 10
-1700 3.5 0.9 25 -3100 22 1.3 6
-2200 3.1 0.7 22 -3400. 20 1.3 6
-2420 3.4 0.1 4 -3600 20 2.7 13
-2700 3.5 0.9 25 -3880 21 2.3 11
-2900 3.1 0.5 15 -4100 22 3.5 16
-3100 3.3 0.4 13 -4400 20 2.2 11
-3390 2.9 0.5 17 -4600 18 3.3 19
-3600 2.3 0.4 17 -5100 22 3.7 17
-4100 3.0 0.5 18 -5600 18 5.0 27
-4360 2.8 0.6 21 -5850 21 1.1 5
-4600 2.9 0.5 16 -6100 28 19.7 70
-4820 3.1 0.4 14 -6600 20 2.9 15
-5100 3.2 0.2 6 -6820 41 43.0 105
-5350 2.9 0.5 18 -7300 26 27.1 106
-5600 3.1 0.2 7 -7600 28 27.8 101
-5850 2.6 0.7 28 for entire specimen
-6100 3.1 0.5 17
23.6 : 11.1' 47
-6350 2.l~ 0.5 21
-6600 2.7 0.3 12
-6850 2.4 0.2 7
-7100 2.3 0.3 15
-7300 6.3 2.0 31
-7600 2.8 0.9 34
-8000 2.4 0.2 9
for entire specimen
2.95.,'.: 0.8 26
J
11.4 239
HIX F
----,.... ~-
Loud Avg. Load Avg.

(psi) f*
S.D. c. v. (psi) f *
S.D. c.V
.. r'-"'-'~-
-350 4.1 0.5 11 -250 3o 1.3 44

-490 3.9 1.2 30 -350 28 5.3 19
-700 3.5 0.5 15 -500 23 7.1 31
-1200 3.3 0.8 23 -700 22 4.6 20
-1450 3.0 0.6 22 -1200 2o 2.9 14
-1700 3.9 1.5 39 -1700 2o 2.2 11
-2200 2.B 0.8 30 -2200 33 1.2 34
-2420 2.5 0.6 24 I -2450 4o 0 0
-2900 2.5 0.5 22 -2900 29
-3100 2.5 0.7 26 -3100 37 2.4 7
-3600 2.7 1.2 45 -3600 15 1.2 8
-3850 2.3 0.6 24 -4100 25 7.8 31
-4100 2.1 0 15 -4350 31 11.1 35
-4350 2.6 0.7 26 -4600 33 4.0 12 1
-4850 2.4 0.4 15 -4850 36 26.3 72 i
-5100 2.3
2.2
0.4
0.1
16 -5100 24 13.3 571
-5350 7 -5350 31 7.5 24
-5600 2.1 0.2 9 -5600 21 11.0 52
-5850 2.6 0.2 6 -5820 2o 2.1 11
-6100 2.4 0.3 14 -6100 36 1.5 4
-6300 2.5 0.3 12 -6300 18 2.4 14
-6600 2.6 0.2 7 -7100 12 3.3 27
-6820 2.4 0.1 4 -7300 19 3.4 18
-7100 2.7 0.5 20 -7500 15 4.8 33
-7500 2.5 0.5 19 -8000 19 3.8 20
-Booo 2.5 0.4 16
for entire specimen for ent ire specimen
2.7'-i 0.76 28 • 24.5 .. 9.8' 40
---~- -
1104 240

MIX G
_,,---_.-
.... --.--
Load Avg. S.D. C.V.
Load Avg. S.D. C.V
(psi) f* (psi) f*
_ _ _ ·........____ --.,.."'r... _ _
-250 3.9 1.6 42 -380 21 7.8 37

-340 3.4 0.8 23 -700 22 3.9 18
-700 2.8 0.4 13 -1200 21 4.9 23
-970 3.5 1.0 30 -1700 19 1.0 5
-1200 3.2 1.2 37 -2200 19 2.9 15
-1700 2.9 0.4 16 -2650 18 3.9 22
-2200 3.1 0.7 23 -2920 22 13 59
-2420 2.8 0.5 19 -3100 21 11 53
-2650 3.0 0.8 26 -3400 18 5.3 29
-2900 2.9 0.8 28 -3600 19 5.9 32
-3100 2.4 0.4 15 -3900 24 11 46
-3400 3 .1 1.1 36 -4100 23 16 70
-3600 2.8 0.9 32 -4400 22 14 64
-3850 2.5 0.7 29 -4600 16 1.2 7
-4100 2.9 1.0 36 -4900 21 8.8 42
-4300 2.7 0.6 22 -5100 21 12 59 .
-4600 2.7 0.4 16 -5400 24 22 90
-4850 2.6 0.8 32 -5600 22 5.8 27
-5100 2.7 0.9 34 -5800 23 15 64
-5400 2.3 0.3 11 -6100 20 7.9 40
-5600 2.6 0.4 17
-5820 3.6 1.0 27
f
-6100 2.6 0.4 15 I
for entire specimen
2.7q· 0.79 29
II for entire specimen
._--'......_------_ .._-,-_ _-_.-

.
..
20.9 . 10.8 J
51
l1IX H
Load -.----------··-r-----~--~~---~·--·-~·-·
( ps i)
Avg.
f * S •D•
. .......-
C. V
.........,-.... -
-~ --~- .....
Load
(ps i) . Ii
Avg.
f *
--~.-~
S•D•
..
.
C. V•
.....-.....--.-,----..........-.....--.........-- -
-350 3.2 1.0 32 -350 22 8.8 40

-490 3.7 1.0 27 -500 28 6.1 22
-700 3.2 1.2 37 -720 25 1.2 5
-1200 3.3 1.3 40 -950 19 5.5 30
-1700 2.9 1.2 42 -1200 23 3.3 15
-1950 2.2 0.1 4 -1450 14 5.7 41
-2200 2.4 0.1 7 -1700 17 5.9 35 I
-2400 2.9 1.1 38 -1950 14 6.3 46
-2700 2.9 1.2 41 -2200 21 8.9 42
-2900 2.1 0.04 2 -2400 15 3,8 25
-3100 2.7 0.8 28 -2700 13 4.5 34
-3400 3.2 1.6 49 -2900 16 2.6 16
-3600 3.2 1.1 36 -3100 19 12.3 64
-3900 3.0 1.3 45 -3400 · 18 10.8 61
-4100 3.1 0.2 6 -3600 20 13.1 64
-4350 3.0 0.4 13 -3900 18 12.2 67
-4600 2.9 0.3 11 -4100 20 10.6 53
-4850 3.3 0.8 25 -4600 24 17.4 72
-5100 3.0 0.5 18 -4900 23 13.8 59
-5600 3.6 1.1 29 -5100 23 30.0 86
-5400 22 20 90
. _ -.--.-
.. .............
-5600
-
25 19 76
for entire specimen for entire specimen

3.1 . 1';0 33
I
L___ ~_,_20.~3:~ 63 I
11.4 242
Table 11.4.6.1 (cant.)
MIX J
Load Avg. Load Avg. J

(psi) f '"
S.D. c.v. (psi) f * S.D. C.V
-220 4.8 2.1 43 -350 26 16

-350 4.5 2.3 52 -500 24 2.2 9
-480 4.8 2.0 42 -700 23 3.2 14
-700 4.9 2.4 49 -980 23 2.5 11
-980 3.4 1.2 34 -1200 23 5.5 24
-1200
-1480
5.3
3.1
2.5
0.7
48
23
-1700
-1920
22
20
11.5
2.1
51
11
I
-1700 3.5 1.6 45 -2200 19 1.5 8
-1920 3.0 0.7 23 -2450 19 3.3 17
-2200 3.6 1.7 48 -2700 21 2.7 13
-2420 3.5 1.1 31 -2900 26 12.5 491
-2700 4.4 1.8 41 -3200 32 33 104 I
-2900 3.4 2.9 84 -3400 28 22 ~1 t
-3200 3.0 1.3 43 -3600 20 3.1 16

-3400 3~7 2.8 77 -3900 21 9.1 44
-3600 4.5' 2.0 45 -4350 22 10.3 47
-3880 3.4 1.1 33 -4600 26 18.3 69
-4100 2.8 0.6 22 -4850 21 11.9 57
-4350 4.2 2.4 57 -5100 26 19 73
-4600 1.4 42
-4900 1.5 43
-5100 0.6 11 I
for entire specimen

t - - - . -_ _ ~3_.7_,"_ _
1.8,_'__ 48
I for entire specimen l
-L__~,:__~~_:~._~1.~_._:__5_1_J
1105
The value of f in these tables mo.y be converted to pulse

length by multiplying f by 0.25 x 10-4 seconds or to equiv~lont
frequency by multiplying th0 r~ciproco..l of f by 4 x 104. However,

the term frequency infcrs a repetitive sound, but the pips are of an
exceptionally short duration (milliseconds) ~nd· therefoFe do not have a
frequency as such. However, by using th0 rociprocal of tho pulse
length CL v.:::tlue in cycles per second C.1.n bo obtr.:dnod vlhich would have
been tho frequency if the pip hQd been of C1. longer duration with the
S:lmo pulse width. This has boon termoc1 tho equivnlont frequency.
11.5 JUSTIFICATION OF DATA

To prove that the noises studied ore in fact cnused by intornal
disruptions of the concrete, lot us c~mparo Mix A (FiGures 11.4.4.2 and
11.4.5.1) with Mixes G, H, and J (Figures 11.4.4.6 to 11.4.4.8 and
11.L~.5.5 to 11.4.5.7). From this it is evident that the In.tter figures,
shm.,r n significantly highor noise level thnn in Hix A. Yet all the
mixQs wore tested under the sarno conditions and with the snme equipment.
Thorofare the source of the noises in Mixos G, H, and J must como from
within the specimen.
However, at this stage it cannot be conclusively proven thnt

these noises nre caused by tensile cracks. A shenring grating-like
failure would also cause internal noises. Yet Jones (RJ-1) has
concluded th~t tho disruptions forming in concrete nre of n tensilo
natura. The suddenness and short duration of the individual pips would
suggost a locnl tonsilo failure and support Jones' conclusion.
11 .6 DISCUSSION OF THE TESTING TECm~IQUE
11.6.1 Rosonnnt FrequoncY,etnc1 D3.mping FCtctor
Theoretica.lly tho r,jsonnnt frequency and do.mping fact·or tests

may illc1ico.. to not only ""hen microcrClckine; occurs, but by D.. compnrison of
the relative ch2nges in f nnd Q, the test mny o..lso indicate the
r
npproximnte size of these cro.cks (Section 11.3.4). However, the loading
m::whine has a significant influence nnd this must be studied in doto.il.
11.7 244
The Dxperiments in this ch.::tptcr showed that the testing frame so damponed
tho rosonant peaks that tho value of Q might be difficult to measure, if
nDt moaningless.
For further development, phase-angle measuring equipment must be

used.
11.6.2 Sound Emission

Tho sound emission technique hns beon found to be sonsitive
to cr2ck formation and/or prop~gation oven at low loads. Furthermore,
it is simple .::tnd versatilo; vorsntilo since tho data obtained may be
analysed for n number of its fundo.montnl characteristics including energy,
occurronce, nnd pulse length.
The technique, however, provides no information as to the

loco..tion of tho crc..ck or its orientntion \.,rithin th'} specimen. It is
concoivable that a multicho.nnel tClpo recorder might be used \vith two
or morc microphones, and through stereophonic means determine the cro.ck
location.
Th0 technique could be improved by further efforts to reduco

the 50 cycle hum (bo.ckground noise) which appeared on the print-outs
(Figures 11.4.5.1 to 11.4.5.7). Tho usc of shorter londs and the bettor
electronic equipment may help. A higher fidelity professional tape
rocorder should be used for any future work.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION OF DATA
From an examination of Figures 11.4.4.2 to 11.4.4.8, Figures

11.4.5.1 to 11.4.5.7, arrl Table 11.4.6.1 the following conclusions are
drawn.
n) The integrated sound curves (Figures 11.4.4.2 to 11.4.4.8)

show that the energy dissip:::ttion level is sm'J.Il until a certain land is
exceeded. Beyond this, tho l.:.c~·ustic energy ami tted increo.ses. Evidently
above this 102d, the formation of n crack is associated with a highor
energy loss. This mny be caused by Q greater number of cr3.cks forming,
the for~~tion of larger cracks, or tho neod for Q higher energy level to
create or propagate 2 crack.
b) The lond at which the O-coustic en0rgy incre3.ses and tho
amount of the energy d0p'~nds on Q.:sgrogQt..: sizG:tnd co::trse .:tcsgreBnte
volume c,)ncentration. .H. cGmp::trison of Hix 1';. (o.gc;regQte size loss thnn
3/16 ri ) with Nixes G, H, and J (o.ggreg2-GG siz8 10ss than in) clearly
shows the effect of CtSGrGgcl to;;:: size; tho number of cracks and their
acoustic energy increaso with CtGgregnte .size. On tho other hand, a
compo-rison of Hixes Ii. to J indicates that nn increaso in the proportion
of the coarse QGsreeato in the mix will incre2se tho number of crC1.cks
that occur and the acoustic energy associatod \1ith thorn.
c) From Figures 11.4.5.1 to 11.4.5.7, cracking occurs to various

degrees throw~hout tho loading of the spc~cimen. Yot the integration
ignores many of the sounds nt 101fT IO:J.ds. This m:ly be due in part to
tho limitations mentioned in Soction 11.4·.4. On tho other hand, the
energy given off by these pips may be truly negligible. If so, the
integration nno.lysis may be 3. method of sep.::l.ratins crack formations·
that are nSGocictted with low and high energy sounds. This, in turn,
may distinguish between largo and smctll cracks or between bond and
mortar cracks. More study of this asp2ct is required.
d) Those crncks which occur at 1mv' 103.ds should not be lightly

dismissed. L'Her~it0, in his acoustic tests, observed cr~cking sounds
only after exce0dinG a load corresponding to a pr ; the noiso previous
to this \vo.s background noise. Kaplan 01FK-6), Hansen eTCH) and others
hnve all concludod th:::.t microcro.cking stnrtsQt a load o.p:?roximati:ili..g to
apr (Cho..ptor 12). However, D. compCtrison of Nix A with the rem:;.inder
shows tho. t disruptions do form or pro p:t gCl. to prior t() a pr • Therofore
in concrete cro.cks form nnd/or propagnte o.t low loads, particularly
with mixes contninin::j high proportions of coarse asgrognte.
Cracks occurring o.t 10\'" lands would 0xplo.in thu curvature of

the stross-stro.in clingro.m in this region. D2ntu (PD-1; PD-2) has
shown that the stress distribution thrOUGh tho cross section of a
concrete specimen o..ppears similar to Figure 11.7.1.10.. Due to the high
stross concentrations (the cnUSG of which h3.8 b0en 0xpl:1ined ,mnlyticnlly
in Chapter 7) oV:J.n a sr!Llll lot~d mny cause loco.l f,'lilure atone of these
FIGURE 11·7·1·1
HYPOTHETICAL TENSILE STRAI[\J DISTRIBUTION
DUE TO AN APPLIED COMPRESSIVE LOAD
local strains 10 C a i ten s i i e fa i I u r' e s rnajor' cI~acks

(sma! I cracks)
o r,,"~ assummed
I cl'itlcal
0 ~ ....I ..•
--=:;:.. -r-I·
o
- ----::::::~::.:- ~
I ten s i Ie .-=:::::::::::<.\. -j:., ~~

1 strain ~.I
-=====--- -- .--!}
I .'~ ~j
~:.
I ~
-======~.
71 ~~.l-,
If ~.::
lr_ <=t ~.:.
=====:::I~
~'
r'
;)
~~I
[ .c-:=.
.I
-~ ..J 1.
~i
::z=;··r;·
-=7.: . . ]":. . ".·
. ~i
-I
I
[
~ .. I I
~\
--;l;.,.
o 1
I
0 o
(a} ((:? ) (c) f\)
_~.
applied compr'S'ssive
.. load increasing froDl
~,_~_~~"".",>,"""",~ ~~,_:"-~."...r:~
(2)
_ _ _.............;:cr",,,,,,,_ _~_~,,,~ _ _~~~-=
to (c)
_______.~'
~-.,.:.:-.~
.... , .~
CJ)
high stress ccmcentra tions. \"lhen this occurs the local stre3SGS a.ro
rodistributed, causing an increase in tho stress in ndjacent aroas.
If this crnck is of sufficient size, its formation and the subsequent
stress redistribution mo.y be reflected in tho ol-:.stic behaviour of the
spocimen.
Rusch (HR) has c'::mducted sound tests on D. .specimen subjectod to

repetitive loading and obsorved th::tt on tho first IO~lding cycle cracking
sounds did occur, but upon reloading no sounds wore omitted until the
previous mnximum lOQd h:1.s boon exceeded. Honce the first landing ca.used
failures .:1t the highest locctl stress concentration, 2..nd rodistributed the
lo::td morc evenly over the cross section (Figure 11.7.1.1b). It is only
by exceedinG tho previous r.nximum lO:1.d that loc::ll stresses ng:1.in become of
such C\. m:tgnitude as to cC\.uso locc,l f::lilurv. This "ironing out;) process
is reflected in tho stress-strttin clio.grtllm. During the first load cycle,
the stres-strain diaGram will bo slightly curvod, but L'Hermitc has
observ0d that during subsequent loading cycles the stress-stro.in diagram
appro2ches :'. str':light lino.
e) As L'Hermito also noted, the ~mount of cracking decre2sed

when the lo:td w:J.s m::'.int~ined consto.nt. Similar buh:). viour llUY bo observed
in Figures 11.4.5.1 to 11.4.5.7 at tho v:lrious load sto.ges required for
strClin readings.
f) In Mixes A to J, Table 11.4.6.1 shows thClt thG 0mitted sounds

had two ch~r~cteristic pulse widths (equivalent frequencies). It was
hoped that if two frequency bands were obt2ined, n distinction might be
m2.do botwoen bond and morto..r ft1.ilures. In this circumst2..nco Q more
fundamontal oxplan:::ttion is likely. The hieher frequencies (shorter
pulse widths) are "13,000 to 14,000 cps or approximntoly the; same as the
first reson':'..nt peak of the specimen, (Figure 11.2.3.2 or 11.2.5.1) and
Qre therofore prob:l.bly 0. reflection of this resonance. The lower
frequencies, then, nre the frequGnci2s of the original pips. They
nrc nbout 2000 cps and hence in 3.gre0ment with the frequencies observed
by Rusch (Soction 11.1.1).
11.7
aqf I'ef ti./-e

The effect of e9ftiEl3:'l concentro.tion or lo::'..d on the .affective
frequency distribution is slight. Gon0r~11y, though, mixes with ~
hiGher volum;,.; cc;ncentr:::t tion h:J. V0 D. hi,~her scn tter of the emitted fre(].uencies.
h) As.:l spGcimGn is l02doc1 to fnilurG, 0. lo~,cl is re3..chec1 where

the 10. toro..l str3.in b0[sins tQ incre-::tse ro.piclly. .r~t ,'1pproximz1 tely the S:1mo
10:10., tho Young's modulus beGins to docre:lse more r:1pidly. The 10::1.0. at
which this occurs h:J.s be0n d0si~n3. tod a nnd is rnrked in the fie;ures.
pr
i) This 10:1d hos boon d~signQtcd apr sinc0, due to the
incre"J.sG in l~tor::'..l strc..in, the Poisson's r:1.tio increases significantly'.
Prior to a
pr'
the Poisson's rn tio of the sp~cimen hac1 bean const2.nt or
slightly docreo.sing in vnluc.
j) J, only
With tho exception of Mix ~n insiGnificant amount
of ncoustic energy is omitted prior to a •

pr
k) Neo.ra pr on the omitted sound-lond dio..er:J..ms (Fi,sures
11.4.5.1 to 11.4.5.7) there is n pip. Howover, thoro is nppnrontly
nothing unusunl nbout this pip ns othors, onos with even greator
amplitude, have procoeded it.
From this it is rG~sono.ble to conclude th..'l.t at a n

pr
s;hnnge hns occurred within tho concrete. This ch::..ngG is of sufficient
m:lgnitude to affoct the ol.:lstic parameters of the cencrete, especiGlly
the Poisson's ro.. tio. As ~ r.::sul t a
will bo gi von further:' study o.nd
pr
possibly rol~ted to the observations in (j) and (k).
m) On the b'J.sis of the sound omission tests, it woulu be

impossible to loc~te a pr
without the nssistnnce of strain re;.dines.
n) The m::..jor usc of the sound emission technique is to

det~rmine c,t what lo:tds internc'1l disruptions occur 3.nc~ the relo.tivc
c~coustic energy cmi ttod. ApP'J.ren tly ~ study of the frequency of
these sounds is of Ii ttle w1.lue.
CHAPTER 12
A STUDY OF MICROCRACKS BY
MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF SOUND THROUGH CONCRErE
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The discussion in the previous chapter h~s shown that the

acoustic method is sensitive to the occurrence of microcracks, but is
incapable of determining the crack location, orientation, or the exact
size of the crack. On the other hand, the pulse volocity technique,
which has been developed previously and used with success by Jones
(RJ-1; RJ-2), can provide information as to the location and
orientation of microcracks, and probably infer their size.
12.1.2 Theory
A pulse of energy will travel through concreto at n speed

of about 15,000 feet per second (Table 10.2.8.1) providing the concrete
is continuous. Let us assume that an air-filled crack in the concrete
is normal to the path of the propagating pulse. In such a case, the
pulse may either diffract around the crack, be reflected, or be
transmitted across the crack (L,C). Interfaces such as concrete-air
or nir-concrete are inefficient sound transmitters (Section 11.2.5).
Therefore little energy will be transmitted across nn air-filled crack,
most will be reflected. From basic acoustics (K,F), a 2 per cent
decrease will occur in the intensity of a steady state sound propagating
normal to an air-filled crack 1 x 10-6 cm across. A similar docrease
will occur for a wnter-filled'crack 1.3 x 10-2 em across. Janos (RJ-3)
has calculated that for n pulse of sound no significant amount of
energy will be transmitted across an air-filled gap, but that 10 to
25% may be transmitted across a water-filled crack. Hence to obtQin
the maximum effect the specimons used in Part III were air-dried for
eight weeks.
12.1 250
Due to the poor transmission properties of air, any s'ound

transmitted through the specimen must h':ve phssed around tho crack.
However, by circumventing the crack, the time required for the pu1se
to traverse the specimen will increase (apparent velocity will decrease).
Tho pulse amplitude will also decreaso, since p~rt of the pulse will be
reflected by the air-concrete boundary. Honce the presence of a crack may
be dctoroincd by a docrease in either pulse velocity or amplitude.
12.1.3 Effect of Crack SiZe and Orientation on Pulse Velocity
Not only will the thickness of ~ crack affect the pulse

transmission, but so will tho height, width, and orientation. A crack,
small in sizG compnred to the transducer, will reflect only n small
portion of the sound, while most of the sound will pass by the
extremities of the crack. A small crack cannot be expected to affect
the amplitude of the pulse noticenbly, nor will it be largo enough to
causo 11 noticeable increase in path length (docre~sG in velocity)
(RJ.3). Large cracks, on the other hand, will have n noticeable
effect on both the amplitude and velocity.
The discussion so far hns assumed that the plQne of the

crack was normnl to the direction of sound propagation. If the plano
of the crack were plrallel to the sound propagation, the sound would
pass unaffected past the surface of the crack (RJ-2). Thus by
measuring the velocity and/or the amplitude of a series of pulses
travelling through concrete at various orientations, it is possible
to determine the orientation of the crack.
12.1.4 Review of Previous Research
The major use of the pulse volocity technique is not for

detecting microcracks, but as a non-destructive technique for assessing
the elastic propertie~ strength, and quality of the material CMFK-2;
HFK-4; MFK-5; J,W; 8,8; JRL; L,C; A,N; JCS; RJ-3; RJ-6; RJ-7).
The pulse velocity test is particulnrly advantageous for this purpose
as it is indepdenent of the size ~nd shape of the spocimen, wherens the
resonant frequency tochnique is not.
12.1 251
Realizing thnt nn internul crack will influence tho pulse

velocity and amplitude, a number of investigators has used the
technique for studying internal cracking (RR; RJ-1; L,C; AEC;
J,K; JRL). Of these, the most comprehensive study of microcracking
has been conducted by Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2).
By plncing the transducers
nt various positions around the specimen, Jones determined the
orientation of the cracks under n given loading condition. He
concluded that in comprossion the cracks formed parallel to the
applied load and in tension were normal to the tensile stress
(Section 3.1.8). This technique was extended by Jones and Kaplan (J,K)
to a study of the influence of the type of coarse aggregate on initial
cracking.
Rusch, in turn, has studied the vari~tion of sound amplitude

with crack formation. Rusch irradiated one side of a specimen with
sound varying in frequency from 20,000 to 30,000 cps and observed the
amplitude on the opposite side. At a certain load the amplitude begall
to decrease indicating the formation of significant cracks, but then
the amplitude began to fluctuate. This led Rusch to conclude that the
cracks were opening and closing • . It is not logical that once tho
cracks have opened they should close again, nor does this agree with
Jones's pulse velocity investigation (RJ-2). Figure 11.2.3.2 or
11.2.5.1 shows th2.t the resonant frequency of concrete 4 inches thick
is about 20,000 cps and that in this range there are numerous
amplitude pen.ks. Rusch mentions that the frequency hnd to be "wobbled"
by 800 cps to eliminate resonant interferences. Thus, depending on
the sizG of the specimen Rusch used, his vQriation in nmplitudo could
be explain0d by varitt tions in resonance with lond or wobbling and
therefore in the amplitude of the output rather than nn opening and
shutting of the cracks. To eliminate this problem, it would be best
to incren.se the frequency of tho sound, but the A.F. generator available
did not hQve n capacity above 30,000 cps. Therefore, it was decided to
concentrate on measuring the changes in puls2 velocity as n function of
the load. Leslie and Cheesman (L,C) support this decision by concluding
that tho pulse velocity is as important as the amplitude and has the
advantage of not depending on specimen surface conditions.
252
TESTING
12.2.1 Equipment
To measure the pulse velocity, a Cawkell ultrasonic material

tester, Type UCT-2, was used in conjunction with tho barium titinate
transducers. This equipment pulsed one tr~nsducer and then received
the pulse from the other transducer. The Clctuo.l time required for
the pulse to traverse the concrete WclS measured on a special oscilloscope.
Depending on the sharpness of the return pulse and the exp~rience of
the operator, it was possible to rend the equipment to an accuracy of
: 0.05 microseconds. When an increaso in time granter thnn this error
was meo'sured,the change was considored significant (FJR) and it was
inferred that a crack had formed between thc transducers.
12.2.2 Experimental Technique
Before the transcucers were placed in their holders, their

surfaces were greased with silicone grense and the two trnnscuccrs
held together while n zero rending wns taken. This value \I/o.s In tor
subtracted from readings through the specimen to eliminate time delays
caused by transmission of the pulse through the wires and transducers.
The trnnsducers were then placed on opposite sides of tho specimen and
held in position with the transducer holder (Photogrnph 11.2.7.1).
This is the optimum orientation of the trcmsducers for, as Jones hns
shown, the cracks form parallel to the applied compressive load and
hence normal to the direction of the pulse path, wmre tho cracks will
have the greatest influence on the pulse volocity.
The specimen was thon checked for strain grmgo (lrift, and
initial pulse velocity and strain gaug'') readings were taken. A stop
watch was started and tho land increased to the first load stage,
where the strains wore agnin rond with the Sol~rtron dGtn logger.
Three readings were taken on tho pulse velocity apP1.ratus, another
set of strain rendings were takon, and tho timo recordod. Tho lond
was then increased to the second lond stago, etc. By measuring the
strains at the start and finish of each lond stage, it w~s possible
to determine creep during the pulse velocity readings.
12.2 253
Just prior to fQilure the transGucers and lateral strain

gauges were removed to prevent their dal11age. The average time to
failure was ~bout 20 minutes.
12.2.3 Analysis of Data
As two specimens \<Jere testod for each of the 9 mixes, the

data from both specimens were QverCl.:-:-;ed. The strain readings fr~m
both these specimens wore generally within ~ 5%, especially for Mixes
A to F. However, for tho concrete Mixes, G, H, and J, the variation
in some instances was as high as ! 10.% or, at high loads noar ultimate,
even greater. One specimen in Mix J produced erro..tic results and
another specimen wns substituted. The compressive strengths were
calculated by dividing the true loncL by tho cross soc~ionnl area of
the specimen; and tho results were averaged. The agreoment was good,
genern.lly within ~ 3%. The pulse velocity was calculated by dividing
the distance between the transducers by tho time required for the pulse
to traverse this distance, as determined by tho Cnwkell apparatus. To
facilitate plotting and comparing the data, the pulse velocity at any
load was dividod by tho pulse velocity at the initial load stage,
thus reducing the plot to relative values. Tho results are shown in
Figures 12.2.3.1 to 12.2.3.8.
Those figures are similar to those of tho integrated sound

specimens in Chapter 11. The lo~d is plotted along the abscissa and
the strains or the relative pulse velocity along the ordiTh~tG. Marked
on each figure is the load at which the Poisson's ratio stnrtcd to increase
(0 ) and the load at which the pulse velocity stnrted to decrease (0 ).
pr pv
It was observed in some s}x':cimens that there were two loads at which
the Poisson's ratio or the pulse velocity altered. In such instances both
were marked and the first was designated with a prime C'). The
varia tion of 0 for any specimen in the snme mix wC'-s wi thin the load
pv
stages used nnd is probably within ± 4% of the average.
The last figure, Figure 11.2.3.8, shows tho influence of coarse

aggregate (abbreviated C.A.) on the pulse velocity curve.
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EFFECT OF C. A. 0 N PULSE VEL.
MIX; SYMBOL
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12.3 258
12.3 JUSTIFICATION OF Dl~iT;i OBTAINED BY THE PULSE VELOCITY

TECHNIQUE
Causes of Pulse Velocity Decrease
The increase in path length which results in an apparent

decrease in pulse velocity could be caused by two factors:
a) an internal disruption requiring the pulse to

circumvont the disruption, or
b) an increase in the size of the specimen.
Item (b) is not valid. A simple calculation shows that for a lateral
strain of, say, 400 microstrain, the pulse velocity would docrease a
negligible 0.04 per cent. Hence the decrease in pulse velocity which
occurs in concretes must be caused by an internal disruption. From
the work previously conducted by Jones, it cnn be concluded that this
internal disruption is of the form of a tensile crack or cracks.
12.4 DISCUSSION OF THE TESTING TECHNIQUE
12.4.1 Advantages of the Technique
Detecting microcracks through a change in the pulse velocity

is in many ways an excellent technique. Its advantages are:
a) ease of set-up and use in the laboratory or field;

b) independence of the size and shape of the specimen
of structure;
c) determination of the condition of tho concrete along the
entire path length and not just n surface estimate; and
d) independence of surface condition, which is not true
for the pulse amplitude tocrmique used by Rusch.
Disadvantages of tho 'rechniguo
The technique also h8.,g certain limitations which, although

hardly drawbacks, must be realized when analysing the results.
a) The technique is only sensitive to cracks located in the

p~th of the pulse nnd oriented o.pproxicntely norm21 to the direction
of propagation. Hence the most likely direction of crack form.'l.tion
12.4 259
should be foreseennnd the transducers arranged accordingly. Yet this

can olso be an advantage, since when the direction of crack formntion
is unknown, the technique may be used to determine tho crack orientation.
b) It was shown in the introduction to this chapter that

water-filled cracks Jr8 better acoustic conductors tlli~n air-filled
cracks. As a result it Qny be expected that the pulse velocity
technique will be less sensitive to crack formation in saturated
concretes. However, the technique h2s been used successfully on
saturated concretes (Chnpter 17).
c) The acoustic tests described in Chapter 11 have shown that

microcracking occurs throughout loading, especially in concretes. Yet
a study of Figures 12.2.3.1 to 12.2.3.7 gives no indication of micro-
cracks forming at early lo~d stages. Instead, due to the increase in
density as a result of the loo.d, the pulse velocity increases very
slightly. The cracks that occur at low load stages are likely to be
small and stable. Since the cross sectional areD. of the pulse is at
least 1.5 inches in diameter, smnll cracks cannot be expectod to
influence the pulse velocity. This conclusion is in contradiction
to Rusch (HR), but in agreement with Jones and other investigators (EJC;
',RJ-1; A,N). Jones found that fabricated cracks 0.5 to 1.5 inches long
caused a change in pulse velocity of only 2.5 to 3%. Hence the pulse
velocity technique is a methJd for recording the presence of large
cracks.
12.4.3 Improvement in the Testing Technique
The major difficulty encountered was reading the Cawkoll

equipment. This was quite time-consumin[S and depended on personal
judgement. For fut ure' tests of this nature it is rccommonded that
the technique proposed by Raiding (FJR) be used. A general consideration
of Raiding's technique shows certain drawbncks which prevent its general
use except in this circumstance. To moasure the pulse velocity accurately
the Cawkell apparatus is adjusted until the onset of the return pulse
just influences the next lowest time mnrkcr (Figure 12.4.3.1a). This
point is, in practice, difficult to determine accurately. To overcome
FIGURE '12·4·3·1 260
PULSE., VELOC ITY . 'MEASUREMENT
(a) MEASURING
TRUE PULSE VELOCITY
·time
markers,
\'
front of ~
return pulse ,
,(b) RECOMMENDED
FOR DE!ERMING ()pv
., ."'
, .
261
this difficulty, Reiding proposed the npp~ratus bo adjusted until the

marker is on the slope of the return pulse and the top of the m~rker on
a levol with the base line (Figure 12 .• 4.3.1b).· This point is far easier
and quicker to locate, and depends less on personal judgoent.. Since
this definition uses the slope rather than the onset of the pulse, an
accurate determination of the pulse velocity is not obtained. Further-
more, tho slope will ~lter during the advance stages of cracking. Yet
for finding the onset of formation of the large cracks this technique
is quite satisfactory, as the actual value of the pulse velocity is
imma..tcrial and the slope will not start to alter until after 0 •
pv
12.5 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION OF DATA
From an examination of Figures 12.2.3.1 to 12.2.3,8, the

following conclusions may be drawn.
a) Table 10.2.8.1 shows that the pulse velocities through

a 4-inch cube and through a 20-inch beam from the same batch agree
to within: 1% of their average. Kaplan (MFK-2), on the other hand,
measured the pulse velocity nlong the length and through the width of
a 4" x 4" X 20" beam and found the VGlocity along the 20-inch length
to be the smaller. The difference wns more than 5% in some cases.
Therefore the variation found by Kaplan may be due to anisotropy and
not to path length. This is supported by Leslie and Choosman, who
conclude that the pulse velocity should be independent of path length.
b) At a certain lOQd, designated on Figures 12.2.3.1 to

12.2.3.7 by 0' and cr
, the pulse velocity decreo.ses sharply,
pv
pv
indicating that cracking has occurred at this load stage. This
confirms data obtained by Jones and I~plnn (J,K) and Reiding (FJR)
which show the two decreases in pulse velocity. However, both
investigations neglect the first decrease, 0 •
'pv
c) The mortars and mortars with prcplaced aggregate show
two sharp increases in the pulse velocity. The first increase, marked
0 1 , is sm~ll.' Yet at approximately the same load stage the lateral
pv
strain also increases very slightly. This in turn is reflected in the
262
Poisson's ratio. At a still higher load stage, m~rked a pv , the

pulse velocity again increases. The: rn tio of a 'pv to a pv' with
the exception of Mix D, incre~ses with coarse nggregate volume
concentration until for a concrete is completely overshadowed
Of
pv
by 0 • Hence it would appear that at the load stage 0' cracks
pv pv
are occurring in the mortar phase, but as the volume of coarse
aggregate is increased, the sma~l effect of tho mortar cracks becomes
negligible and overshadowed by the effect of the cracks due to the
coarse aggregate.
d) In all mixes, at approximately the same load as 0 ,

pv
the lateral strain incre:lsGs suddenly. This point is dosigno. ted a
pr
as in Chapter 11, since the increase in Interal strain is most clearly
reflected in the value of Poisson's ratio. Volume changes are also
affected. Thus, the cracking which caused the pulse velocity to
decrease was of such 0. size as to affect tho laternl strain, Yet the
cracking detectGd prior to a by the acoustic technique in Chapter 11
pr
did not have this influence on the lateral strains. Hence at a fpv
and 0pv a fundamental change has occurred within the concrete.
Mix H shows the largest variation (~ 7.1%) between a pr

and a • Otherwise, a pv and a pr arc virtually tho same and
pv
both reflect this sudden internal chnnge within tho concrote.
The only other rosearch known by tho author \vhich compares

strain measuroments to changes in pulse velocity has boen briefly
referred to by L'Hermite (RLH)9 L'Hermito concluded that the pulse
velocity and Poisson's ratio both altered at the same load Clnd that
this WD.S caused by internnl cracking. According to L'Hermite's tests,
cracking occurred at 50 to 75% of ultimnte load. The data in this
chapter show large cracks occurring, at least for concretes, at 40
to 50% of ultimate load. Other\vise, the general behaviour of the
data presentedinthis chapter .:1nd that from L'Hermite's tests arc in
good agreement.
0) The longitudinal strctin is comparntively insensitive

to the change occurring at a pv (0).
pr
263
f) Creep of the lond staees increases after the applied

load oxceeds a pv. This effect has been observed by Neville CAHN-1),
but he concluded that the creep properties change at a load which is
~ to ~ of ultimate.
g) With the exception of the two extreme mixes which vary

only slightly, tho value of a decreases with increasing coarse
pv
aggregate volume concentration (Table 14.2.2.1). The values listed in
the t,~blo und.er "Pulse Velocity" for Mixes it to F have been corrected
in proportion to the mix to mix variation of tho ultimate strength in
the mortar as shown in Table 10.2.8.1. 0pv as a per cont of ultimate
load varies in n similar mam1er. Such a trend is shown graphically in
Figure 12.2.3.8 and indicatos clearly the effect of coarse aggregate
on internnl cracking. The variation observed is considerably greater
than the variation of ~ 3% obtained for any given mix. Therefore these
results are considered significant and will be discussed in more detail
in Chapter 14.
h) Figure 12.2.3.8 also shows that for increasing volume of

coarse agITregate, the slope of PV/PV.-load curve is steeper. lience an
1
increase in volume of coarse aggregate will not only cause a lowering
of a , but will increase the quantity and/or size of the cracks.
pv
This is in agreement with the conclusions to Chapter 11.
i) Also in agreement with Chapter 11 is the effect on

aggregate size. A comparison of the pulse velocity curve of Hix A
(aggregate size less than 3/16")w:t..th that of Hixes G, H, and J
(aggregate size less th:J.n i") in Figure 12.2.3.8 shows that the larger
size aggregate causes a to occur nt lower londs.
pv
j) It is again emphasized that the .pulse velocity technique
is insGnsitive to the cracks at low loads observod by the acoustic
technique in Chapter 11, but shows a significant change at a load
corresponding. closely to that at wInch the Poisson's ratio increases.
13.1 264
CHAPTER 13
X-RAY DETECTION OF MICROCRACKS
-~I-----N-C~O--N-C~RET='=E....
· --";"UN~ID~E~R LOAD
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1 .1 Introduction
The primary objective of Part III has been tv study microcracking

in concrete. The acoustic and pulse velocity techniques discussed in the
previous two chapters h2ve been able to show at what loads microcracks
form and propagate and, more specifically, the load at which latge cracks
develop in the concrete. The acoustic technique gave no indication of
the location or the orientation of tho crack. The pulse velocity technique
was more spocific; the crack must have formed between the transducers
and was more or less normal to the pulse path. The pulse velocity also
gave an indication of the rolative size of the crack. However, neither
of these techniques indicated whether the cracks formed in the mortar or
the mortar-aggregate interface. Furthermore there was no way of
measuring the size of the crack (other than small or large) nor of
determining how large cracks form at a •
pv
The most obvious way to determine this infornbtion is to
observe the crack physically. Berg (OYB) and Evans (RHE-1) have both
used microscopes to study these cracks on the surface, but such a technique
lends littlG to an understanding of the internal interparticle behaviour.
To overcome this, a research group at Cornell University (H,S,S,W) loaded
specimens to a predetermined load and then sliced them to examine the
internal structure for cracks. The technique proved successful and
shrinkage, bond, and mortar cracks were obsorved. However, once the
specimen had been sliced its continuity was destroyed and it could not
be studied undor any other loading conditions. Therefore the investigators
at Cornell were unablG to study the propagation of cracks under load.
Therefore a mothod of non-destructive testing is required; one

that will permit observation of crack formation and propagation while the
specimen is under load.
13.2 265
13.1.2 X-radiography
Radiation is the logical answer. Radiography has been used

by Forrester (JAF-1 to JAF-6), Mullins and Pearson (M,P), Seemann (HES),
Bernhard (RKB) , Respondek (GR), and others to locate reinforcement in
concrete structures. Evans and Robinson (E,R) have used n more
sensitive X-ray technique for studying slip between prestressing
cables and the adjacent concrete. More recently, and independently
of this study, radiography hns been applied to crack detection in plain
concrete by Slate and Olsefski of Cornell University (H,S,S,W). However,
they were required to slice the specimens, ns mentioned above, and were
unoble to study crack propagation (GSR).
Sources of radiation such as cobalt and other radioactive

elements used by Forrester are difficult to handle and require long
exposures. X-rays, however, are easier to use and can be produced in
such quantities that exposures can be reduced to minutes. Thus
X-radiography is the most obvious non-destructive technique to develop
for studying the formation and propagation of microcracks,
13.2 GENERAL CONSIDERA.TIONS

o
Due to their shorter wave lengths (0.006 to 1000A) X-rays are
able to penetrate materials that are opaque to light (wavelengths of
o
3900 to 7700 A). Yet the intensity of an X-ray beam is greatly reduced
by its passage through a material since part of the beam is ,absorbed or
scattered. All matter is not equally transparent to X-rays: dense
materials such as lead will absorb more than will a lighter substance
of the same thickness. Radiography is based on the fact that X-rays
are absorbed to different degrees by materials of different densities.
Thus, the constituents of concrete of various densities will

absorb the primary rays to different degrees. As a result, the emerging
beam will vary in intensity from point to point. It is possible to
measure the various intollliities over the area of the emerging beam and
thereby obtain a two-dimensional picture of the interior of the concrete.
13.3 266
For example, a crack is nothing more than a thin air or water pocket.
Since air or water is less dense than the surrounding concrete, a crack,
if properly oriented, will appear as a line of high intensity in the
emerging beam.
Obviously the influence of minute cracks on a beam of X-rays

is extromely limited and unless careful tec~~iques arc used, small cracks
will not be detected. To develop an X-ray technique and determine the
required equipment capabilities, a more detailed understanding of X-rays
and their la~s of attenuation is necessary. Clark (GLC) and Crowther
(JAC) are two good references on the principles of X-radiography.
THE ATTENUATION OF X-RAYS

Introduction
The attenuation of X-rays is governed by the following equation:

-~x
Ix = I oe , ••• 13.3.1.1
where I is the intensity of the X-rays at any distance x in the

x
specimen, I the initial intensity, and l..I. the attenuation coefficient.
o
This represents the probability that a given X-ray will be transmitted
without collision per unit thickness of the material it traverses. That
is, each increment of thiclcness will reduce the intensity in the same
proportion.
~ is more often expressed on a mass basis and formula

13.3.1.1 rewritten as
I = •••
x
where p is the density and ~/ p is referred to as the mass attenuation

coefficient. The attonuation coefficient, in turn, is a function of the
material and of the wavelength of the X-rays. Therefore for a given
material (concrete) it is necessary to use X-rays of the correct wave-
length if detailed images of the structure of the concrete are to be
obtained.
267
To determine the correct wavelength, attenuation must be

considered further. For this purpose X-rays, although they are technically
waves, can be more conveniently thought of as "particles ll called photons.
Once the correct wavelength to be used with concrete has been determined,
it will be possible to choose the proper eq,.:ipment capabilities to be used.
Total AttenuQtion
The total attenuation referred to abovo consists of two

phenomena: absorption (also called fluorescence or photoelectric
effect) and scattering. Thus the mass attenuation coefficient may
be written as
J..I. t + a
-p- p p ••• 13.3.2.1
where tip is the mass absorption coefficient and alp is thG nass
scattering coefficient.
13.3.3 Absorption
As the X~rays (or photons) pass through concrete a portion will

interact with the atomic particles within the concrete. In an absorption
collision the photon strikes an atom which ejects an electron. The
electron is then ro-obsorbed and the energy lost by it is re-emitted as
fluorescence.
This absorption is dependent not only on the material, but also

on the cube of the wavelength of the X-rays. Therefore
Lp = K}..3 + ~
p
where A. is the wavelength of the X-rays and K is a constant over
certain· wavelengths. Absorption will then be greater for long wavelength
X-rays.
13.3.4 Scattering
Scattering of X-rays (alp) is in itself the sum of two separate

phenomena, coherent and Compton scattering. Basically, in coherent
scattering there is no energy loss when tho photon collides with an
elementary particle in the concrete, whereas in Compton scattering the
photons transmit some of their energy to an electron. This energy loss
268
of the photon in Compton scattering results in an increase in the

wavelength of the scattered ray. The relativo proportions of these
two typos of scattering depend on the atomic numbor of the material
X-rayed and the wavelength of th8 X-rays. Coherent scattering will
be a m:tximum for heavy materials subject0d to radiation of a long
wave length.
The relative magnitudes of coherent and Compton scattering as

well as absorption and total attonuation for concrete are shown in
Figure 13.3.4.1, the values for which have been taken from U.S.
National BureQu of Standards Circular No. 583 (NBS) and its supplement.
X-rays will also produce electron pairs, but at the energy levels urlder
consideration, this is negligible.
Choice of X-ray Wave Length, General Considerations
Scattered rays, which travel obliquely and haphazardly through

the specimen, may emerge and strike the X-ray detection equipment,
causing a loss of definition. Scattered rays due to the Compton effect
are of a longer wave length, than the original ray, but the X-ray
detection equipment is irulerently more sensitive to long wavelengths.
As a result, scattered rays will have a particularly large influence on
the definition of the resulting inngo. To obtain clear results , it is
desirable to reduco scattering.
Absorption, on the other hand, must be increased in order to

differentiate between the various densities within tho specimen. The
X-rays not absorbed or sca tterod vlill emerge from the specimen, but the
intensity of the emerging beam will vary, depending on the densities of
the portions of the specimen through \1hich tho X-ro..ys passed. That is,
if two parts of the snme X-ray beam traverse materials of different
densities that pEtrt going through the material of higher density will
emerge with a smaller intonsity. A crack, which is less dense than the
surrounding concrete, vTill attenuate fevlor X-rays and therefore this
portion of the X-ray beam will emerge from the specimen with a higher
intensity than the adjacent portions of tho beam. Therefore for greatest
contrast between a crack and the surrounding concrete, an X-ray wavelength
".
Photoelectric FIGURE 13·3·4·1

absorptio.n tJ;a .
ABSORPTION-SCATTERING CURVES
. FOR A TYPICAL CONCRETE
TUBE VOLTAGE (kV) .IN ( )

.~
--0
E .4.~II
cu From' (NB~)
L
. en
~l"
E
u
-."
z
o
·fc
<:(
::)
fo/t
z
~a2
~ Coherent
. scattering
rv
(j)
<D
01 • . -J -. I
.. ] -. I I
~:Jr::It~
I . ~
(59 0 )
(TrJ
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.4
PHOTON ENERGY'
---
270
must be selected which will optimize the difference in attenuation

between the air- or water-filled cracks and the concrete. Figure
13.3.5.1 shows that this occurs at long wo.velengths. Similar conclusions
have been drawn by Bletchly and a~ldwin (JB, WB) for experiments to
detect wood-boring insects.
Horeover, in FiGure 13.3.4.1 scattering, ltlhich must be reduced,

is dominant nt the short wave IGngths, but at lonG \vaVG lengths nbsorption
is dominnnt even though scnttering increases slightly. It is prefer:J.ble,
therefore, to use long w:1ve length X-rays since this \o!ill both reduc.:.:
scattering in proportion to absorption and emphasize the different
absorption characteristics between a crnck and the surroundinr, concrete.
13.4 THE PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
13.4.1 Introduction
The previous section discussed tho n~ed to use 10n8 wave length
X-rays. These can be produced by most commercio.lly availablo machines,
but a number of other factors must be considered before the most suitable
machine can be cho"sen.
13.4.2 The X-ray Machine
X-ray machines consist of a target, often tungsten or copper,

which is bombarded by electrons from nn incandescent filament. As the
electrons strike the target, X-rays are given off. The quantity or
intensity of the X-rays, as well as the enGrGry or wave length, are
controlled by varying the number nnd energy respectively of the electrons
striking the target. Therefore, by incrensing the X-ray m~chine. current,
more electrons nre produced and more X-rays will be emitted. Since the
electrons are accelerated from the filcment to the target by 2 high
volt-2ge, it is possible to incrense this voltage, and in turn increase
the energy (decrco.se the "JavelonGth) of th:: X-rays produced. The
current (meo.sured in milliamps, mA) and the voltat;c (mensured in
kilovolts, kV) C'J.n be variGd independently.
FIGURE 13·3·5·1
271
EFFECT. OF WAVE LENGTH ON
DIFFERENCE IN ATTENUATION
BETWEEN ~ONCRETE'AND AIR OR ,WATER
, ,
Uc =attenuation coefficient for concrete

U"v= II " , , II ',',' water
Ua =. " " " a ir
I
!
60 I
/
I
/
I !
I
/
/
/
/
/
40 / .
/
-
'. E /
/
-
~
u
/
/ .
/~uc -Uw:
"'-'
z
o- /
f- /
«::::> /
z /
~20 /
~ 7:
'/ '
/
/
/
/
/
.~
/'
./
;,;-
:;..":;...'
o~~ ! ,
o 0.5 . 01.0
WAVE LENGHT .(A)
13.5 272
13.4.3 }inchine Operating Voltage, Further Considerations
If a tungsten target is used, Figure 13.3.4.1 shows that to

obtain the long w,J.ve lengths desirable for best resolution, the maximum
desirable m::tchine voltae;e will be of the order of 100kV.
Voltages lower thnn this \~ill produce X-rays of even longer

wave length, but at these lower voltages the absorption will be so high
that a great increase in the exposure time will be required. This can
be partially overcome by incre·:1sing the intensity by an increase in the
current, yet the maximum current ~t which most portable X-ray machines
operate is 5 mAe To obtQin larger cQP:1cities requires bulky and
expGnsive equipment. A compromise must be reached between long, sensitive
wave lengths and short exposure times. Alternntively the thickness of
the specimen may be reduced, as was done at Cornell University.
13.4.4 X-ray Filtration
The X-ray unit used should hnve low inherent filtration and a
polychromatic (multi-wave longth) beam. Since the X-ray tube itself
is encased in n cooling liquid, the Iiwindm·Jn of the case and the liquid
should be nnde from such materials that the ,desirable long wavelengths
are not removed by excessive absorption. For a similar reason filters,
which permit only a given wave length to pass, will allow only short
wave lengths to reach the concrete. Therefore a polychromatic beam,
such as that from a tungsten target, is bost.
13.5 PHOTOGRAPHIC DETECTION EQUIPMENT
13.5.1 Typos of Detection Equipment
An intermediary such as fluorescent screens or photographic film

is required to produce a visible image from the X-rays. Fluorescent
screens were considered, but as shown by Bletchley and B2ldwin (JB, WE)
these screens do not provide a permanent record or sufficient detail.
Hence X-ray films were used for the test discussed in this chapter.
Characteristics of X-ray Film
Special, but commercially availo..ble, photographic film was

used. To determine the best film, the cho..racteristic or blackoning
13.5 273
curve for the available films must be studied. From these the contrast,
latitude, speed, and some idea of the sensitivity may be determined.
The Ch2racteristic Curve
The characteristic curve shows the effect of an X-ray beam

of a given intensity on the film as a function of the log of this
intensity. When an X-ray strDces an emulsion a chemical reaction occurs,
so that when the film is developed it has a characteristic greyness
depending on the intensity of the X-ray. This spot will transmit a
cert~in percentago of the light and on this basis the spot is said to
have a certain density where the density, D, is defined as log(1/T)
and T is the transparency. Thus density is a function of the exposure,
E, and they are related by:
D = Log E - log K,
where K is a constant. D as a function of E is the characteristic

curve. The clli~racteristic curve for one of the films used in these
experiments is shown in Figure 13.5.3.1.
The Characteristics of X-ray Film as Obtained from

the Characteristic Curve
If it is accepted that the average eye can only detect a

difference in density of 0.01 (JAC) over a small area, then if small
cracks are to be observed on the film it is necessnry to obtain a
large change ~n density for a small variation in intensity of the
X-ray beam. Therefore the slope of the characteristic curve, commonly
referred to as the contrast, must be as steep as possible. The contrast
is greatest in the nearly linear central portion of the curve. The
range of exposure values, E, between the ends of this linear region
is called the latitude of the film. (Note: there is no upper limit for
the particular film in Figure 13.5.3.1). In other words, the latitude
is the maxiftmm difference in thickness of n specimen (or size of a
defect within a specimen) that can be photographed yet provide maximum
detail through the thickness v~riation. The speed of tho film is
characterized by tho inertia at the lower portion of the characteristic
FIGURE 13·5·3·1
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR .
MICROTEX WITH LEAD SCREENS·
. (Developed: 4min; Dx80· at 68°F)
2.0
contrast
From Kodak,ltd and (GLC).
>-
f-
under-exposure . correct·
(/) exposure
z
W1·0
o
1«0 latitude - - - - - -
!!-If
fog
Oi..J .
Inertia f\)
, , ! ___ l
-.....J
~
100 200 600 800 1000 2000
-. --._- (milli -ampere seconds)
----------
13.5 275
curve. High contrast films generally h~ve a large inertia and thus
require long exposures. Tho fourth and last important characteristic
of X-ray films is sensitivity, but this is difficult to define from the
characteristic curve. Basically, it is the amount of detail revealed
in a photograph and is generally measured by a small step-like instrument
called a penetrometer. This permits [l det~rmination of the smallest
I-
detectable change in thickness of a specimen. Yet Pollitt and Durant
(P,D) have shown that p~netrometers are not a valid measure of crack
sensitivity and thus of little signific~nce to this work.
Film Contr.::..st as a Function of tlJave Lengt~
Of tho four film characteristics listed above, the most

important is contrast, but film contrast is also dependent on the
wave length of the incident radiation. X-ray films are more sensitive
to lone; wave length X-rays; that is,J. higher contrast will be achieved
with lower tube voltages (sec Section 13.3.5).
Equipment for Reducing Scattered Radiatio~
Since X-ray films are more sensitive to long wave lengths,

they will be inherently more sensitive to scattered radiation due to
the Compton effect. There is, however, no technique for reducing
scattering by varying the mschine characteristics. The only oppprtunity
of removing scattered rays is between the specimen and the film. Since
scattered rays are likely to be trnvelling at an angle to the primary
beam, a honeycomb-like grid can be moved back and forth in frout
of the film. This intercepts the oblique rays but permits the primnry
beam to pass. A mechanically simpler solution is the use of thin
(0.001 to O.OOLt inch) shoets of le~d foil on either side of the film.
The long wave length scattered rays will be readily ~bsorbad by the
lead, especially since, due to their oblique angle of incidence, they
have a longer path to travel through the lead than th~ shorter wave
length primary rays. In addition, when the primnry rays collide \vi th
the lead sheet they will produce fluorescenco of very long wave length
which actually intensifies the image on the film. Unfortunately at
very low voltages not nIl those advantages will materialize.
'13.6 276
Exposure Time
Since the penetration capacity is less at Im-l voltages,

longer exposures or higher currents are required to obtain sufficient
contrast for a specimen of Cl constant thickness. Exposure times for
any particular equipment are best found by trial and error.
13.5.8 Developine
Film developing times and conditions are important and should

be adhered to rigorously.
13.6 RELATIVE LOCATIONS OF X-RAY UNIT, SPECIMEN, AND FILH
The clarity and detail which \'lill be producGd on the photograph

are influenced by the reL'ltive loc8.tion of the equipment.
The distances between the film, specimen, and X-ray unit are
particularly important. As previously mentioned, the eye can detect a
change in density of 0.01 providing the change is abrupt. To reduce
any fuzziness or penumbra, Ug (Figure 13.6.1.1), the X-ray unit should
have a small focus, and be placed as far from the specimen as is
compatible with the decrease in intensity with the square of the distance.
Also, the specimen should bo thin so that defects will be nearer the
film, and the film should be placed in contact with the specimen.
MICROCRACK SIZE AND ORIENTATION
Crack Size
Equally important as the geometry of the equipment set up is

the geometry of the crack in rc'lationship to the equipment. The image
on the film will be affected by the size and orientation of the crack,
as Ins been shown by Dutli and Tenney (D,T). Their data indicate that,
as is evident from Figure 13.6.1.1, the X-ray technique actually
magnifies the crack size. The magnification is non-linear, varying from
a factor of 12 for small cracks to about 4 for large cracks. It is
possible then to detect cracks of a sub-mil size. Norton (JTN) has
stated that for steels, cracks of 0.5% of the thickness of the specimen
cnn be dotected. If this sensitivity CQn be obtainod from concrete, it
FIGURE '13·6·1·1 277
EFFECT OF 'FO~US AND SPECI MEN SI ZEJ

AND MACHINE AND F,ILM' LOCATION.
ON .CLARITY OF THE , .I MAGE·
, Ug = Fe
8,
-,----- r- F 1 X-ray· Machine

Focus (Target)
Specimen
r------:- -------- ...,
I I
I I '
~ -1--1
" -li-A r - - - Jo--lI I
.I I..
I
I'
I
I
C : I
I
I
I I
I , I
-"'--------'"'----i---.l"----'------'-- Fi 1m
13.8 278
will be possible to register a crack with a maximum dimunsion of

0.015 inches in a 2.75 inch thick specimen.
Crack orientation
This is, of course, providing that this maximum dimension

is orient&d properly to th8 X-ray b0am. Microcrack orientntio~ is
the most serious limitation of the radiographic tGclmique. If the
crack were a penny-shaped non-homogeneity, then it would have a
significant height and depth, but a width measur3.ble only in a few
micro-inches. Therefore a crack will be detectable; only if its long
direction (height or depth) is pStrallel to the direction of the X-rays.
Dutli and Tenney (D,T) have shown that even a slight inclination of the
plane of tho crack from the direction of the beam will greatly decrease
the possibility of detection.
This major disnd'vantar:;e of the X-ray technique may be partially

overcome by taking several exposures from different directions.
13.8 SUMMARY OF EQUIPHENT CAPABILITIES AND USAGE FOR

X-RAYING CONCRETE
13.8.1 Introduction
After consideration of the properties of X-ro:ys and the

problems a.ssociated with their use, it is now possible to list the
equipment capabilities required to study microcracks in concrete.
13.8.2 Equipment Requirements and Usage
a) X-ray unit. An industrial, water-cooled X-ray unit with

a maximum kV of about 120 (for specimens 2.75" thick or smaller) and
with the maximum current cap3.bilities available should be used. A
tungsten target is satisfactory since it givos a polychronntic beam,
but the target size must be as small as possible. A compromise is
required since high current roo. chines , unless equipped with rotating
targets, require large targets. The unit should be operated at the
lowest voltaGe possible (longost wave length), compatible with specimen
size and exposure time. This can best be determined by trial and error.
The unit should be used without n filter and have low inherent filtration.
279
As a compromise between reducing fuzziness and increasing

exposure time, the focus of the X-ray unit should be about three feet
from the film.
b) Specimen. The specimen should be thin.
c) Film. The film must be a high contrast, fine grained,

industrial X-ray film. It is most conveniently used in a commercially
.::.vailable film holder, which is placed in contact with the specimen,
Proper developing techniques must be adhered to.
d) Lead screens. For maximum detail all precautions should

be taken to roduce scattering, especially the use of lead foil screens
if this is found desirable at the particular kV used.
e) Number of exposures. To overcome the sensitivity of the

X-ray technique to crack orientation, X-rays should be taken from more
than one angle.
f) The person interpreting the research must have a complete

realization of the limitations of the radiographic technique,
EQUIPMENT ACTUALLY USED DURING EXPERIMENTS
Specimen Size
The equipment requirements for X-raying concrete depend

primarily on th8 specimen thickness. Preliminary tests were performed
on 4-inch thick specimens, both s::tturated and dried. Owing to the high
kV (150) necessary to obtain evon 15 minute exposure times, the results
were not considered satisf2ctory. Yet, in contrast to the conclusions
of the Cornell University research (H,S,S,W), these tests did show
that the presence of eXCG.ss wat·-:r in the specimen increased scattering.
Therefore dry specimens were used in all future tests.
It would have been possible to load the 4-inch thick specimens,

slice, and then X-ray them similarly to the tech.l1ique used at Cornell
University. As mentioned previously (Section 13.1.1), this technique
prevents a study of the origin and subsequent propagation of microcracks
as a function of load sll1ce, once sliced, the specimen continuity is lost.
Therefore it is desirable to test and X-ray entire specimens.
280
Having eliminated the possibility of slicing, it w~s necessary

to cast specimens of a thickness compatible with coarse aggregate size
(i inch diameter) and X-ray voltage. Standard cement testing moulds
(cubes of side 2.75") were used. Those proved quite satisfactory.
For cubes of this thickness, exposure times of 7 to 8 minutes were
required at 100kV. Referonce to Figure 13.3.4.1 shows that this
voltage is satisfactory.
13.9.2 X-ray Unit
From a consideration of the criteria listed in Section 13.8

as well as the specimen thickness, the Muller Macrotank K, a light-
weight, industrial, water cooled X-ray unit was chosen. For the
instruments loaned during these tests, the author is deeply grateful
to Research and Control Instruments, Ltd. of London, and in p3.rticular
Mr. C. E. Paine. The Macrotank K ills a continuously adjustable 'high
tension range of 35 to 140 kV, a small effective focal spot of 1mm2,
low inherent filtr~tion equivalent to 3mm of aluminum, but only a
5mA current capability. This equipment WQS found to work very
satisfactorily even though lonG exposures were required.
13.9.3 Film
To detect the X-rays, two types of film were used, Ilford

Industrial ex and Kodak Microtex. The Kodak film (its ch~racteristic
curve is shown in Figure 13.5.3.1) has a high contrast and n small

grain, but a high inertia. Bec~use of its slowness, but ability to
obtain detail, the Microtex was used for all initial and final X-ray
photographs of the specimen (i.e., when the exposure time was not
important). The Ilford film slightly sacrifices grain size for a
smaller inertia and was used for all X-ray photographs durins the
actual testing.
Both'makes of film were ordered folder-wrapped and of 4.75 x 6.5

inch size. Through trial tests, it wns found desirable to use a O.001-inch
thick lead foil screen between the specimen and the film and a O.004-inch
thick lead foil screen behind the film.. With screens and a tube current
of 5mA, the Kodak film required an exposure time of 15 minutcs whereas
13.9 281
the Ilford ex film required only 6 minutes. Both films were developed
in Phenisol developer for 9 minutes at 68°F and then fixed with an
acid hardening fixer.
Strain Gau~ Equipment
If the strain gauges used to measure longitudinal strain

were mounted directly on the specimen, tho gauges would either
interfere with the X-rays or increase the scattering. To overcome
this three possible solutions were considerod.
a) Detachable ring gauges for measuring longitudinal strains

(N,L,L) and the previously described (Section 10.3.3) det2chnble perspex
lateral gauges were tried. As both sets of gauges were detachable they
could be removed durinG the X-raying. Howuver, these g2uges were found
to be extremely time-consuming to set up and remove at each load stage.
Furthermore, there was no way of determining creep strain which would
occur during the long load stages.
b) To save time, consideration was given to using the strain

readings from the pulse velocity and acoustic tests. However, tho
X-ray specimens were smaller and were tested at an entirely different
rate of loading; the pulse velocity specimens required 20 minutes to
test whj)e the X-ray specimens took 2 hours. It was felt that the
influence of these two factors could not be disregarded.
c) Therefore, to overcome this problem, the X-ray specimens

were poured in pairs. One specimen was loaded and X-rayed at
intervals. Afterwards, the other specinen, with longitudinal
and lateral strain gauges, (Section 10.3), was l02ded in a manner
identical to the X-rayed specimen. Strain readings were taken with
the Solartron data logger at the a)propriate lO:ld stages. Obviously
the two specimens would not behave in an identical manner. To reduce
this effect a total of 4 specimens were cast for each mix, two were
X-rayed while the other 2 were used for measuring strains. Tho strains
and loads quoted in this chapter are the average of both sets of two
specimens.
13010 282
13.10 TESTING PROCEDURE
13.10.1 Safety Precautions
The prim:try beam of the X-ray unit, if not properly shielded,

could be lethnl. !v1oreover, considerablo rc:.dintion is emitted from the
sides and bctck of the X-rcty unit. EV8n this could bc~ danc;erous.
Safety precautions wore tclcon to ensure the s~fcty of the author and
persons working in the general vicinity of the X-ray m:lchine.
Fortun'J.tely the 200-ton testing frC1.me wns already in a snnll

room by itself. The brick walls and tho physical sizG of the room
offered sufficient protection from all the radiation except the primary
beam. The major portion of the primary b02m was absorbed by three
3 feet by 5 feet by ~ inch lead sheets mounted on pl~vood.
The control panel for the tosting frame and the X-ray controls
were all located in an adjacent room. In this way no one was in the
testing room while the X-ray machine was working. A flashing red light,
part of the Muller equipment, and rndintion signs served as warnings of
danger.
The radiation level in tho adjccont rooms was thorouGhly checked

by Dr. Evans, the Imperial College health physicist, and found to be
below the maximum safe level for a 40-hour week.
13.10.2 The X-ray Specim~ns
For any Given mix the two X-ray and two strGin gauge specimens
were prep:tred in Dc. similnr manner to tho sound and acoustic speciI!1cns, the
only difference \vo.s that tho X-ray tests were conducted the day aftor the
sound and acoustic tests.
To set up the X-ray specimen in thu testing fr:tme, a

2.75 x 2.75 x 0.5 inch steel platen was centred on a 4 x 4 x 2 inch
steel platen. This in turn was centred on the jack platen. Tho specimen
with its concrete or nlOrtar L:tChnnce pl:ttens (Section 10.2.5) was then
inserted in the machine and aligncld on the ste01 plntGn. Another
2.75 inch square and nnother 4 inch squaro platen w(;re pbccd on top of
the specimen. To align th0 massivo ball seating, ~ slight load was
13.10 283
placed on tho specimen and then relensod. The load was then re-applied
to hold tho ali3nmont of the specimen.
Mennwhi~e the X-ray machine had boen set up on a movable

trolley at specimen height and situntoc1 36 inches from the film.
Cooling tubes within the X-ray machine were connected by PVC tubing
to the water mains.
The X-ray film, '\,'I'hich hCtd beon stored in Do cool, dark room
somo distance from the laboratory, '\,'/0..8 then prepared for the two
initial X-ray photo~rnphs (i.a., \vith virtual zero load on tho specimen).
In the darkroom Q sheet of Kodak Microtex was removed from its

folder wrapping and placed botween the lend foil screens. The film and
screen were placed in a Kodo.k 4.75 x 6.5 inch metal film holder cassette,
care beine to.ken to ensure that the 0.004 inch thick screen was at the
back. The film could now.bo taken to the testing areo. without exposing
to light.
The cassetto, smooth face toward tho X-ray unit, was held
flush against the specimen by two olastic bands. This is shown in
Photograph 13.10.2.1, exco)t that for actual testing tho X-ray unit
was on a trolley o.nd the testing machine control panel was in the
adjacent room. Lead putty was then forced into the corner formed by
the specimen and cassette- (Photoe;raph 13.10.2.2) to absorb the intense
radiation passing near the specimen but not through it. This, in
effect, prevented burning the film Gnd blurrinG the edgos of the
picture of the spocimen.
Tho X-ray control panel wns set at 1OOkV , 5 ~~, and 15 minutes,
and the unit started. ~Vhile the exposure was being taken, the next
cassette was prepared.
Upon completion of the 15 minute exposure, the exposed cassette

was removed and tho X-relY unit on its trolley ltlo..s rotated 90 0 about the
specimon. Tho new cassette wo..s plncod in position and the second initial
exposure wns taken. By tnking two photoGrnphs 90 0 apart at each load
sto..ge, the effect of crack orientation WQS reduced.
Photograph 13.10.2.1 Photograph 13.10.2.2
Equipment Used for X-ray Tests Specimen, Film, and Lead Putty
X-ray Machine, Loading Frame, Film, Control Panel Prior to Testing
13.10 285
~Vhile the second exposure was beinG taken, the exposed film
from the previous exposure was romovod from the CQssctto Qnd inserted
in its folder. Tho folder 'v'IGS then lnbelled. Fresh film was placed
in the: cassette, in this case since both initinl photographs had been,
or were in the process of being t~ken, the faster Ilford film was used.
Upon completion of the initial photogrC1.)hs the cnssettes were

cho.nged, a stop watch sto.rt0d, and tho load increased to the first load
stnge at the rate of -700 psi per minuto.. Tho time was noted and the
procedure for taking the initinl photographs was repeated at this load
staGe. With tho fnster film, both photogrnphs wera taken in 15 minutes,
which included the time to move the unit. During this time the lond was
mainto.inec1 to within ±196 or ±20 psi, vlhichevor was creator. At the
completion of this lo~d stage the time was again noted, and the load
increased to the next load stage. The entire procedure was repeated at
each load stage until ultimate lond. Aftur ultimate load, if the specimen
were reasonably intnct, two finnl X-rays were taken with the Kodak film.
The load stages used depended entirely on the expected strength.

For any specimen it was decided to have 5 load stages, one at about -2500
psi, ,another at -4000 psi, and the last thro(; nearer ultinn te load. By a
judicious choice it \.,ras hoped to obtain a good study of the specimen
without spending excessive time in testing.
Mix J was not used in the X-ray tests as it wns impossible to

comp~ct the mix in tho small moulds.
13.10.3 The Companion Spocimens

After both X-rny specimens h'].d boen tested, their two companion
specimens, usod for determining the stross-str.-::lin curve, \.,rerc set up
identically to the X-ray specimens ~nd tested. The loading rate was
kept the snme as for the X-ray spocimens. Strain reQdings from the
longitudin.?l gauges 011 the surfCtcc 2nd the perspGx lnturnl gauges were
taken at both the beginning nnd end of each lOQd staBo. This information
provided a complete stress-strain curve, including creep at load stag0s,
for the correspondinG X-ray specimens.
13.11 286
13.10.4 Film Proccssinfl
On the following day the films wore developed according to the

instructions provided by the m2nufacturers, oxcept for the Kodak film
which \'Ins developed with Ilford Phenisol.
13.11 DATA PROCESSING
13.11.1 X-ray Photographs
To exnmine ·2n X-ray film, it is treated similarly to an

ordinary negative; thnt is, light must be pasBed through the X-rny film
in order to SGe the detCtil. For this purpose a specially designed high
intensity viewerwith heat reflectors was built. The film was L.':l.id on top
of the frosted glClss viewinG plate and examined with a 4 power hand lens
for the minute black lines representing cracks.
Once a crcJ.ck had been found, it was nocesso..ry to record its

locQtion and orientation. MQrking the ori3inal X-ray film is undesirable
as the markings may cover othor cracks and at the same time will destroy
the imago of thc crack, preventing Q re-examination. Hence the cro..cks
must be plotted elsewhere. A matchins grid system was tried o.nd found
inconvenient since the grid prevented viewing some of the cracks and
reqL:ired considerable time to set up on each new film.
These problems \,.,ere solved by muking n positive print of both

initial X-ray films for each specimen. Due to tho heterogeneous nature
of concr'Gte, the X-ray films were covered with light and dark spots forming
an irreeulo.r ilgrid li or map. Upon locntinG a crack on the X-ray film,
:J.djacent: points of reference \1erO mentally noted and then, after locating
the points of reference on the print, the cr.:tck Vias plotted on a piece of
thin tro..cing paper overlying the print. With this technique, nIl the
cracks WGre visible, none of the evidence was destroyed, .:::tnd since the
"grid" wns formed by the constituents of the concreto, the grid was
consistent and in the SD-me loc2tion from film to film.
For each spccim011 there were: two views (north and west) and
hence two sets of films taken at progressively hicsher loads. Therefore,
for either the north or west direction it w~s possible to locate a crack
and follow it to failure via the lond stages used.
13.11 287
In actuality it was found easier 2nd less time-consuming

first to examine the X-ray film taken Qt failure ~nd then work backwards
in order of decreasing load. In this way cracks were loc2ted and followed
bacbrl2.rds, while the effect of lond on the crnck length and the origin
of the cr~ck were noted. Although the failure crack pattern was used as
a guide, each X-ray film was given a thorough examination l~stin~ two to
throe hours so that, to the best of the author's ability, all cracks were
plotted.
For the plottinG' coloured pencils were used; a given colour

for a given load stage. Hence n single plot W2S obtained upon completion
of the processing of all the films for anysiven specimen and for either
the north or west view. This plot showed tho approximate length of the
cr.::..cks at anyc~i ven load stage. These plots were also usod to show the
location of any lo..rCG air pockets and the location of the preplaccd
aggreg:ttes in Mixes B to F.
In the preplaced niS8ree;nte mixes, the i inch aggregate had

approximately the same absorption char.::tcteristics as did the surrounding
mortar. Hence the aggregatus were not clearly visible on the X-ray films.
Yet, using the smnll pieces of metal wiro affixed to the aGgregate surface
(Section 10.2.~·) as a guide, it was possible to plot the exact location
of the aGGregate. Air voids appeared as dark spots and were easily
noticonble.
Since o..t lenst two days of exceptionally fatiGUing work were

required to plot the cracks for a ;3ivcn specimen, only half the X-rayed
specimens were completely analysed, one from each mix. The other half
were superficially studied in order to enSl!re that tho results obtained
were typical.
13.11.2 Strnin Datn
Tho strnin moasurements takcn on the companion spocimons were

averaged and plotted as has boon described in Section 11.4.4.
13.11 .3 Presentation
To pres0nt tho X-ray data in concise form larse tracings of the

total crack pnttern and companion stress-strain curves wore drawn.
13.12 288
The proportions wero such that when the tracings were photographically
reduced to thvsis size, the crack pn:ttorns \voulc1 bo nctu8.l size. The
results are shown in Figuros 13.11.3.1 to 13.11.3.8.
The dinsrnms nre not entirely self-explanatory. In tho lower

half, tho stress-strnin curves have been drawn. Just above the stress-
strain curve and sprend out as D. function of the stress on the specimen is
the key to the X-ray drawings (sec Figure 13.11.3.1). This key shows
two things:
a) the load stage at which each X-ray exposure was taken, and
b) the type of line that on the X-ray drawing represents the

formation or Gxtension of n crack during that particular load stage.
For example, the length of the crack nt :::tny :-;iven load stagG is the sum
of all the types of lines shown on the key below that load stage. The
origin of the crack is tho location shown by the line representing the
smallest load stage along that crack. Shrinknge cracks arG shown by a
series of xxxx's.
13.12 JUSTIFICATION OF THE DATA OBTAINED
13.12.1 Appearance of Crack-like Lines Observed in Concreto
Photograph 13.12.1.1, a print of an actual radiograph, shows

the '"::.m-rk crack-like linos in 0. specimen from Mix E. These lines are
similar to the ones plotted in Figures 13.11.3.1 to 13.11.3.8. It
should be realized that in reproducin~ tho actual X-ray ilnogative ll
considerable detail is lost. Hence for actual study of the X-rays,
the original must be used, yet to shov! the dark lines in D. publication,
gross lines are required nnd therefore the X-ray usod is at the ultimate
lond. The lines obsorved at lower I03.ds are similo.r, but smaller in
both length and width.
13.12.2 Justification that tho Lines Detected ~re Caused by Cracks
Tho nssumption that those black lines nre in fact cracks is

intuitive, but to support this the following data are given:
0.) the lines form and spread with increasing load in a manner
expected of microcrncks;
FIGURE 13.11. 3.1
X-RAY DETECTED CRACK PATTERN
AND 289
COMPANION STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
IP IP
(ACT SIZE)
WEST VIEW NORTH VIEW (G.S.R.'64)
tP tp
MIX 'A
MORTAR A /C=2.0 W/C= 0.42
AVG. MA X. LOAD = (X-RAY) -8430 (STRAIN) -8200
I
KEY TO X-RAY DRAWING
>- IIimo
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0008
AND 290
1
(ACT SIZE) NORTH VIEW GSR'64
tp
MIX 'B' FIGURE 1311-3.2
MORTAR A/C=2.0 W/C=0.42
PLACED AGGREGATE
AVG. MAX. LOAD= (X-RAY)-8180 (STRAIN)-8180
I
KEY TO X-RAY DRAWING CL 1 I I I
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AND
COMPANION STRESS-STRAIN CURVES 291
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X—RAY DETECTED CRACK PATTERN
AND 292
COMPANION STRESS—STRAIN CURVES
WEST VIEW (ACT SIZE) NORTH VIEW

P
MIX 'D' FIGURE 13.11.3.4
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o PR/PRI 2.0 4.0 6.0 o5
4000 VOL. -500 STRAIN o (y5) 500 4-% ...... ••
X—RAY DETECTED CRACK PATTERN
AND
296
COMPANION STRESS—STRAIN CURVES
r.
NORTH VIEW (G.SR.'64)

P
MIX 'H' FIGURE 13.11.3.8
CONCRETE: A/C=6.0 ; W/C=0.50
AVG MAX. LOAD= (X-RAY) -5970 (STRAIN) -5870
KEY TO X-RAY DRAWING

1111■41001.41111.1104.4.
8 8 o8
M
(C3
C?........ ....... T-***
0
1•C‘l o
of,
101
.e.
—2000 LOAD -4000 (PSI) -6000 —8000

297
Aggregates
Photograph 13.12.1.1
Mix E
Print of X-ray Through 2.75" Thick Specimen
(White Dots Are Metal Wires Glued to Coarse Aggregates;
Thin Blaok Lines Are Cracks)
13.13 298
b) in sorno cases the crncks ,,,ero also visiblo on the surface

of tho cube and corresponqed with tho lines on the X-rny;
c) their appearance is similQr to that of cracks found by

radiologists in other mo.terials, includinG bones; and
d) that those lines are in fc-ct cracks \-,D.S confirmed by

exports in radiography at lIford, Ltd., nnd at the U.S. Naval
Dispensary in London.
13.13 DISCUSSION OF THE TESTING TEC}ITfIQUE
13.13.1 DisadvQnt~p,e of the Present T~chnique
The data presented in this chapter show thnt the technique

can be used to detect microcracks in concrete which is being loaded
to failure. However, tho technique cnn still be grently improvcd.
a) More experimentation is needed on an improved compromise

betwoen the various variables montioned Qt the beginning of this chapter.
The solution presented is satisfactory but the clarity 2nd density of
the radiograph could bo improved. To accomplish this a ~lchine of
higher rnA will bo required.
b) Movement of the specimen durinG the X-ray exposures will

tend to blurr the imct5c. In futuro the comprossion mD.chine should
employ some technique such as two oPposin3 rams so that the centre of
~pe specimen remains sto.tionar,y- and tho deflections of the remainder
of the specimen relative to tho X-ray unit v!ill be a minimum. Complete
removal of the load should be considered, but the crncks are likely to
shut and offset nny advantage 2a.ined.
c) Offsotting tho 2..[Ssre30.te as in i'iiixos B o.nd E (Tnble 10.2.8.1)

so that it is closer to the film Gnd hence Ug is smaller (Figure 13.6.1.1)
docs provide more detailed images o.nd should be considered in future
experiments.
d) Since 0. lar 0 c number of cracks were detected in anyone

direction, it is not considered nGCGssar.- to take X-ray photogrc..phs in
two directions at each lOQd stage, unless the particular circumstances
13.13 299
warrant such a technique. This would reduce testing time by

approximately one half.
e) An casier and more positive t0chnique should be developed

for proc"essing the rndiographs. The present method is exceptionally
time-consuming and tiresome. Furthermore, this technique is
particularly dependent on the observer's exp~rience and judgment.
The load stnGe at which a minute crack is first positively detectable
and its exact length at Gny lo~d stagG depend to a considerable extent
on the observer's nbility to re:solve the dD.rk, often fuzzy, line.
Inprovements suegested in (D.) m2y help to overcome this.
13.13.2 Comparison with other Techniques
Tho only other use of X-rnys to detect microcracks in plain

concrete known to th0 author is thu recent tests at Cornell Univ8rsity
(H,S,3,W). By this t~chnique, in essencG, n specimen was landed to a
given load, then removed from tho mJ.chine and n 0.15 inch slice cut
from its centro. This slice was X-rayed at LtO kV and the X-ray studied
for cracks.
Such a technique climinates item (b) in the section above but

still requires the tedious exo.minntion of the negatives (item e).
However, this technique does consider D.nother combination of variables
as mentioned in item (a).
The fact thQt a specimen only 0.15 inch thick has been X-rayed
in the Cornell studies means thnt D. much lower kV is necessary. Such a
technique can, on the basis of the comments at the beginning of this
chapter, be expected to produce good resolution.
To compare the Cornell technique with that used in this thesis,

a diamond saw wns used to slice a 0.15 inch thick segment from the
previously tested cubes. These were X-ro..yed using Ilford CX and a tube
voltage of 40 kV. A print of the results is shown in Photograph
13.13.2.1. As expected, when comp~red with Photograph 13.12.1.1, tho
resolution is cloarer in Photograph 13.13.2.1, but not to tho extent
that had beon expected (GSR).
300
Print of X-ray Film of a 0.15 -inch Thick Slice
Through
Mix F
Mix H
13014 301
As in nIl compromises each solution h~s its Qdvnntages.

Hence, for extreme clarity the spccimcm should be sliced, but in
doinG so, tho continuity of the specimen is destroyed. The technique
developed in this thesis sacrificos n little of the clnrity but in
turn provides a method of detoctin.~ the onset and propClga tion of
microcracks in a single specimen. This is considerod n significnnt
advantage over tho Cornell techniquG o
One further point should be noted. The cubes were sliced

by a dinmond SCtw under tho co.reful supervision of Hr. Hill of the
Royal School of Hines, Imperial College. Tho technique was found
Gxceptionally difficult, since most of the slices fraSmented
(Photogrnph 13.13.2.1). Tho Cornell group studied this aspect, but
such n techniqu8 must also consider the effects of the slicing of
the microcracks.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
Having justified tho..t tho dark lines on the X-ray photographs

are crocks, tho datn in Figures 13.11 3.1 to 13,,11.3.8 can now be
0
discussed.
a) From these figures and the discussion in the previous

section, it may be concluded that the X-ray technique developed is
a technique that provides a m~thod of studying shrinkage and other
cracks propngn.ting in concrete from one lOCld stage to the n0xt. Yet
the technique is such that, except for the effect of cracks, the
continuity of the specimen is maint.:1.inoc1 throughout.
b) Shrink~8e cracks and/or cracks caused by bleeding around

the aggregate (designated by xxxx) clearly c1.O exist, particultlrly in
the two concrete mixes. In nO.:J.rly evory c:tso these initial cracks
spreo.d to CQuse nnjor crCLcks at failure, nnd thereby experimentally
support the theoretical de~luction by Jones (RJ-2) nnd Hsu (H,,s ,S, w)
. thlJ.t shrinkage cracks :1.re instrumental in th\J fCLilu:ce of concreteo
This is pnrticulnrly true for dry concrete.
13014 302
c) By compnrinc; Nixes A to F, the significant influence

of the cOQrse aggregate on crack form2tion and propagation c~n be
shown. This is furthor supported by the comploto netvJOrk of cra.cks
observed in concrete r4ix0s G nnc1 H comp::lred to that of the Mortar
Hix A. Such conclusions support the theor';;ticnl deductions of
Pnrts I and II th:1.t the non-homogeneous n:lture of cc·nCrGt8 is
fundamental to an understandinG of its fQilureo
d) Further considerntion of Mixes A, B, Clnd C shows toot

the effect of lo.rg8 clir pockets is evidently :1lso important to the
formation of cracks. The theorotical deductions of Chapter 7
anticip2 ted thn t this mi:;ht bG true. The m:1 thema tic.:::.l .::..nc.lysis
showed that air pockets aro the greatest stress risers and, as these
X-rays show, are likely to cause internal cracking • (Such n
conclusion is subject to criticism on the basis that no proof is
offered that the crack does, in fact, GO through the air pocket.
This would be valid exce:pt that the theoretical analysis predicts
such a behaviour n.nc1 that such crack forrnation is observed at a large
number of nir pockets, rather than a fc\v coincidental ones. On this
bn.sis such a conclusion is re~sonable.)
e) The actuQI location of the cracks about the air pockets

and coarse aggre 0n.te (mixes J\. to F) is, in general terms, in good
agreemont with thQ conclusions to Cho..pter 7. The cracks about the
course D.c;c;regate :tre in ffi,::1.ny cases apparently bond failures.
f) \vith the exception of 2 major cli,~gonnl crack in Mix G,

the remo..inc1er of the specimens show that the microcrncks form C1.nd
propaGate p.,'lrnllel to the npplied lond e This confirms the conclusions
of Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2) and much of the qunlitative infornntion used in
Ch:tpter 3 (Soction 3.1.8-) to study the failure th0ories.
g) Such vortico..l crO-cks eventu:tlly c:tusec1 the splitting

modes of failure obsorved in tho test series (Photograph 13.14.1.1,
also soe Fi3ure 3.1.8).
h) The appearnnce and behaviour of these cracks judGed on the

data from both the X-rety and o..coustic tests confirm Jones' (RJ-1; RJ-2)
conclusion that they are due to excessive tonsile stresses or strains~
303
Mode of Failure in X-ray Specimens

(Compare with Figure 3.1.8.1)
Mix D Mix F Mix F
Mix D Mix C
13.14 304
i) From a study of the approxim:-.te lengths of those cracks

under increasing londs, it is apparent that shrinkage, bond, and other
cracks propo.gate. As the lond increases, sm:tll cracks join to form
larger. crc.cks. Table 14.2.2.1 shows the lond stnges betlJIGcn which
many of those smnller cr~cks first int0rconnect8d and d0veloped into
longer cracks. In th0 ndjncent colunm of tho table are listed the
loetds at which a pr occurred. For every mix 0 pr occurred during
the increase in lond prior to th0 load stage in which major cracks
were detected by the X-ray technique. Althoush the load sta3dS 3re
infrequent, it is not unreasonable to c nclude that these major cracks
dOt in fact ,cause the change in In ternl strain reflected by 0 •
pr
This visually supports the conclusion drawn from tho pulse velocity
tests that 0 ( a ) is caused hy the development of large internal
pv pr
cracks. More experiments using this X-ray technique at smaller load
intervals nre needed to confirm this observation.
j) If further tests with the X-rny technique support the

conclusion in (i), then the X-rny technique can be used to determine
whether or not largo cracks exist in the particulnr specimen. If such
major cracks do exist then it may be concluded that a has been
pr
exceeded. In this way the X-ray teclmique m:ty be a visual method of
determining whether the specimen has been subjected to loads in excess
of 0 and hence if a chango in the elnstic ~:tramcters has occurred.
pr
CHAPTER 14
CONCLUSIONS TO PART III
14.1 INTERRELATION OF THE TESTING TECHNIQUES

Since three different techniques h2ve been used to study
the formation and propagation of microcracking in concrete, it is
now possible to re(:~ssess these techniques nncl determine the value and
use of each one.
a) The acoustic technique, of listening to sounds emitted

from concrete, provided a simple yet sensitive method for determining
the lond at which even sm211 cracks formed or propagated. By
integrating these sounds, it was possible to show at what loads
significant amounts of energy were being er~tted. With the exception
of one mix, this was at a load in excess of which the Poisson's ratio
started to increase Co.pr ). Hence, through a study of the energy losses,
the acoustic technique may also serve as a method for differentiating
between large and sm:'J.ll cracks.
b) The pulse velocity through concrete remaL~ed constant

or incre:1sed slightly until a load corresponding to 0 was exceeded.
pr
At this load (opv) the pulse velocity decrc:tsed noticeably and, at
least for ooncrete, continued to decrease until ultim~te load. By
comp'1ring the ~J.coustic .2nd pulse velocity tech..l1iques, it is .:tpparent
that the pulse VGlocity, due to its large beam area, is insensitive to
small cracks. Therefore the pulse velocity technique is best suited
for determining when large cracks form in concrete. These are the
cracks that have such a significant effect on the elastic parc.metep.-;.
c) The X-ray technique permitted visu::tl confirmation of the

origin and propagation of the microcracks. This t(;chnique confirmed
that microcracks form parallel to the applied compressive lOQd and that
a pr is caused by the interconnection of smaller cracks in to ll-3.jor
cracks, m~ny of which extend the length of the specimen. Although the
X-ray technique may be used to determine if °pr (0pv ) has occurred,
its'major contribution compared to tho other techniques is a visual
confirmation of microcracks r.lnd their location.
306
Those techniques Gre thus complementnry. Ench method

deterl71ines Q certr.,in cmracteristic of the microcrnck to which the
other techniques are comparatively insensitive. Therefore, after
conducting Q comprehensive testinG programme using these three tests
on the same mixes, it is now possible to combine the conclusions of
oach technique and present a preliminary description of the fialure
mechanism in concrete.
14.2 PRELIMINARY DE.::iCRIPTION OF THE MACROSCOPIC FAILURE

MECHANISM OF CONCRETE
14.2.1 __________________________________________
BGh3. viour of Concrete n t Loads Less thnn (J ~pv
Concrete consists of relatively stiff aggresntes of vnrying

size closely embedded in n softer mertnr matrix of hardened cement
p~ste, water, and nir. Chnpter 7 has shown that, dUG to the different
stiffnessGs of these constituents, stress concentrations will exist
within the specimen. Chapter 8 has extended this nn~lysis to consider
the interactions of coarse aggregate particles. Both these nnalyses
indicate that tensile stresses will develop within the specimen when
it is subjected to a compressive lond and that these stresses may
explain the internal tensile-like cracking observed in concrete.
However, both the X-ray tests in Chapter 13 and the recent

research at Cornell University (H,S,S,W) have shown that ,even prior
to loading, microcracks exist in the concrete. These, generally short,
stable cracks, are probably caused by shrinkage effects. Hsu (H,S,S,W)
has presented a mathenntical model th2t simulates shrinkage stresses
and indicated that these stresses could c·'1use the cracks observed in
untest(.xl concrete. It is 3.1so conceivable that thermal effects and
bloeding about the nggregnte pnrticles mny contribute to this preliminary
crack formation (KMA). However, it is evident that even prior to loading,
concrete is not continuous, but contains short cracks.
The analysis of Chnpters 7 and 8 indicates that due to the

heterogeneous nature of ' concrete an uneven stress distribution will
develop within the concrete when a smnll uniaxi~l compressive land is
14.2 307
applied. Dantu (PD-1; PD-2) has shown by photostross studies that
such a dis tribu tion does, in f.act, exist. This is represented'
schematically in Figure 11.7.1.1. With 3. further increCl.so in applied
load, these stress concentrations also incroase. Finally, a load
stage \rill be reached when one of the penks exceeds the tensile strength
of the paste or bond and local failure occurs. This causes tho
formation of a microcrack or the extension of nn existing shrinkage
or other microcretck. The etcoustic tests h3.ve shown that such
internnl cracking does exist even at very low loads. Tho pulse
velocity ani X-ray tests, on the other hand, h~ve shown that these
cracks are sm9.11 in length, stable, and are apprlrently duo to excessi va
tensile stress or str3.in. l'IIoreover, the res€)nrch at Cornell University
and the investigation by Jones and Kaplan (J,K) indicate that these
cracks are primarily bond failures. When local failure occurs the
stress concentration is reduced, and adjacent areas assumo th8
increased stress due to redistributi.~n. A further incroase in load
will raiso the nvern.gc stress level (Figure 11.7.1.1b) as well as the
stress concentrations. More stress peaks will oxceed the tensile
strength of tho paste or bond, and as determined by the Qcoustic and
X-ray tests, more of these local, stablo cracks will form or extend.
Each time a crack forms, the continuity of the specimen

decreases. This, as discussed in Section 11.7, will have an influ2nce
on the properti0s of concrete, eVGn though it m~y be minute. It is
intuitive to assume that a decrease in continuity of the specimen
would bG ref~ected in a decrease in the Young's modulus. Thnt the
modulus of elasticity does decrease, even at smnll loads, has often
been observed in concrete :md expressed by a slightly non-linear
stress-strain curve. Rusch (RR), by loading and unloading n specimen,
observed tho.. t cr.:tckin,j sounds were only heard on the first 10.:lding
provided that subsequent I03.ding did not exceed the maximum obtained
in tho first cycle. Hence the first loc:ding cycle "ironed out" the
largest st~ess concentrations. L'Hermito (RLH) nnnlyscd strains taken
during repetitive lO·J.ding tests nnd concluded that on the first load
cycles the stress-str3.in curve W.2S non-line:;..r, h::tving the nppcarCtnce
14.2 308
of 0. hysteresis loop. With subsequent loading cycles the stress-

strain curve appro2ched linearity, indicntins that the larger internal
stress concentrations \"4'ere being ilironed outil. However, if during a
loading cycle the load exceeded the provious m:lximum, Rusch observed
that cracking sounds were again evident. This would indicate that
other stress pe~ks had increased sufficiently to exceed the strength
of tho mortar or bond.
14.2.2 Behaviour of Concrete at Loads Equal to a

----------------------------------~------ pv
With n further increase in lond, some of these smEllIer cracks,
which are primarily bond cracks, will interconnect through the mortar
and form major cracks. Those cracks, ns shown by the X-rays, can be
inches in length. That bond crncks about the C03.rS0 aggrcg3.te spread
and cGuse m:::tjor cracking is also ovident in phot,'0,3r~ph 10.2.4.2 where
for a spocimen from Mix E the major cracking occurred on a plano through
the plane of the placed aggregates. This phenomenon occurred with the
gren t mo.jori ty of the preplD.ced nggregQ te specimens. The orienta. tion of
these cracks, as shown not onl} by the X-ray tests but also by Jones
(RJ-1; RJ-2) , is po.r"111el to thv applied compressive stress. Hence,
the spocimen is being split into a series of columns with a great
decrease in continuity.
These colunms will tend to bulge outwards, since the lateral

tensile ties which h~d previously held the cencrete together hQve been
broken by those longitudinal cracks. The result is an incroase in the
laterc.l strain. However, th-.:: cross sectional area of the specimen is
not .significnntly altered and tho longitudin::tl strains nre not as
greatly affected: the Young's modulus decreases (Figure 14.2.2.1).
Thereforo, due to the Inrge chango in Internl strClin comp:tred to the
longitudinal strnin, tho Poisson's rntio increases. This then is the
cri tical lo::td, which has been designated a •
pr
These cracks nrc now of sufficient size to influence the pulse
velocity Clnd hence this criticnl lO::Ld is nlso the lond that h:ls been
m':trked a pv • Therefore the pulse velocity technique is [\ convenient
method for defining when this load is re~chod.
FIGURE 14·2·2·1
SUMMARY OF .THE BEHAVIOUR OF
CONCRETE IN UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION
p=o I p p
~,- ~~~~~Ibage i " ,I

1
IllMajor,
I
1'1
!
Smail
I
aacks
\iI~I cracks . I .
Mode of
failure
\1
( ( I 1 I
I " ~
I'p p. II
z
pO?~lble .....-'7[t-'-;:
1/
iJ
~"~
·1-
« '. I'
crltl.ca! . tr-internal ~tra~n
-1J~
..;r~
a: ~
.,-
1/
T· l- straIn lImit ii= distribution' 1/
'r (/) , I I·
1/
'9"
-
. ....-.
/./
._._'~oi?s<?Jl.Ra~ io._._.--!-._. _. _ . /
" /
//
..",
STRESS w
-0+-- o
<0
0pv ()c
310
Since, as was shown in Chnpters 7 ,::tnd 8, the Clggrega to can

c,:}use stress concentrations and, as has boen shown in P::.rt III, is a
primnry cause of microcracking, it is to be expected that tho COClrse
o.ggregnte content will influence the I03.d Clt which a occurs.
pv
Kaplan (MFK-6) has recently shown that an increase in coarse aggregate
contant causes Q docrease in both the lo-:td and the strain nt which
m~jor cracking occurs (Hote: Kaplc..n refers to this as initiation of
cracking whereas Chapters 11 and 12 have shown that it is the onset of
large microcracking.) Tables 14.2.2.1 Clnd 14.2.2.2, 1.<lhich list the
loads and str::..ins for the various mixes, show a similar trend. A.
comparison of these cho.nGGs with the variation in any mix in table
14.2.2.1 or 14.2.2.2 or the errors within a given testing technique
(Section 12.2.3) indicates that, with the exception of Mix J, these
trends are significQnt. The effect of coarse aggregate content is most
obvious when Mix A is ccmpared with Mix F. Here there is an increase
of coo.rsc aggregate content from 0 to 2.1%, but the stresses and strains
at a pv decrease by nearly~. These, howover, are overall stro.ins.
High local strain caused by the coarse aggregate could account for the
earlier initiation of the cracking.
14.2.3 Beh'3.viour of Concrete at Londs Exceeding a

pv
Increasing the compressive load still further will C,J,use the
interconnection of still more cracks Qnd a furthor decrease in the
continuity of the specimen. EventuCllly the specimon will become so
subdivided tho.t it will no longer be capo.ble of sustaining the lOGd.
At this stage th0 ultimate lo~d has been reo.ch0d. Th0 actual value of
the ultimate load depends on ~ number of other factors besides the
strength o~ the concrete per se; an ex::.mple is the rate of landing.
The vertical cracks that co.used the failure of the concrete

determine the mode of fnilure. This is shown in Photograph 13.14.1.1
and confirms the discussion in Section 3.1.8 upon which were based mony
of the arguments in Chapter 3.
As shown in Table 14.2.2.1, the ultimnte load, a , for the

c
concrete mixes decreases with increasing coarse aggregate content.
TABLE 14.2.2.1
SUMMARY OF rrpV AND ~C FOR SPECIMENS TESTED IN PART III
-lo
(all loads are compression and measured in psi) ~
•I\.}
Chapter 11 I Chapter 12 r Chapter 13

I X~ray
Mix Corr.
Factor*
C.A.
content Emitted
%
Baunrl-- Pulse Velocity ~I Loads between
1rlhich major
cracks formed
o-c
O-PR (JPV' crpR' (J PV (J PR (JC
low high __
(J PR
eYe I
5840 9000 3860 3860 5840 5840 8950 6120 8315
--
A 1.013 0 6120 7130 (6200)
(5920)**(9120) (3910) (3910) (5920) (5920) (9070) (8420)
NT*** 6'120 5700 8180
B 1.028 0.3 NT NT NT NT NT NT 4100 (5860) (8410)
I
5360 7790 3980 3860 5900 5840 8300 4100 6120 5700 8300
C 1.017 0.3 (5450) (7920) (4050) (3930) (6000) (5940) (8440) (5800) (8440)
3370 8710 2550 2490 4890 4840 8870 4100 8890
D 0.983 1.4 (4810) (4760) (8720)
lf100 6120 (4030) (8740)
(3310) (8560) (2510) (2450)
4100 8240
E 0.971 1.4 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT 4100 6120 (3980) (8000)
3370 8760 2890 2890 3860 3860 8590 4100 9380
F 0.990 2.1 4100 6120 (4060) (9290)
(3340) (8670) (2860) (2860) (3820) (3820) (8560)
G - 41.3 2500 7060 - - 2720 2720 6880 2050 4100 2500 6810
H - 44.1 1700 5550 - - 2420 2100 5820 2050 4100 2420 5920
J - 45.9
.----~---.
I 1980 5260 - - 2480 2530 5200 NT NT NT NT
\.N
* correction factor accounts for variation in mortar strengths as shown in Table 10.2.8.1 -lo
-lo
** value in bracket has been corrected for variation in mortar strength
*** NT means not tested
14.2 312
TABLE 14.2.2.2
SUMHARY OF LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL STRAINS AT a PV FOR
THE SPECIMENS TESTED IN PART III
Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13

C.A. Emitted sound Pulse velocity X-ray
Mix content
% Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Longitudinal
0 +290 (+190)* (-9 LI-0)

-1600
A -1540 +295 +330
-1575
B: 0.3 NT ,.NT NT NT +363 -1600
C 0.3 (+205) (-1075) +28.5 -1400
+290 -1540 +310 -1800
1.4 +170 (+92) (-500) +190
D -900 +210 -1100 -875
E 1.4 NT NT NT NT +185 -875

2.1 +142 (+115) (-680)
F -840 +178 -980 +175 -930
G 41.3 +75 -490 +80 -500 +58 -355

H 44.1 +32 -220 +60 -320 +42 -310
J 45.9 +68 -425 +65 -410 NT NT
* values in () are at 0pV'

313
It is acknowledged that some of tho above comments are from

a joint paper by the Cluthor and Mr. G.~·J.D. Vile (R,V).
14.2.4 Conclusions
From both a theoreticnl analysis and experimental results
the substantial influence or the non-homogeneous nature of concrete
has been shown. The high stress concentrations caused by the inclusions
in the mortar matrix nre a major cause of microcracking. It is these
and other cracl<::s (shrinkage, etc.) which eventually cause the failurG
of concrete.
14.3 A POSSIBLE DEFINITION OF THE FAILURE OF CONCRETE

Work by Rusch (RR) suggests that tho strength of concrete
under sustained lO":J.d may be more in agreement \vi th 0 than ultimate
pv
loads. Kaplan (MFK-6) arid Hansen (TCH) have mentioned that the long-
term strength of Rusch's specimens is in fact the same load at which
major microcracking first occurred. If this be true, then once a
concrete specimen has excGGded a and the load is nBintainGd above
pv
o it is only a matter of time before tho specimen fails. Kaplan
pv'
has also observed that at this same load, the longitudinnl stress-strain
curve for concrete devi~tes markedly from linearity. These facts
combined with the data of Part III suggest' that a is the true failure
pv
load of concrete; it is the load above which the elastic parameters can
no longer be considered constant nor can the concreto be expected to
sustain the load indefinitely. Furthermore, Jones (RJ-2) has shown
that a is less dependent on specimen shape and end restraint than a •
pv c
Such a definition of failure h~s the advantage that the pulse
velocity technique, which is independent of the size (L,C) and shape
of the specimen or structure, can be used to define the critical load.
The X-ray technique may also be used but this would be difficult to
develop practically.
Further tests are needed to confirm that a is the long-

pv
term strength of concrete, and hence the true failure load of
concrete.
314
PART IV
THE DEFORMATION AND FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONCRETE IN BD\XIAL COMPRESSION

315
CHAPTER 15
INTRODUCTION TO PART IV
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Cfr2pter 14 has briefly interrelatod tho behaviour of concrete

on the macroscopic level with that on tho phenomenological lovel.
However, tho comp~rison was entirely for uniaxial compression. It is
the purpose of the renninder of this thesis to extend this discussion
to a more complex state of stress.
Moreover, it wns concluded in Part I of this thesis that

properly to understand the behaviour of concrete, particularly_ its
f~ilure mechanism, emphasis must bo placed on tests conducted in
biaxial ~nd triaxial states of stress. In Part II, the analysis of
a single non-homogenoi ty in cem.Jnt ~I.sto and the discussion of the
model theory were studied in comp10x states of stress. However, the
actuo.l model was only compared to uniaxial compression data. The
influence of the thrust rings in complex states of stress should be
studied. Part 1II9besidos interr0lnting the lovels of study, provided
D. possible definition of the failure of concrete. This was one of the
possible errors of the existing fQilure theorios discussed in Part I
(Section 5.4.3). With this new definition for the failure of concrete,
tests in complex states of stress should be performed and 0 in
pv
those states of stress applied to the theories in Part I.
Thoro is a definite need, therefore, to extend the study to

complex states of stress. Unfortunately it is not possible to roly
again on tho data in Part I. Little of this data is accompanied by
strain monsuroments and obviously a has not been mOQ.sured. Honce
pv
it is n0ccssnry to conduct a sories of tests on concreto in complex
states of stress during t"hich n . . propriate strrtin and pulse velocity
measurements nre m~de. With such information the discussion in
Parts I, II, and III may be extended Cl.nd r::t better understanding of
the behaviour of concreto obtained.
316
15.2 REA.SONS FOR CHOOSING BIAXIAL COMPRESSION
Thero is a number of complex states of stress in which

concreto could be studied. However, for prnctical and theor~tic~l
reasons, biaxial compression was chosen. Those reasons are summarized

bolo't'l.
a) A pure state of triaxi~l tension is difficult to obtain.

To the au thor I s knowledge this can onl::i bo accomplished through
differential hoC!. ting .jJhon !lppliGd to concreto this would c~uso
numerous complications.
b) Biaxial tension and biaxial tension-compression in

flexure arc already undor study at ImperiQI College (OTS-1). It is
hoped in the near future to extend this work into Q state of direct
biaxi2l tension-compression (PC-G.vJ.P.Vile). This state of stress
could possibly be used to extend this study, but the hi3h tensile
stress may overshetdovl nrw·i:h.rust-ring effoct or, for that matter, the
influ0nce of a •
pv
c) Triaxial compression rr~s tho inherent disadvantaGe that
the entire surface of the specimen must be covered by the land-applying
medic,. This m:lkes n.ccurnto strn.in and pulse velocity measurements
difficult.
d) Biaxial compressive tests, on the other hand, leo..ve one

IA-'1ir of faces of the specimen free for strain and pulse velocity
meClsurements. Furthermore, this state of stress would provide
informa tion on the influence of the In teral load, O • As wns shown
2
in Chapter 3, 02 is of considercblo import~ncc in determining the
mecho..nism of failure of c~mcrGte, p2.rticulnrly its influenco on the
ultimnte strength.
HorGover, before this thesis was stnrtcd only Wastlund (m!J),

and Bellamy (CJB) had studied biaxial compression, but only on mortars.
At about this time Weigler and Becker (\1/ ,B; 1rJ ,B-1) were publishing
their results on the biaxial compressive strength of concrete cont:tining
sm~ll diameter ag~regate (7 mm). Hence the avuilAblo data were
15.2 317
particul~rly limited. This was especi~lly true when the pr2ctic~1
applications in arch dams, shell structures, slabs, ~nd prestressed

concrete are considered. Therefore it wns decided to study the
behaviour of concrete in binxinl compression usinG larg0 size <ill)
aggregate. Strain and pulse velocity me2surements would be taken.
CHAPTER 16
-----,-
DESIGN AND PROVING OF A BIAXIAL TESTING HACHINE
16.1 INTRODUCTION
To extend this thesis into binxi:::tl compression it is n8CeSSo.ry

to develop a machine c~,pCl.ble of .D.pplyin~ D.. compressivG load simultaneously
in two directions. Furthermore, nccordin3 to Section 5.4.4 ext8nsivG mnchinc
tests .:tre required t~ ensure thn t n true 2nd knov1l1 stn to of bio..xi:ll
compression i~ obtained. To achievG this, provious biaxi~l compression
testing mCl.chines will be consider8d in conjunction with the 2vailrlble
equipment nnd,Q binxi:::tl compression testing mo..chinu designed ~d built.
After the description of the mnchine, the rentJ.inder of the cho..pter will
be devoted to the proving trials.
16.2 PllliVIOUS BIAXIAL COHPRESSION TESTING r-U-iCHINES
There is a number of multi-nxio..l compression testin3 mnchines

at presont in usc. However, tho vast m::tjority is trinxial and their
desien is similar in principle to the hydraulic testing rigs used in
most soil mechanics laboratories. The triaxial tostin3 m::tchinos used
by Richart, Branc1tz.::tce, and Brown (R,B,B), and Betlmor (GGB) nrc good
examplos. As discussed in Part I, this testing technique hns the
limitation that 02 = 03' and thereby prohibits a study of the influence
of the intermedin te stress, (52' on the failure of concreto.
To construct ,::1 machine that \"ill permit tho princip:l.l stresses

to be vetried indeponc1ently yet l)rovide a true bi2xinl or trio..xinl state
of stress is difficult. For the biaxio..l st~te of stress under considern-
tion 01 = 0, but the m~chinG must be dosigned to permit independent
control of (j 2 • There o..re three ways to D.ccomplish this, 0.11
nnd 0
3
of which have independent control of the two loads.
0..) The most obvious is to modify 0.. trinxio.l mo.chine so tho..t

hydr~'ulic pressure m:-.y bo npplied indi viduo.lly (o..ctually in p:1irs) to
the four faces of a rect2ngulCtr specimen (Figurc 16.2.1.1a'). This type
of bio.xinl machine, henceforth called a hydrc..ulic p12ten m:l.chine, is
being developed at C""tmbridge.
COMPRESSION MACHINES
319
FIGURE 16.2.1.1
?c;r~w for applying

Initial pressure ..
(A)
!
I
(8) MODIFIED UNIAXIAL
(C) . DOUBLE RAM
l/~~_:~_~
.•..
/ f-------rr
I
.\
\
spec. ram!:
f-o----..J,)
I,
I I i
~
I I
I'ramiI
to
L ___ J pumps
L ___ ..F- :=!.~>
320
b) An ingeneous yet simple bi~xinl m~chino wns designed by

W~stlund (GW) nnd hns been modified nnd used for the tests described
by VJeigler nnd Becker (vJ ,B). This w::..s bnsic.:J.lly n unio.xi,:1l cor.1pression
testin:s rmchine which through its physic;}l construction divided the
uniaxi,'1l lO:J..d into two normCll components and ::lpplied these components
to the orthogonal fnces of Q sm~lll concrete slnb (Figure 16.2.1.1b).
This will be referred to as Q modified uninxio.l mClchine.
c) A third type of binxi,:,-l testing nnchine hns been used by

various mining institutions (SwanseJ., Sheffield, Imperinl College, nnd the
CSIR in Pretorin (RMSR)) and the ISNES (ISHES). .Basically these m:1.chines
consist of 3. welded rectnngular fr.:tme with two rnms mounted on the frame
so thnt their axes nre perpendicular (Figure 16.2.1.1c). This will be
referred to as a double ram machine.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF BIAXIAL T:8STING MACHINES
The Hyc1ro.ulic PI:'. ten ~l;.chine
The hydraulic plnten m:1.chino consists of stool plo.tens with

rubber '0' rings embedded in them, which ,'1re forced D.J,::..inst the sides
of the specimen by threCtded rods. To lond the specimen n hydrnulic
system forcos liquid pressuro into the cnvity formod by tho '0 1 rings,
the plnten, nnd the sp~cimen.
Such :::l. nnchine hws :-l number of advantages:
a) ns only the '0' ring nnd the hydrC1.ulic fluid touch the
specimen, platen restrnint cQused by friction between concreto and
steel platens is elimin~;.ted; .
b) it provides Q method for studying pore pressures; and
c) it is very compnct.
In prnctice it poses Q number of serious devolopment problems.

These Stre:
a) The '0' rings must be pressed firmly ~g~inst the specim~n
to prevent oil see~~ge, which requires nn oddly distributed initial

loCtc1;
321
b) ns the '0' rings must be in conto.ct with the f.:lce, there

will inevitnbly be a strip outside the 'or ring which will have no
external pressure npplied to it; thus tho ,'].pplied load is unevenly
distributed ncross the fo.ce of the specimen;
c) as tho spocimen will contrnct under lO:J.d, this will

lessen the pressure between the '0' ring ~nd the specimen; with
sufficiently high hydraulic pressures,loss of pressure from leaknGe
is likely to occur;
d) Robinson o.nc1 Vile (Section 16.6.5) have found that nt

the pressures needed for concrete to fail, many typos of rubber
become plastic, and honce the '0' rings may not contain the oil nt
high pressures; and
e) unless pore pressure effects nre specificnlly desired, the

mnchine requires somo type of sheathing to prevent penetrntion of the
oil into the concrete.
16.3.2 The Modified Unio.xinl Testing Machine
Wnstlund's and Weigler and Becker's modified uni2xi~1 testing

machine is so constructed thnt 0. bi,,:,-xinl state of stress is induced in
n specimen with the use of only one rnrn. By incre::'1sing the pressure in
the rQm, the specimen is londed in biaxinl compression at a const~nt
r::ttio of 02 to 03. To v::try thG rntio of the lO::.ds from specimen to

specimen it is only necessnry to roto..te the lo::.ding nrms. There is
little question that it is simple nnc1 casy to op8r.'::lte, but it still
ho.s definite limitntions.
n) The lond must be transferred to the specimen through steel

plntens. As hns been briefly mentioned h~ PQrt I, bec2use of the
different amounts of exp~nsion between the steel nnd the concrete this
cnn hnve a restr:1.inine effect on the specimen being testod :1.nd therefore
n complex state of stress is induced.
b) To test concretes containinG an aggregate of prncticnl size

(say i"), n specimen sufficiently large in comp2rison to the size of the
aggregate is required. Only in this wr.J.y is it possible to simulate the
16.3 322
concrete used in 8.ctu.::l structures. AlthouGh the Quthor knows of no

data to determine the minimum specimen size, it is assumod that the
minimum dimension of the specimen shcmld not be less than 4 times the
aggregate diameter, or 3 inches. For this thickness the len:3th and
width of tho specimen must be at least 7 inches in order to reduce the
plnten restrnint mentioned in (0..) (LL; \rJ,B; Section 16.5.4). To test
such Q specimen with this machine requires a huge testing frQ~e with
approximatoly n six-foot clenrance botween machine platens. Few
testing mnchinos are of this size nnd etS a result W0iCSler and Becker
were limited to concrete of very smnll nggregnte size (7 mm).
16.3.3 The Double Ram Machine
The third machine to be considered is a double ram m~chine

where two independently controlled r:J.ms, operCtting normal to each other,
load a cube or n sInb in biaxial compression. In general the machine is
easy to mcmufacture :J.nd opernte, and it C3.n be modified casily for other
states of stress (pc-GWDV).
This type of machine nlso has its disadvantnges.
n) As in the previous case, the load must be transferred to

the specimen through londing platelw, and thus platen restraint problems
are present.
b) Specimens - machine alignment ns well as effacts of specimen

deflection dUG to one lO8.d on the nlignmont of the other land must be
considered.
c) The horizontal m~1chine, if not large enough and properly

supported, may bend and produce an uneven state of stress in the specimen.
Choice of Bi~xial Compression Testing Machine
Obviously there is no easy solution. To overcome the difficulties

of the hydrD.ulic machine would require consider:J.ble preliminary
exp~rimentation nnd development. The choice then remains between the
modified uniaxial and the double ram m:1.chines, both of which involve
problems of platen restraint. Actually, the final choice was governed
by the a vnil::;..ble equipment. The modified uninxi''J,1 machine required a
323
largo fro.me of which none wns :lv:til.3.ble at Imperial College, but there
were two smaller testing frClmes, one of which c IJnveniently fitted botween
the columns of the other. Therefore it was decided to design'n double
rnm machine provided the platen restrnint problem was found to be
negli~ible or could be overcome.
16.4 DOUBLE RAM f.'I!~CHINE, GENERAL DESIGN
16.4.1 Testing Frames Avo.ilable
The lnrger of the two testing frnmes nvo.ilnblc hnd a 200-ton

capacity (Photogrnph 10.3.1.1). The smaller mnchine, designed and
built by Lncho.nce (LL), had only a 100-ton cnpacity, but was designed
to fit horizontally between the columns of tho 200-ton m~chine. The
general arrangement is shown in Figure 16.4.1.1 and Photograph 16.4.1.1.
16.4.2 The 200-Ton Verticnl TestinG Machine
As shown in Ficure 16.4.1.1, the 200-ton machine is in the

vertical position. This frame had been used previously QS n bending
simulation machine And therefore required heavy modification£.
The four columns of the m2chine were oxtended by 18 inches

so that 12rge specimens could bo accommodated in tho machine. This,
of course, would greo.tly roduco tho lateral stiffness of th0 tostinB
frame (pc-OTS), but this \vQS pnrtinlly overcome by nnkin[j lnrg0 nuts
to clamp the end pIn tes and thus incre:J.se tho nnchine rigidity.
A spherical senting c:J.p:tble of supporting 200 tons was required.

The spherical senting (Figure 16.4.1.1) wns so designed as to provide a
large surface area along the curved face (low stress) yet have the centre
of curvature of thc sG::ttinG nt the platen-concrete interface. This
Intter consideration permits the sco.ting to rotnte etbout the end of the
specimen without creating shear forces in the specimen. Massiveness
and riGidity were of prime import:J.nce as no bending of the soating wns
desired. Molybdenum disulphide (Rocol) wns used ets n lubricant.
The ram or rams to be .used were more of a problem. Two

100-ton Epco jacks were nvail~ble and those were installed in the
324
f~'\)
a::.
'4
~
~
't
~
~
~
~
~ ~~
~
~ rJ
;;"
§
~
I I
325
Photograph 16.4.1.1
Biaxial Compression Testing Machine

16.4 326
testing frame. Those jacks had been specially purchased so that they
would work in parallel and exhibit similar characteristics. To ensure
this, both rams were firmly bolted to a 4 inch thick platen, thus
requiring the rams to extend at the S2mo rate. The hydraulic system
was kept symmetrical and attachod to a common mnnifold at n distance
of 6 inches from the ram.
To check if the rams were operating satisfactorily, two

1/10,000-inch dial gauGes wer8 mounted on the top surface of the
platen. Despite the massiveness of tho platen, the common manifold, and
the careful manufacture of the jacks by Epco, it was observed that in a
1/5 inch travel of the platen the south ram rose 0.004 inches higher than
the north ram.
To test whether this would affect the state of stress of an

actual specimen (Section 5.4.4) a steel cylinder 4 inches in diameter
and 12 inches high was placed in the testing frame. By means of
electrical resistance strain gauges the difference in strain on opposite
sides of the specimen and hence the moment could be determined for a
given change in load. To eliminate effects of the specimen and the
ball seating, both were rotated and a number of tests conducted.
The results showed that regardless of the orientation of the

specimen or the ball seating, the maximum moment was D.lways in the
north-south direction, the direction of the line joining tho centres of
the two rnms. The strnin on the south side of tp.c specimen WC1.S alwnys
the largest, confirminG tho validity of the plnten deflection measurements
mentioned above.
From these tests it was obvious that a double ram machine

was not desIrable, so the two 100-ton Epco rams were replaced by a
single 200-ton Tangyes jack. A simiL2r series of tests WQS conducted
using the snme steel cylinder nnd ball senting. With the single rnm the
largest moment, less thnn ~ of that observed with tho double rnms, was
independent of any peculinrity of the ram but appeared to be depGndent
on eccentricities of the specimen nli:snment. This confirms the conclusion
that a double rc..l11 system operating in parallel is not satisfC\.ctory nnd
that whenever possible D. single rnm should be used.
327
16.4.3 The 100-Ton Horizontal Testing M~chine
The 100-ton horizontal testing machine oriein~lly designed

by 13.cmnce (LL) also needed ho:J.vy modification.
Lctchance had used two Blackhawk jacks in parallel to apply

the load. To overcome the difficulties discussed in the previous
section, one of the 100-ton Epco jacks was used to replnce the two
Blackhn wk j:tCks.
The Epco ram was not lapped in to thv cylinder, but only a
loose fit, and the oil pressure was contained by IV' glands. This
meo.nt thnt when used in a horizontc1.l position the ram might, due to
gravity, emerge at n. sliGht o.n31e to the axis of its cylinder. To
overcome nny possible effects of this, a complicated letppod piston
was required to fit over the entire jack. 'rhis is shown in
Figure 16.4.3 .. 1. The oil pr0ssure from the pump forced the Epco rnm
out, applying pressure on the column. As the column hets n betll joint
at either end, nn axial lo~d must be transferred through tho column
regardless of whether the ram w~s slightly out of alignment in its
cylinder. The balls were lubricated with molybdenum disulphide and
the entire area around the column packed with a heo.vy grease. Thus
the column transferred an axial load to the face plate of the lapped
piston. Since the steel piston was lapped to tho cast iron sleeve
over a 12-inch length and the sleeve in turn wets rigidly clnmped to
tho nnchine columns, the piston was forced to travel parallel to the
axis of the mQchine reGardless of the alignment of the internal Epco
ram within its cylinder. This lnd the o..c1.:lec1 advantage of greatly
stiffening the entire frame. The lapped piston was also lubricated
with molybdenum disulphide, but despite this the friction was still
significant. In order to retract the piston, screw returns were
required in addition to the: smClll springs at the bottom of the lapped
piston.
A stiffer spherical seatins was desi~ned such that the se~ting
rotated about the platen-specimen interface (Section 16.4.2, also refer

to OTS-1).
I
!
329
16.4.4 The Biaxial ~~chine
Now that each m:1.chine h'J.s been c.)nsidered on nn indlvidunl

basis and its characteristics improved, the problems associnted with
the machines operD.tin~ together must be discussed. Two problems nre
of most importClnce; the nlignment of the horizcnt:>.l ID'1chine with
respect to the specimen 8nd the verticnl machine, and the effect of
deflections in the specimen caused by onG land on the nlignment of
the specimen with tho other land.
If we consider the problem of the specim3n deflection first,

it follows that ns 03 (200-ton machine) is incrensed, the specimen
. will be deflected. Sinco the top plnte of the machine is fixed, the
deflection of the specimon will bo :l mo.ximum at the lower (rnm) platen-
specimen interface Qnd a minimum at the up~;er (spherical sG:J.ting)
interfn.ce. Honce:'1s the later:'..l nl:J.chino is in n fixed position shear
forces yall develop, tonding to drD.G the l~terQl machine upward nlong
with the deflections of the specimen. This in turn will affect the
stress distribution in the specimen~ The simplest way to overcome this
is to counterbalance the woiGht of the lnternl mnchino, thus leaving it
free to follow the deflections caused by a 3- Moreover, if freely
suspended by cables, the Inter~l mnchine will also adjust for deflections
caused by its own load so as to prevent shoar forces developing along
the platens of the 200-ton capncity m::.chine.
With a freely suspended lnteral mo.chine, alignment problems
may b0come acute. The alignment could be adjusted to a certQin 0xtent
by hand, but fortunately the l:1pped piston on the l::1tero.l mO-chine was
so rigidly c12mped to the mchine columns that it '-I-:1S found through
experimentation that once the ram platen was plnced in position by
hand the m2chine would Qutom2tically nlign itself as the lond was
initially npplied. This will be shown during discussion of the proving
trials.
Since a suspended m3..chine is necessary, a system of supports is

required. Tho room available had inadequate overhead supports and no
overhead cranes. Hence somo technique:: was needed whereby the lntero.,l
16.4 330
mnchine could be suspended through the, 200-ton c,J..p2city m:1chine as

well as be easy to insert and remove.
This problem was solved by constructing two sturdy frames

made from 2 inch angle, both of which were on wheels (Fi~~re 16.4.1.1
and Photograph 16.4.1.1). The larger of the two fre,mes WQS constructed
to carry the 100-ton cnp:'..city mc.chine from the overhend crane in the
mc'.in laboratory to the small testing room (Figure 16.4.4.1). Once in
the room, a railroad-like track was inserted from the laree frame through
the: columns of tho 200-ton co.pacity lTI'lchino and attached to the smaller
frame on the opposite side of tho 200-,ton m:1chin8. On this, the 100-ton
cClpacity mnchine could be whoeled thrOUGh the vertical machine. When in
position, supporting cQbles were attached to both end plntes of the
horizontal machine vin turnbuckles. These cables rQn over pulleys
along the top of the frame, bQck, and down over more pulleys to the
'countervleights. \Vllen the supportin3 cnblos wore not attached to the
100-ton machine (when it W2S being t~ken in or out), the counterweights
were suspended from the top of both fr:tmes by their own turnbuckles.
Once the cables had been nttnched to the 100-ton m:lchinG, the counter-
weight turnbuckles were undone, gradually transferring the load to the
cables. The counterweight turnbuckles were then removed as the machine
was totally suspended. To provide more \-lorking SPQCG the tro..ck was
also removed. Figure 16.4.4.1 shows the frames in place prior to
insertinG the .100-ton m::tchine, while Figure 16.4.1.1 and Photograph
16.4.1.1 show the final machine ready for testing. The entire
operation can be accomplished by one person in about half an hour.
16.4.5 The Hydraulic System
The hydraulic systems for the 100- and 200-ton mnchines were
identical. The pressure for each system was supplied by Cln Oswnld and
Rid~ewny centrifugal pump, type SW01. This fed to an Osw:11cl and Ridge''lay
relief VC',lve set at the m!J.ximum opero.tinc- pressures of the 100-ton and
200-ton rams (8000 o.nd 5000 psi respectively). A spool valve was used
as n control to the rams. Betwoen tho spool valve ,2nd thG ram aT-joint
led to two Burdenberg 10-inch testine; SO-uges, one from 0 to 2000 psi :md
331
c:
the other from 0 to 10,000 psi. At high pressures an Ermeto stop valve
isol::tted the 2000 psi gauge. The ontire system 1.tJ~s interconnected by
i inch OD Ermeto high pressure steel tubinG and fittings. Steel tubinG
is preferable to thc flexible tubing required for the X-ray ~nd acoustic
tests (Part III) since the stiffer steel tubing increLlscs the elasticity
of the testing m~chine (pc-OTS). The tubu lending to the 100-ton capacity
ram WD.S coiled to pe rmi t free movement of the In ter::ll machine (the coil
cnu be seen in PhotoGra.ph 16.4.1.1 b(;t"wcn the 100-ton nr. chine o.nd the
control panel).
16.5 SPECIHEN SHAPE
16.5.1 Possible Specimen Shapes
To study the behaviour of concrete under binxinl compression,

three specimen shapes were considered: D.. cube,:\. cruciform and n sl,~b ..
Wastlund in his biaxial tests used 0. 15 cm cube. Even in

uniaxial compression L:lchctnco (LL) has shOvln that a pure state of stress
does not exist in a cubical specimen. This is prim~rily due to the
differences in elastic properties of the steel platens and concrete
(i.e., platen restraint). In bi~xiQl states of stress the effect of
plnten restro.int will be even greater.
Section 5.4.4 emphasized the need to ensure that a uniform and

known state of stre:ss was obtained. Wastlund also commented on this
requirement Clnd observed that a cube would not permit a uniform state
of stress. To overcome this, W,'].stlund used rubber pnckin::; to reduce
end restraint. However, htchnnce h'J.s shown that rubber is n soft
packing, which will tend to squeeze out under load. As Q re:sult the
rubber will not only overcome platen restraint, but will actually cause
tensile stresses at the interface. This is likely to precipitate
failure in the specimen.
Moreover, platen restraint should not be reduced only through

pnckings, but the shape of the specimen should bo chosen to reduco the
influence of the plQten. A cube is the worst shape to use in an effort
333
to eliminate pl~ten restrnint.
16.5.3 Cruciform
Lachance suggested thnt to obt~in a uniform state of stress in

n cube, the cube should be loaded through an identicnl cube on top and
bottom, thereby havinG concrete platens loading the centre cube, or
even more simply n prism tvi th ~ length 3 times its width. If this is
ext~nded into biaxiil compression, a cruciform-shaped specimen results
(Figure 16.5.3.1). ,This could be made from five cubes or a single
cruciform-shaped mould
Cruciform-shaped specimen
Fisure 16.5.3.1
Such a form ho..s t\A!O major disadvantages.
a) The four side cubes are nIl in a state of uniaxial

compression and are thus tJnding to expand laterally. However, the
centre cube is being squashed by tha other lo~d and is thus
contracting laterally. As the sm~ll arrows in FiG~rG 16.5.3.1 indicate,
there will be a largo stro..in discontinuity at tho interface of the
cubes. Hence the pIa ten rdstr2int ~')ro ble111 IDS been m2de worse.
b) As was discussed in Cmpter 3, previous research shows

that concrete is stronger in biaxial compression than uniaxial. Hence
the four outside cubes, being in uniaxi,:tl compression, will fail first.
334
Reinforcing the lo~ding cubes will only reduce these effects,

not overcome them.
A single cruciform-shGped specimen will b0h~ve in a manner

nnnloeous to the 5 cubes and will thus have the SQme disadvantages.
16.5.4 Slab
To overcome the two disadvantages of the cruciform, the

as
loodin3 cubos mus t be in the same state of stress ~ the centre cube.
This is accomplished by using 2 slnb. Another way to consider it is
as a cube, the depth of which has been reduced to minimize the platen
restraint.
A slab therefore appears to be the best shape for studying

biaxial compressi:on. The dimensions of the slab must be determined
from previous work. For uniaxial compression Lachance showed that for
a uniform stnte of stress to be obtained a height to width ratio of at
least 2.5 wos required (for dry specimens). Through experimentation on
slabs in biaxial compression, Weigler and Becker (W,B) found that any
ratio greater than 3.0 was satisfactory, at least foar dry specimens.
They actually used~. As i imch aggregate is to be used in the specimene,
Section 16.3.2 suggested that the specimen must be at least 3 inches thick
(TG). Hence on this basis for, sny, a 4-inch thick specimen, the height
should be 12 inches. However, a 12-inch height and width was not easily
accommodated in the horizontal machine. Furthermore, such a lQrge
specimen increased the adverse influence of the low stiffness of the
lateral ball seating (Section 16.7.3). Therefore, and with the knowledge
that a successful method ~s bden found for reducing platen restraint
(Section 16.6), a 10 x 10 x 4 inch specimen was used.
This size comp~rGs most favourably with the 3.94 x 3.94 x 0.98
inch specimen used by Weigler and Becker, since it:
a) permits the use of 0.75 inch diameter aggregate rather than

0.27 inch aggregate,
b) facilitates aligning the lateral machine, and
c) provides n larger area for strain measurements.

335
All the steel platens of the bio.xial testinG rrnchine were only
9.75 inches long in order to prevent intErrferenc e between the pIc.. tens
at the corners of the specimen.
16.6 PLATEN RESTRAINT
16.6.1 Need to Consdder Pl2ten Restraint
A.lthough the specimen sh::1pe has beon so chosen to reduce the

effect of platen restraint, frictional effects ~ust still be considered
nnd every effort mnde to reduce them. Only in this way will a
sufficiently lnrge volume of the specimen be in n pure state of biaxial
compression. Otherwise:tn unknown state of stress may exist and it
would be impossible to comply with the comments in Section 5.4.4.
16.6.2 Acknowledp.;ement
It is acknowledged that the tests on platen restraint, which

are summarized belm'iT, \vcre jointly conducted by the author and
Mr. G. W. D. Vile.
16.6.3 Bnckeround Information
The restraint caused by steel platens on the behaviour of

concrete has been realized for some time. For ex::tmple, in the late
1800's FOPPl used paro.ffin wax (shipts wax) to reduco the friction
between these two surfo.ccs CST). More recently, L~chnnce (LL) initi2ted
some stUdies on plnten restraint at Imperial College. Although the
measurements taken b~ Lachance were sufficient for his purpose, they
were ::It too infrequent an interval to show the behClviour occurring
at the concrete steel interfnce. Hence, using the most p'romising
results of Lachance's work as well as some other po.ckin3s, a series of
tests was planned by tho author and G.W.D. Vile to study packings for
reducing platen restr~int.
16.6.4 Experimental Technique
Although it is unlikely that platen restraint can be entirely

elimin2ted, the best packing will be one that will minimize the influence
of the friction. In this way only n minor portion of the specimen will
16.6 336
be affected by the shear stresses induced from friction. However, the

pnckine chosen must not contribute any adverse s~condnry offects.
In h.'1chanc e 's tests on pIn ten restraint, he studied the effoct

by mensurihg the laternl expansion o.lons the height of a 12" x 4" x 4"
prism under uniaxial compression. The lD.ternl exp::tnsion was mec..sured
at nny point by a wmbfs optical extensomoter. However, to set up the
Gxtensometer n.t each load stage is very time-consuming. To overcome
this problem, n Sogenique linear displacement transducer, accurate to
1 micro-inch, was nttached to the extcmsometer as shown in Photograph
17.4.3.1. This arrangement was found to be repeatable for nny given
set up to ±0.5% or two. micro-inches and from one set up to the next to
:1.9%. Drift amounted to 3 or 4 micro-inches. Hence, since rtll
mensurements were over a 4-inch gaugG length,results are quoted to the
nearest microstrQin. The transducer was calibrnted aGainst a
Sogenique standard.
Using this equipment, mensurements of the lateral expansion

of the prism for a change in lond of -1930 psi were taken at frequent
intervals along the longitudinal nxis of the prism (Figure 16.6.4.1).
A. maximum lond of -193J psi W2S used as this w'.:'..s n convenient gauge
rending yet only 29% of the ultimate load of the mortar. As a result
it was less than a
pv
for the particular m"ix (w/e = 0.42, Ale = 2.0;
see Tables 10.2.8.1 and 14.2.2.1). Typical results plotted as a
proportion afthe deflection of the centre (nlong the longitudinC1.1 axis)
of the prism nre shown in Figure 16.6.4.1; the entire range of tests
is summarized in Table 16.6.4.1. All experiments quoted, unless other-
wise noted, are the average of tests on three different specimens all
made from the same mortar, except for a few tests conducted on alumin
specimens.
16.6.5 Conclusions
From Figure 16.4.4.1 and Table 16.4.4.1 it is evident that to

minimize the influence of friction on the specimen the best packing is
Febcure Super Cn curine compound made by Feb, Ltd. of Manchester)
FIGURE 16. 6.4.1
337
PLATEN RESTRAINT DATA .>..(.
PACKIN0 ' SYMBOL €c

1). curing compound . -e- 364
(on damp rnortar)'
2) none (surf ace d'ry) --:il--- 351 .
3) one acetate sheet " _·-x-·- ~ 361
4) three acetate sheets ..... ..J}........ .. 364
1 J.~.__________________________~~d~-
I
L' I .
J
~
( i
.r
: It
. : il .
~
: '\
~ I
!
;"~
I . ~. i, \\
: 'I
. , \
I \
:i \
Zo 3 .~i~ ~\
1--~c.L.f .'
,1 \
.I- 1\
r
\
(3 i\. \
~ \
8J 4 .- "ec = deflect ion at ~\

f- . mid-:-h.eight \
w . (position 1) I
. .2:
c:> in microinches
f
I
U)
Z
W
5 r ....
.. '
.ff.
/.
t~ //r;]
\./
.... ~/ \
. I--
.X
6 ~1O
I
W 7 ..,.
_-i--
_-s------~.
~..s....
/.
~ .
8 +, 4-G- - -mortar spec. ... ~. -:fo-./

10 Jr ~.t·~] steel pJaten
11 ~- .~. Li<
l-,-~-"~l : : t! I I
o 0.1 C}2 0.5 0.6 ~ ~
YEc
08
'
1.0 . 1.2 .
.J
16.6 338
TABLE 16.6.4.1
EFFECT OF VARIOUS PACKINGS AT THE CONCRETE-STEEL
INTERFACE ON THE LATERAL EXPANSION OF THE SPECIMEN
- -.---
The distance from the
interface to which
. No. the lateral strain is
Packing Material affected by
of
Spec. ~), 3% 5% 10%
Series I Mortar specimens
.-
1) Febcure super curing compound 3 2.3 2.0' 1.3 <0.2
2) None,concrete surface dry and
steel platen 3 4.0 3.7 3.1 2.2
3) Molybdenum disulfide (Rocol) 3 2.8 2.6 2.1 0.7
4) PTFE baked on platen 3 4.2 3.8 3.1 1.3
5) PTFE sprayed on surface 3 2.7 2.4 1.8 -
Series II Mortar specimens
1) Febcure super curing compound 3 3.1 2.5 1.8 1.1
2) Ship's wax 3 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.6
3) Acetate Durafixed to concrete 3 3.2 2.8 0.9 0.6
4)
5)
Restrained rubber
Restrained rubber
t
t
inch thick
inch thick
3
3
2.8
3.6
1.8
3.4
-
3.2
-
2.8
Series III Mortar specimens
1) Febcure super applied on damp concrete 3 1.0 0.8 0.6 ...
2) Febcure super applied on concrete
3)
left to dry for 20 minutes
PTFE sheet and PTFE platen
3
3
2.1
4.0
1.9
3.4
1.5
2.8
-
2.0
4)
5)
Sheet of acetate 0.003 inches thick
Three sheets of acetate
2 1.2
2.4
0.9
2.2
-
0.8
-
0.6
3
Series IV Mortar specimens
Hours after applying Febcure super
a) 20 to 22 hours 2 1.8 1.6 1.3 0.7
b) 68 to 70 hours 2 3.0 2.4 1·7 0.8
c) 116 to 118 hours 2 2.5 2.1 1.5 0.1
Series V Aluminium Specimen
--
1) Steel platen 1.8 1.6 1.3 ·0.9
2) Sheet of acetate 0.003 inches thick 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.8
3) Molybdenum disulfide - 0.1 - - -
16.6 339
applied on damp concrete, or tho same curing compound combined with

a sheet of 0.003 inch thick acetate. These influence the lateral
exp2nsion by·only 2% nt 0. distance from the interf:J.ce of only 1.0
and 1.2 inches respectively. Thus their influence on the centre
10 inches of the specimen is likely to be negligible, espGcially when
comp~red with surface-dry concrete, which will influence the lateral
exp~nsion by 2% at a distance of 4 inches from the interface, leaving
only a 4-inch length in th2 centre of the specimen free from end
effects (Figure 16.6.4.1).
Section 16.4.3 mentioned that the ~~cking used must have

no secondary effects. Soft packings (LL) like rubber will squeeze
out under load and in so doing create l~teral tensile stresses in
tho concrete along the interface. This is likely to precipitate
failure (LL; RJ-2) and therefore may h~ve h~d an influence on the
results obtained by Wastlund since he used a rubber p:J.cking (Section
16.5.2). Hence,in the platen restraint experiments presented above,
rubber was used but in such a manner that its lateral expansion was
prevented by a special flange around the outside of the platen. Even
so, at high loads the rubber became plastic and flowed quite freely.
As Figure 16.4.3.1 shows, the frictional effect of the platens on the
concrete is still of a compressive n~ture. Such behaviour is not
observed .vdth either curing compound or curing compound combined with
one sheet of acetate.
To test the behaviour of the curing compound at high stresses.

the author loaded a 10 x 10 x 4 inch mortar slab. coated with the
curing compound, to failure. Longitudinal and laterql surface strains
were measured. Although there were variations in the general trend of
the strnin readings near the interface, there was no indicntion that
the curing compound became ineffective at higher loads. Examination
of failed specimens showed that the layer of curing compound had
remained as a packing between the concrete and platen up to failure.
340
. The probable reason why the curing ccmpc;und is so effective

is that it provides a viscous lnyer, which has been partly absorbed
by the concrete. Thus it is part of the c,.·;ncrete, but sufficiently
thick to cover the imperfections in tho surface of the concrete and
provide n smooth, low-friction surface. That such behaviour does
occur is supported by the mirror-like surface on the curing compound
after testing a specimen.
Further t0sts showed that for the curing compound to be most

effective the following conditions should be fulfilled:
a) The curing compound should be applied immediately after

surface-drying the concrete with a towel;
b) after the first layer of curing compound has dried a

sec·::-nd layer should be applied, thus providing a total thickness of
approximately 0.0012 inches; and
c) the specimen should be tested within or about 24 hours

later.
It can thus be concluded that it is possible greatly to r8duce

the effect of end restraint \vithout any adverse secondary effects and
thus a double ram biaxial compression testing machine is feasible.
MACHINE PROVING TRDtLS

Introduction
After construction of the biaxial testing machine, it is now

necessary to test the m~chine in order to determine the exact state of
stress induced. Such tests must consider repeatability as well as the
uniformity of the state of stress.
Machine Repeatability
In Section 16.4.4 it was mentioned that alignment of the

100-ton m~chine may be a difficulty. If alignment were n problem, then
it would be reflected in the repeatability of the str~in mGasurements
from one complete test set up to the next.
16.7 341
For theso tests a 10 il x 10" X 411 aluminium sL.:'l.b wo..s used.

This is considered superior to D. morto.r or c.. concrete as it is more
uniform and its elo.stid properties nrc well knov/n. Glued to one
quarter of the exposed surfQce of the slab were 11 Saunders Roe
electrical resist2nce strain ~~ugGS, on the opposite side there
were 4 simil3.r gauges to detoct p::.:or alignment, and in the centre
w~s a delta 6~uge to determine tho direction of the stress. Molybdenum
disulphide was used 2S a p~cking between the aluminium specimen and the
steel platen (see Table 16.6.4.1).
The specimen was insorted into tho rW:l.chine and various loa.ds
a.pplied in both directions. The specimen was then removed and the
entire process repeated. This was done a total of 12 times, 6 with the
gauges vertical, 6 with the gauges horizontal.
From theso tests it was found that for any given set up of
the specimen tho strain measured by tho g.:luges was repeatable to +
- 1%,
the accuracy of the strain gauges. The maximum difference shown by
any single compression gD.uge wns :t 1.896 and this was near the edge of
the specimen.
From one complete.set up to the next, the error was a~ain on

the average less thnn : 1%, but the maximum error of two of the gauges
ndjncent to the interfnce was ~ 2.996.
This ropeD. tabili ty is considered excellent, and shO\'/s tho. t

the l:tterCll rrnchine does in fact align itself and as a result the data
from one test t·:.") the next are comparable.
State of Stress
Since it was known that n sp0cimen may be removed from the

m3chine and re-inserted without affecting the strain distribution, it
wns possible to rotate the nluminiup specimen from one position to the
next and obtain nn entire strain distribution without using an excessive
number of stretin getuges. From this it was possible to infer whether
or not n uniform st~te of stress was being obtained. The results
aGreed with those of the mortar specimen discussed below.
16.7 342
An ~luminium specimen is excellent for repeatability tests,

but Table 16.6.4.1 clearly shows·that the friction between the
aluminium, molybdenum disulphide, and st&el does not compare with,
nor can it be expected to behave in a manner similar to, the friction
betwoen concrete, curins c~mpound, and ste01. Hence the stnte of
stress that is obtained durins actu21 testin~ can only be obtained by
usinG similar sp~cimens. To QCCOmlJlish this, :1 10" X 10" X 4" morto.r
(~Jle = 0.42, Ale = 2.0) specimen W:J.S m:-..de, co::ttec1 with curing compound,
strain g:tuges applied in the same locations :ts used on the aluminium
specimen, and then insorted in the m:tchine. Since the sp0cimen wns
continually being romoved, rotated, and re-inserted a single sheet of
0.003 inch thick acetate w:).s pl:1ced between the curing compound rtnd
platen. This protected the curing compound from damnge, but,as shown
in Table 16.6.4.1, had only a minor effect on the strain distribution.
The data obtained from this mortar specimen by maintaining one

load constant and varyinG the other are shown in FiGure 16.7.3.1 where
all the strains have been expressed as n percentage of thu strain at
the centre. The area in a uniform state of compression to within 2%
of the strain at the centre is ringed.
From Figure 16.7.3.1 it is evident that the surfo.ce area in

a uniform state of stress is 4 lllChos in diameter. That the ~rea is
not larger could be due to two factors, machine effects or friction.
a) Machine effects. The vertical frame had an exceptionally

stiff spherical seating and j~ck platen. As a result, and this is shown
by the broken lines in Figure 16.7.3.1, a uniform state of stress w~s
obtained completely across th,:~ specimen. Rov/over t the lateral machine

was limited in size by tho lengths of the columns and hence the size of
both the sphericnl seating and r8.m were limited. Therefore the sphericol
seating and the ram of the horizontal m::lchine were not as stiff ns the
vertic,:11 m:..chine. Due to this, 8. non-uniform stress was applied to the
specimen by the 100-ton machine, with the load decreasing near the ends
of the platens. This is confirmed by compnrins the strains caused by
03 and (] 2 respectively in th0 corners of the specimen. The strains
FIGURE 16.7.3.1 343
" STR'AJN DlSTR'lBUTION

I N A MORTAR SPECIMEN
......... , ..... uniform
~
state 'of ";,tress dye to 02
II
\ ,
11' II 11'< 1/ 11 03
...
/I " II II II
location of. strain gauges
0 3 spherical seating side 0 3

·~~1_'~~~.~~_ _··_~I__~1__~J__~I__~~~~~_,~~
+0.3! 0?t-0:]O ~O:]8 0+-0.67
~ ~I ~
. Ip.28 6p71 Of·86 Op.6~~
+-'
cu
(})
U1
, ,
16.7 344
due to 02 are considerably lower. To overcome this difficulty

a larger machine would be required, but until the biQxial testing
technique was proven, aVQilnble equipment h~d to be used.
b) Friction. Machine effects, however, do not account for

the decrease in strain near, but parallel to the platens. Let us
consider the str"1in distributi:.·n adjacent to the platen of the lateral
machine but cnused by a chnn5e in °3 while °2 was held constant.
In the centre the relative str~ins are 1.0, but decrense to an average
of 0.61 at tho bottom surface ~n~ to 0.43 at the top surface. This is
caused by friction between the specimen and the plnten because tho centre
of the specimen does not move relative to the p12ton. This friction
develops ~long a 9.75 inch lenGth of platen wherens the platen restraint
tests were only along a 4 inch length. As a result the influence of
the friction can be expected to be Greater and extend further into
the specimen.
Therefore the non-uniform stress distribution may be the

result of a combination of those two effects. Both the influences are
over the 9.75 inch lenGth and not over the 4 inch depth. Thus it is
not unreasonable to expect the surface strains to be representative of
tho strain deeper in the specimen. As a result tho area circled in
Figure 16.7.3.1 is likely to be in a uniform state of stress throughout
the depth of the specimen.
Althoush it is desirable to improve the size of tho area of

the uniform state of stress, this would require much larger equipment
which \ojas not availnble at the time; of these tests. However, three
factors SU8GJst that the nre~ in the uniform stnte of stress is
independent of ffi'J.chine effects (Section 5.4.4).
a) Failure originated :in the centre of the specimen and not :in
a corner or particul~rly near one platen.
b) Recently Imperial ColleGe received a Grant from the

Civil Engineering Research Association to study the failure of concrete.
G.W.D. Vile, at the time of the preparation of the thesis, h~s completed
the construction of a stiffer biaxial compression machine and preliminary
16.7 345
results agree with those obtained from the unchine described in this
ch~pter and presented in Chapter 17.
c) Vile, with very stiff spheric2l seatings, but the same

curin3 compound, has sn..)wn the..t the frictional effects are limited
to the outer 2 inches of the specimen.
Furthermore, the delta gauge at the centre of the specimen

showed that the uniform state of stress at the centre of the sp8cimen
was parallel to the axes of both m~chines to within the accuracy of
the gauge and of placing the gauge (1 degree).
Therefore on this basis it is felt reasonable to assume that

a uniform state of biaxial compression is induced in tho centre region
of the specimen.
Loss of Applied Load Due to Friction
It was mentioned in Section 16.7.3 that stresses due to

friction may develop along both the depth (4") and length (9.75")
of the specimen-platen interfQce. The platen restraint tests of
Section 16~6 showed that the·restraint effects across the 4 inch
depth are likely to be small, but the previous discussion suggested
that the frictional stresses along the 9.75 inch length may not be
negligible. Furthermore, the stresses nlong the 9.75 inch length act
p~rallel to the applied l~~ds and therefore, considering for any cross
section through the specimen,
03(a pplied) = °3 (specimen) + friction nt both interfaces.
This is shown schematically in Figure 16.7.4.1.
That such an influence can occur is shown in Figure 16.7.3.1

by the decrease in strain1 not only alohe the edge of the specimen,
but across the entire specimen. The nearer the gauGes are to the
platen actually applying the load, the lower is the relative strain.
HO,.,Iever, the values in Figure 16.7.3.1 arc reL2tive to the strains at
the centre of the spGcimen and would not show any overall reduction in
the stress level cQusec1 by D. transfer of pnrt of the applied load into
FIGURE~ 16.7.4.1
EFFECT OF FRICTION .
OC =stress in, con'crete 1
. Of. =f~iction . 1
~
" .~~~~~
FIGURE. 16.7. 4.2, .~~~~~

INFLUENCE" OF 02· ON A " ~+-----+-----
.,·GIVEN \=HAN.GE IN CJ3
readings = stra!ri due to 03 =-200-l>- -2300; 0"2 =-22gsi ""
. , strain due to U3=-200~-23C?0;02,=-2480PSI'
~I
0'
I
'>t " . 0 o. ".0. N : o· -or ·0.·· ill)" (Y) "(Xl
o f). . (;\
0 .;
.Q
. 01-
1
-: Ci.' . Q\ <l?
(f)~>l-7"t-= or-. -,
o
" -~. -,
0
. -:-. ,- -=;- . _ . - 0-I~'

',0 0 ' . I
I
0 - ,_ .
E
I --
co
L
. " ,I':
'<'I '
o·
. .
r
'~~(--~I.~---J~I\--'~+---n~~J~--.-J~\--~J\--'-~rt~J.\--~1l~
: . If 'I Ii . I . T ". . f' f T I r'
0-3 ram Side 03
16.8 347
the platens. Hence it is conceivable that the load read on the

machine pressure gauges does not correspond to the stress in the
centre of the specimen.
If the strain \.,rere recorded for a given change in with

°3
at one value and again recorded for the same change in but
°2 °3
with at a higher value, it would be possible to determine if the
°2
stresses due to friction were having an overall effect on the stresses
in the specimen.
To determine this the aluminium specimen was again used.

02 was kept constant at an initial value of -22 psi while °3 was
increased by -2100 psi. The differencesin strain for the change in
°3 were recorded. °2 was then increased to -2480 psi and again 03
increased by -2100 psi and the difference in strain due to 03 recorded.
If the lateral load did not increase the friction or change the Young's
modulus of the aluminium specimen then the strain should be the same
in both cases. Figure 16.7.4.2 shows that the ratio of these strains
is less than 1.0 at the centre of the specimen.
It is unlikely, but possible, that this difference could be

caused by a change in the Young's modulus. The decrease is more
likely to be due to friction.
This cannot be physically corrected, but if the proper

strain measurements are taken prior to a test, the effect of the
friction may be estimated and corrected mathenntically. This technique
will be used and described in the following chapter.

Chapter 16 has discussed the reasons for and the design of
a biaxial compreSSion testing machine. From the preliminary tests and
proving trials it can be concluded that the machine does produce a
uniform state of biaxial compression in the centre of the 10 x 10 x 4
inch specimen. However, the proving trials showed that the spherical
seating and ram stiffness of the lateral machine and frictional effects
16.8 348
were important. Furthermore, a correction would have to be m~de to

overcome losses of applied stress due to friction. It is, however,
possible to test concretes contnininG i inch nggregates in bi~xial
compression using this equipment.
CRAPI'ER 17
THE BEHAVIOUR OF T"IORTARS AND CONCRl!;"'TES
IN BIAXIAL STATES OF COMPRESSION
17.1 INTRODUCTION
With the biaxial compression testing machine described in the
previous chapter it is now possible to conduct a series of tests that
will extend the study of Parts II and III into biaxial compression.
The data may also be used to confirm the conclusions of Part I. Of
particular interest will be the influence of the aggregate-cement
ratio, the water-cement ratio, coarse aggregate, and especially the
lateral load on the ultimate strength and ° pv .
17.2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE BIAXIAL CONPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
CONCRETE
17.2.1 Original Work
A. Foppl in 1896 was probably the first to study the biaxial

strength of mortar (ST; \v,B). He used cubes covered with stearin and
tallow (Timoshenko refers to it as paraffin wax, see Section 16.6.3) and
showed that a lateral load has no effect on the strength. Ros and
Eichinger (W,B) concluded, as the tests in Section 16.6 confirm, that
this packing creates tensile stresses and precipitates failure.
In 1928, Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown (R,B,B) studied the

biaxial compressive strength of concrete using a triaxial compression
machine with the axial load equal to zero. For this type of machine
where the lateral load is applied via a hydraulic pressure around the
cylindrical specimen, a 2 =°3 for all cases of loading and it is
impossible to study the individual influence of 02.
17.2.2 Georg Wastlund
To overcome this difficulty Wastlund (GW) designed the machine

described in Section 16.3.2 and tested 64 mortar cubes (15 cm), all from
the same mix. As was mentioned in Section 16.5.2, a cubical specimen is
subject to excessive platen restraint unless some sort of packing is used.
17.2 350
To reduce this, 1:Jastlund used sheets of rubber as a packing. The proper

type and thicknoss was determined through lateral deflection measurements
at the centre and near the edge of the cube; when the two deflections
were equal, the proper packing had been found. The fallacy of this has
been shown in Section 16.6.
a) Figure 16.6.4.1 indicates that to measure the defloction

of the specimen at only one point other than the centre is meaningless.
Depending on the distance of the point from the edge, a large variation
in readings including a reading equal to that of the centre may be obtained
regardless of the packing used.
b) Furthermore, upon loading, the rubber will squeeze out

causing lateral tensile stresses to develop along the interface
(Section 16.6.5). These will precipitate failure (LL). Since the
effect of the packing will be similar for all the specimens it is
possible that the general shape of \.vastlund I s curves will remain
unaffected by this. However, the uniaxial compressive strength of the
mix is likely to be less than it would be had the rubber packing not been
used.
Although \'Jastlund' s "'lork is probably indicative of a mortar r S

behaviour in biaxial compression and thereby justifies its use in
Chapter 3, the data should be used only with discretion.
17.2.3 H. Weigler and G. Becker

Using a machine similar to Wastlund's, Weigler and Becker
recently (1965) conducted a seri0s of biaxial compression tests on
six concretes. This research is the most extensive to date, but on
the basis of the work done in this thesis their technique is subject
to criticism.
a) Due to the type of machine used (refer to Section 16.3.2)

it was necessary to use small specimens (100 mm x 100 mm x 25 mm) and
hence small coarse aggregate (7 mm). Although this is an improvement
over the rnortar used by Wastlund, it is still not of a practical size.
Moreover, the size of the coarse aggregate was shown in Part III to be
351
important to the mechanism of failure and therefore to study the

behaviour of concrete a large-size aggregate should be used.
b) The use of a slab is a definite improvement over cubes;

the dimensions of the slab were determined by the chnnge in ultimate
strength with depth of the slab. This would infer that a constant state
of stress had been reached. To check this, Heigler and Becker used an
Araldite optical stress model and an aluminium slab, both of which showed
that a uniform state of stress existed in the specimen and that the loss
of stress due to end friction was negligible. As is clearly shown in
Table 16.6.4.1, the aluminium-steel interface will not have the same
or even similar properties to the concrete-steel interface. A similar
reasoning will apply to the Araldite. Only a concrete or mortar can be
used to confirm the state of stress. Of the tests conducted on platen
restraint by Robinson and Vile (Section 16.6), the largest frictional
effect occurred for dry concretes, which was the material used by
Weigler and Becker. Since their ultinute load tests showed that a
uniform state of stress probably did exist, it can only be concluded
that this must be small. Therefore it would appear that the ultimate
loads may be correct, but the strain gauges and lateral deflection
measuring device are so large as to come within i inch of the interface.
From Figure 16.6.4.1 it is seen that the gauges will reflect the
influence of the friction and hence their readings are questioned.
~his criticism is supported by the behaviour of the Poisson's

ratio as measured by Weigler and Be"cker on their slabs tested .. in uniaxial
compression.. They observed that Poisson's ratio increases as a function
of the load. The data of this thesis, as well as those of \"lard (M\-l) and
Anson (MA) have shown that Poisson's ratio is virtually independent of
load until 0 is exceeded. Thorefore the strain readings from itJeigler
pv
and Becker's tests may be subject . to error.
\veigler and Becker did not correct for any stress losses due to
friction (Section 16.7.4).
17.2 352
17.2.4 c. J. Bellamy and D. Campbell-Allen

Using an entirely different technique, Bellamy (CJB) and
Campbell-Allen (CA) have both produced a state of biaxial compression
on the inside surface of a hollow mortar cylinder subjected to axial
load and an exterrr~l hydraulic pressure. Unfortunately, only the
immediate inside surface is in biaxial ccmpression, the remainder of
the thickness is in triaxial compression. Failure will initiate on
the inside (biaxial) face and spalling will occur (CJB; CA). At this
stage the entire specimen will not fail as the remainder of it is in
triaxial compression and hence is stronger. To overcome this problem,
simple calculations show that to obtain a reasonably uniform state of
stress, a thin specimen of large diameter is required. Both Bellamy
and Campbell-Allen used a specimen 12 inches long, with an external
diameter of 6 inches and an internal diameter of 2.95 inches. The
discussion of Section 5.4.4 indicated that even for a specimen with
2-inch wall thickness and an internal diameter of 40 inches, a 1096
difference in strain will exist between the internal and e~ternal
surfaces of the hollow cylinder. Such a specimen size is not practical

and hence the t~chnique was not included in the discussion of biaxial
testing machines (Section 16.2).
17.2.5 Need for Nore Studies of the Biaxial Compressivo_Strength

of Concrete
In reviewing the research conducted on concrete in biaxial states

of compression it is evident that, with the exception of \feigler and
Becker's work, all the research has been on mortars. Yet even on
mortars there has been very little research, especially when compe..red
with the increasing occurrence of biaxial states of compression in
construction (arch dams, shells, pressure vessels, prestressed concrete,
and two-way slabs). This further justifies the need to extend the
thesis into biaxial states of stress and if possible to determine the
mechanism of failure.
17.3 353
17.3 PREPARATION OF SPECIHENS
17.3.1 Haterials
The materials used for the biaxial experiments are identical

to those used for the acoustic, pulse velocity, and X-ray tests
(Section 10.2.1).
17.3.2 Mix Design
As the biay~al tests are primarily of an exploratory nature

to develop the technique, the series of tests is limited. However, the
test must provide sufficient data to show, at least tentatively, the
properties of various mortars and concretes when subject to biaxial
compression. Since it would be of considerable interest to study the
effect of water-cement ratio and aggregate-cement ratio on the biaxial
properties of concrete, these variables must also be incorporated in
the test series.
To study the influence of aggregate-cement ratio and water-cement

ratio a minimum of thrGe concrete mixes is required, two mixes having
the same A/c, but different w/c while the third concrete has the same
wlC as one of the first two, but a different A/c. In designing the
proportions of these mixes it is desirable to have a wide variation
in the ~~rameters as far as is consistent with workability and minimum
segregation. \vith the advise of K. Newman and N. Ward, three concrete
mixes were chosen (Table 17.3.7.1).
However, in Parts II and III the influence of coarse aggregate

was shown. To study the,~.effect of coarse aggregate in biaxial
compression the mortar used in each of the three concretes will also
be tested.
Hence a total of six mixes have been ddsigned, three mortars

and three concretes.
17.3.3 Number of Specimens Required
"As only one batch was prepared for each mix, a sufficient number
of specimens within any batch was prepared so that the results, when
averaged, were significant (M\rJ).
354
For each mix two general types of specimens were required:
a) specimens for the standard tests such as uniaxial tension,

compression, and flexure, and
b) specimens for the biaxial tests.
The standard tests were conducted not only to provide

additional information about the mix, but to establish control data.
Of these specimens, two of each type were poured and, unless otherwise
stated, the data presented later in this chapter are the average of
both specimens.
For the biaxial specimens only six moulds were available.

Therefore only one specimen was tested at any given value of lateral
load for each mix. Yet, as the failure envelopes are not likely to
have discontinuities, the six specimens will provide checks on each
other and dotermine if one test is definitely in error.
Therefore the number of specimens (Table 17.3.3.1) should be

sufficient to provide tentative results and show any significant trends.
TABLE 17.3.3.1
Number and Type of Specimens Used in the Biaxial Tests
------------------ ..-.--------
Type of Number of Specimens
Specimen in each mix
Standard Tests
1) Uniaxial tension waisted (Ml\h) 2
20" x 4" X 4ii
2) Uniaxial com- 12" x 4" x 4i1 2
pression
3) Flexure 20" X 4" X 4" 2
Biaxial Tests
4) Biaxial com- 10 B X 10 11 X 4" 6
pression
17.3.4 f3atching and Mixing

The batching and mixing procedure was similar to that
described in Section 10.2.6.
17.3 355
17.3.5 Casting
Casting \'Jas similar to that described in Section 10.2.7
except that the moulds for the biaxial specimens have not been described.
These moulds, designed to fabricate 10 x 10 X LJ. inch concreto

slabs, \'Jere made specially for this series and \tJere in accordance with
British Standard Specification 1881: 1952. The design is shown in
Figure 17.3.5.1; the cross members in the bottom provided extra
rigidity to prevent warping. Two sides protruded slightly to facilitate
stripping the moulds.
The specimen was originally planned to be 12 x 12 x 4 inch and

on this basis the moulds were designed and ordered. The specimen size
was later decreased to 10 inch (Section 16.5.4) and fillets were added
in the moulds to compensate for this change.
17.3.6 Curing
The curing procedure up to and including stripping was similar,
to that described in Section 10.2.7. After the moulds h:tve been stripped
the specimens were placed in a special curing tank at a temperature of
0
70 0 ±0.5 F. During curing tho tanks developed faults and twice the
temperature fell to 60 0 F and twice rose to a:?proximately BOoF. The
dur~tion of these temperatures was only a few hours, insignificant
when compared to the remainder of the 28 days cured at 70 oF,
After curing in water for 28 days, the specimens were removed

one at a time, surface-dried with a towel and immediately painted with
Febcure Super (Section 16.6.5), a curing compound. An hour Inter a
second coat was applied.
The only part of the specimen free from curing compound was
the area where the strain gauges were to be placed. This area was
allo\ved to dry, since;; the strain gauge cement would not adhero to a
damp surface, a.nd then the strain gauges were applied. The gauges,
the point of contact with the lateral gauge, and tho surrounding
exposed concrete were covered with a light grease to prevent further
evaporation.
FIGURE 17·3·5·1 356
,
I.
.:. :=1- all loc~ion dowels ~.cp ....-

o
o
I
,,: all bolts 1whit.

•
~
C\I
..-
,
14-......
,--- 12±001" -----iH+-+---+----;--~t__i
I I
. ~~----------------:;t~- .---- ----- ----~

==-.=::.::::-.:..
·.q- .~
....
.... M
~--.:.-==-..:.=:.: ===:....-=="- .7-- -:.. ~, ---t----+--
I I I I
t--4-----'~O:tQ.01" I
I
I
I
1
I
--t~- :.
weld bracing all
around before
maching bottom
plate
I, .. i
1.5'~ 1.5' .j. 3' .L . 3' --1-1.5'+-15
. 'JO.01·-------------I
PLAN 'VIEW
STEEL MOIuLDS FOR
BIAXIAL' COMREtSION SPECI MENS
close tolerances are
required on angles (9(1)
I
marked
I
I
I
~~--------------12~001------------~----~~~
I
SECTiON A-A
357
In such a \vay the water loss prior to testing on the 29th

and 30th days was kept to a minimum. VJard (1-1\1]) noted that his
specimens, which had been treated in a similar manner, remained
essentially saturated. Tensile and flexural specimens examined
immediately after failure by the author confirmed that with this
procedure the specimens were tested in an essentially saturated
condition.
17.3.7 Summary of the Mixes
Table 17.3.7.1 summarizes the six mixes used, including the

workability tests, which were conducted in accordance with British
Standard 1881: 1952.
17 .4 TESTING EQUIPHliJJT
17.4.1 Loading Machines
To test the specimens in the various states of stress listed

in Table 17.3.3.1, three loading m~chines were required.
a) The biaxial compression testing machine used to test the

six slabs h~s already been described in Chapter 16. The 200-ton
capacity vertical machine was used by itself (although it was physi-
cally not necessary to remove the horizontal machine) to load the
uniaxial 12ft x 4i1 X 4 n prisms. For all compression specimens the
platens were at least two inches thick, thereby complying with
recommendations established by Lachance (1L).
b) The flexural testing machine was designed by Sigvaldason

and will be described in his Ph.D. thosis (OTS-1). This four-column
machine is much stiffer than tho one used in Part III and hence more
consistent results were obtained. The load was applied at the third
points through rollers in accordance with British Standard 1881: 1952
and the value of the load was m8asured by a dynometer in conjunction
with a Peekel Electronic Strain Indicator, Irype 540 DNH.
17.4 358
TABLE 17.3.7.1
SUMHARY OF MIXES 1 TO 6
N.M. = not measured

17.4 359
c) The tension specimens were tested in the frame designed

by M. Ward (MW). Basically the m~chine consists of two hinged calipers
which grip and pull the opposite ends of the slightly waisted 20 inch long
specimen. Ward has shown that a pure state of uniaxial tension is
obtained. The machine is described in Ward's Ph.D. thesis (MW).
All three machines were calibratod either directly or with

proving rings' that had been calibrated directly against National
L~boratory proving devices. Temperature corrections in accordance
with British Standard 1610: 1958 were made. The proving technique
used has been standardized for the concrete laboratories at Imperial
College by Sigvaldason and Ward and has been described in detail by
Ward (MW). As a result,all loads are quoted in pounds per square inch
to an accuracy of 1% of the observed testing gauge reading.
17.4.2 Strain Gauge EquiprJe..llt
To measure the strains along the surface of the spocimen in

the 02 and 03 directions, Saunders-Roe one-inch linear foil strain
gauges were used. Because of their short gauge length in comparison
with the maximum size of the aggregate (i") CB,H), a total of eight
gauges was used on each specimen, four in each direction and half on
each side. The locations of the gauges have been shown in Figure 17.4.2.1
and in relationship to the uniform state of stress in Figure 16.7.3.1.
An identical arrangement is on the opposite side of the spocimen. In
processing the data all the gauges in anyone direction were averaged,
providing an 'equivalent' four-inch gauge length. Figure 17.4.2.1 also
shows the gauge locations on the other specimens.
To apply the strain gauges, the surface of the specimen was

allowed to dry (Section 17.3.6), was scraped to remove laitance, and
then vIas cleaned with acetone (N ,L,L) • Centring lines were re-marked
and a thin layer of PS Adhesive manufactured by Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo
was spread on the surface. The strain gauge was then applied to the
surface, centred, air bubbles forced out, and finally the excess
adhesive removed. A weight held the gauge in place for 15 minutes \vhile
the adhesive set. The gauge and nearby exposed concrete were covered with
grease to prevent further evaporation.
F"IGURE 174.2.1
360
TEST SPECIMENS
scale: r/-,:: 5" ,'nl foil gauges
lateral o lateral extenso-
extensometer . meter points
- ,10:
1 3
1 0
~~~r- ( ) pulse velocity
1::=I::r-
'1 rTi transd ucers
02 -~ 1--._.- of-'
-I
. I ,
I
,\02 :. :.
front view side view _ .
BIAXIAL COMPRESSION ....... '
{1 U3 1 U3·
- I--~.-;-
, . I
\
I
..
i
:1
, ~~
,I trCTtI
. .. 11\ 03 . Ii 0"3 UNIA XIAL TENSION
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION
~! ~,
-I
FLEXURE
17.4 361
The gauges, including identical dummies, were wired to an

automatic Solartron data logger, an improved version of the one used
in Part III. This particular datu. logger was designed to have an
internal drift of less than one microstrain in 72 hours. Hence the
results are more accurate than in Part III, now being limited only by
the accuracy of the gauges, ±1% or 1 microstrain, whichever is larger.
The readings from the eight gauges, recorded in four seconds, were
printed directly in mi~ostrain.
17.4.3 Lateral Deflection Measurements (S1)
Strain gauges cannot be directly used to measure the deflections

normal to the surface of the slab, hence another way of me~suring
deflections was required. Weigler and Bec1<:er (W,B) used a 1/10,OOO-inch

dial gauge, which is not sufficiently .2ccurate to measure small JEteral
deflections. To improve this, a technique similar to the arrangement
used for the platen restraint tests (Section 16.6) was developed. The
major modification was to extend the arms of the extensometer so that
it fitted around the diagonal of the biaxial specimen (Figure 17.4.2.1
and Photographs 17.4.3.1 and 17.4.3.2). Four-gram weights were
suspended to counterbo.lance the weight of the extensometer. Because
of the cramped space \'1i thin the columns of the machines, special care
was requir0d in setting up to prevent the extensometer from binding en
either the specimen or the testing frame. The location of the
extensometer for both the uniaxial (without the ext~nsions on the
extensometer) and biaxial compression tests is shown in Figure 17.4.2.1.
The two points of the extollSometer touching the opposite faces of the
concrete specimen are ~ inch long 3.nd situated between the foil gauges
on the scraped and lightly greased surface~
The extensom0ter, both with and without tho extensions, was

calibra.ted against a standard aluminium prism. From these tests the
repeatibility from set up to set up was 31.5% without the extensions
and !3.2% with the extensions.
362
r(2 •1 11
!M.
Photograph 17.4.3.1
Lateral Extensometer and Transducer
Photograph 17.4.3.2
Lateral Extensometer in Position
17.4
The dcflection of the 0xtcnsome-cor wc.ts transmitted directly

and mechanically to a 1/10-inch ,Sogenique linear displacement
transducer. \vith this equipment, deflections could be recorded to
the nearest two micro-inches or ~ microstrain over the four-inch
gauge length. A screw on the extensometcr permitted an adjustment
to be made so that the transducer was alw3.ys at its mid-range, \vhich
was the most linear portion of its calibration curve.
17.4.4 Measurement of Initial Cracking
The conclusions to Part I suggestod that the ultimate lo~d may

be the wrong definition for the failure of concrete. In Part III the
onset of runjor cracking was considered a possible definition. However,
little information is available on this in complex states of stress.
Thcrefore it would be of particular interest to measure the loads at
which major cracks oC'cur and again compJ.re the results with the existing
failure theories. Furthermore, such information will confirm whether
or not the analysis in Part II does predict the trends for the cracking
loads and in p3.rticular whether the model theory can be extended to
biaxial states of stress.
Part III showed that major cracking could be measured with

either the X-ray or pulse velocity techniques. In biaxi:1l compression,
the analysis of Part II showed that the cracks will for~ parallel to
the plane of the applied loads. Hence if X-rays were passed through
the exposed surfaces of tho concrete in a direction normal to the plane
of the applied loads, the X-rays would also be normal to the plane of
the crack. Section 13.7.2 showed that the X-ray technique would be
particularly insensitive to tho crack at this orientation to the
direction of propagation of tho X-rays. In contrast, the pulse
velocity is most sensitive to cracks normal to the direction of pulse
propagation (S0ction 12.1.3) and is therefore not only the easiest,
but the most sensitive tochnique to uso_
o pv was measured during all compression tosts to ultimate

load. The Cawkoll ultrasonic materials tester, type UCT2, and the
barium titinate crystals, both of which were used in Chapter 12, were
17.5 364
used to measure the pulse velocity through the specimen. The

location of the transducers on the specimen face is shown in
Figure 17.4.2.1 and the holding technique is pictured in Photograph
17.4.4.1, where the: cords are of elastic. The lateral pressure (°1 )
applied by this set up was -5 psi, a negligible amount.
To read the UCT2 the more rapid technique mentioned in

Section 12.4.3 was used with considerable success; the time required
to make a reliable reading was reduced from over a minute to about
15 seconds.
It should be mentioned that during these tests, the Cawkell

Equipment was subject to internal and external interferences which
occasionally caused a jump in the readings. It was often difficult
to differentiate theso jumps from those caused by cracking.
17.5 TESTING TECHNIQUE, BIAXIAL SPECIMENS
17.5.1 Set up
After tho spocimens had been prepared on the 28th day, they
o
were moved into the testing room (temperature 68 0 : 0.5 F) and left
overnight. On the 29th day a biaxial specimen with strain gauges
was inserted between the columns and into the machine with its cast
fnce away from the operator. The specimen was aligned within the
verticnl machine and a slight load (-200 psi) applied to hold the
specimen in position.
Wires were attached to the strain gauges, and the potentiometers

on the Solartron data logger were adjusted. The voltage across the,
gauges was regulated, depending on the gauge factor, so that the
Solartron would rend directly in microstrain.
The most time-consuming p~rt of the set up was placing the

extensometer. The invar connecting rods (Photograph 17.4.3.1) were
removed and the two main portions of the extensometer placed on either
side of the specimen as shown in Figure 17.4.2.1; the rods were then
re-inserted. While the Gxtensometer was held in place, the rods were
365
Photograph 17.4.4.1
Measuring Pulse Velocity

on Biaxial Specimens
17.5 366
fastened to it by tightening clamping screws. A knurled adjustment

screw on the opposite side of the oxtensometer from the lino~r
displacement transducer was rotated until the transducer was at its

mid-range. A thin sheet of cardboard was then used to ensure that
the extensometer was not binding on either the specimen or the machine.
With this set up elastic measurements were taken in uniaxial

compression. Then the horizontal, 100-ton capacity machine was aligned
with the specimen and a slight load applied (-100 psi) to hold the machine
in place. The lateral ball seating support, consisting of a i inch
diameter bolt which prevented the ball seating from sliding downward
when not in use, was rele~sed in order to permit free movement of the
ball seating.
Elastic readings for various values of the lateral load could

now be taken.
17.5.2 Elastic Measurements

Due primarily to the cost of strain gauges, gauges were only
placed on two of the ~biaxial specimens. As a result all strain
measurements were takon on these two specimens and the other four
were used solely for a and ultimate load.
pv
The first specimen C:lctually l=tbelled No .. 6 in tho tD.bles to
follow) was exorcised throe times over a stress variation in the 03
direction from -785 to -1"720 psi with zero lateral load. After it had
been exercised, a total of three complete sets of strain readings were
taken with both the extensometer and the Solartron. By averaging the
three sets of readings the strains in the three principal directions
could be determined.
The horizontal mchine was then aligned, a slight lateral load

of -22 psi applied, and the above procedure repeated. This was felt
necessary since during the alignment of the horizontal machine, it was
inevitable that the lateral extensometer had to be readjusted. This
meant that after the extensometer had been rea.djusted, it might not
rest on exactly the same spot on the face of tho specimen and hence
might give a different reading. As a check those readings at a
nominal lateral I02d were taken and the 8xtensometGr not touched
again until testing was complete. A study of the tables listing
the results will show that· this precaution was justified.
The lateral load was next increased to -650 psi and then
exercised three times over the range -22 to -650 psi while a 3 was
varied from -785 to -1720 psi. Three sets of strain readings were
recorded and averaged for each of the following methods of loading:
a)
°7
:J
= -785 °2 varied from -22 to -650 psi,
psi;
°2 = -650 psi; o 3 varied from -785 to -1720 psi,

b) and
°2 varied from -22 to -650

c) both loaded together, psi
while '0 3 increased from -785 to -1720 psi.
If the specimen behaves elastically and the frictional force doos not
vary significantly, the sum of the strains due to (n) and (b) should
equal those caused by (c).
For specimen No. 6 the lateral load was next increased to

-1980 psi and finally to a maximum of -3420 psi; at each lateral
load the procedure outlined in tho previous paragraphs was repeated.
Such a technique provided'information about the effect of

incre~sing lateral load on the elastic properties of concrete and
wheth'.:r the values were repeatable regardless of the order in which
the loads were applied.
Ultimate Load and °pv

When all the desired elastic readings h'ld been to.ken, specimen
No.6 was loaded to ultimate. To do this the extensometer was removed
to avoid any possibility of damaging it. In pl:tce of the extensometer
the pulse velocity transducers were positioned as shown in Figure 17.4.2.1.
Since this specimen had already been tGsted to a maximum laternl

load of -3420 psi, this lateral load was again ~pplied ~nd m~intained
consto.nt while 03 was incren.sed at D., :rate of -700 psi por minute
17.5 368
until tho ultim~te load. At frequent intervals, the foil strain

gauges and pulse vc;locity equipment were read. H8nce the en-surface
strains and a could be measured.
pv
An alternative method, used by Weigler and Becker, was to
increase both londs simultaneously in n given proportion until
ultiuTIte load. This method bf loading was not used becnuse of the
following ro~sons:
a) The influence of a 2 \'las more clearly observed if the

value of a 2 was kept constant for any specimen and only a 3 varied.
b) The frictional forces at the platen interface were difficult

to measure.
c) Bresler and Pister (B,P) and McHenry and Karni (M,K)

observed that the order of loading was not important, at least for
compression-tension states of stress. The difference that might have
been caused by using proportional loading has not been checked
experimentally owing to a shortage of time. It is recommended that
future tests consider this influence.
Finally, at ultimae load the mode of failure was noted.
17.5.4 Remainder of the Biaxial Specimens
Specimen No.5, the next specimen to be tested, also had

strain gauges on its surface. The set up and testing wore identical
to those for specimen No. 6 except the lateral loads used for elastic
measurements were 0, -22, -1290, and -2700 psi. For ultim'J.te load
testing, the maximum lateral pressure of -2700 psi previously used
for the elnstic tests was applied to the sides of the specimen.
The other four specimens did not have strain gauges fixed to
their surface and were tested for 0pv and ultimate load only, for
various values of O • The lateral loads for each specimen were
2
-1980, -1290, -650, and ° psi. This corresponds to the laternl loads
used for the elastic measurements on specimens No.5 and No.6. For
these four specimens the pulse velocity transducers were placed in the
centre of tho specimen.
17.6
A summary of the specimens and the corresponding lateral

loads is shown in Table 17.5.4,1. A total of 15 hours was required
to test these specimens.
TABLE 17.5.4.1
SU~ffiRY OF THE LATERAL LOADS USED FOR EACH SPECIMEN
.---~---~.~--------------.----.-~--~----------
Specimen No. in Lateral load Lateral load for

order of testing for a o.nd 0 elastic measurements
pv c
6 -3420 . ~-·o, -22-;-:650, -1980, - 3420 -
5 -2700 0, -22, -1290, -2700
4 -1980 none
3 -1290 none
2 -650 none
1 o none
--------~-------------.----~--.--
17.6 TESTING TECHNIQUE, STANDARD TEST SPECIMENS
17.6.1 Uniaxial Compression Tests
The uniaxial compression specimens were tested in a manner

similar to the biaxial specimens. The 12 x 4 x 4 inch prism was set ,up
between 4 x 4 x 2 inch steel platens, strain gauge wires were attached,
the lateral extensometer (without extensions) was placed around the
specimen, and finally the specimen was exercised over a range of -979 psi.
Three sets of strain readings were taken and the results woro averaged.
The lateral extensometer was removed and replaced by the pulse velocity
transducers. The prism was loaded to failure at a rate of -700 psi per
minute while longitudinal strain and pulse velocity readings were
recorded at frequent intervals.
17.6.2 Flexural Tests

A flexural specimen, after being placed in the m~chinetwas
exercised slightly and then loaded to failure at a rate of 110 psi at

the extreme fibre. This rate is approximately the Poisson's ratio
times the rate of loading of the compression specimens. In this way
the tensile strains in all the specimens increase at the same rate. Strain
readings were recorded.
17.7 370
17.6.3 Tension Tests
The tension specimen was set up in accordance with the

recommendations of Ward (MW) and after exercising was loaded to
failure at a rate of 110 psi per minute. Strain readings were
taken at frequent intervals.
17.7 DATA
17.7.1 Presentation of the Data
The data from each of the six mixes are presented in Tables
17.7.1.1 to 17.7.1.6. These tables are briefly explained in the next
two sections.
It should be noted that although the data are presented and

briefly analysed in this chapter, the major consequences of the data
are of fundamental importance to an understanding of the m~croscopic
behaviour and a more complete discussion is deferred until Chapter 18.
Even so, there is an insufficient number of specimens within

any mix to deduce definite conclusions. The results of these tests
can only be considered as trends.
17.7.2 Explanation of Elastic Measurements
The elastic measurements were taken at the various values of

02 listed in Table 17.5.4.1 on specimens No.6 and No.5 and also on
the two uniaxial prisms. These data are presented by specimen for
various values of a 2. The first three columns after the values of
02 have been listed are the three principal strains for a change in
03 of -935 psi for the biaxial specimens and -979 psi for the two
uniaxial specimens, the average of which is shown. It is emphasized that
those readings are for a constantly ap·.'lied value of °2 (i.e., loading
method (b) in Section 17.5.2), The value of e1 has been corrected in
accordance with th~ calibration (Section 17.4.3) to account for the
elasticity of ~ extensions. The next four columns are the elastic
parametors and the rc tio of 8 to e 2 as computed from the three
1
principal strains.
371
TABLE 17.7.1.1
SUMMARY OF DATA FROM BIAXIAL COIvIPRESSION TESTS
Mix No.1 Mortar (wlc = 0.45; sic = 1.8)

Elastic Measurements
PR e
e2 :IT: PR 1/ S2
2 ~ &1
(J
s 23 13
x10+6 x10+6 x10+6 x10+6
Specimen No. 5
0 -198 +38 +32 4.72 0.19 0.16 0.84
-22 -199 +34 +24 4.70 0.17 0.12 0.71
-1290 -195 +28 +29 4.79 0.14 0.15 1.04
-2700 -188 +34.5 +30 ·4.97 0.18 0.16 0.87
Specimen No. 6
0 -198 +39 +24 4.72 0.20 0.12 0.62
-22 -200 +36.5 +58;5 4.68 0.18 0.29 1.60
-650 -193 +26 +51 4.84 0.14 0.26 1.96
-1980 -191 +29.5 +45 4.90 0.15 0.24 1.53
-3420 -188 +34 +40 4.99 0.18 0.21 1.18
Uniaxial
0 -201 +40 - 4.87 0.20 - -
Ultimate (0
c and Cracking Loads
) (0 )
pV - Ev
Corr. ac Corr. u c. Corr. v u....E!
°2 factor 1b c 5 o pv a pv
ac 0
(OpV) 0 0
c
0 1.000 -6950 -6950 1.00 -4110 -41Cl-0 1.00 0.59

-650 0.975 -8490 -8280 1.19 -5400 -5260 1.28 0.64
-1290 0.985 -8610 -8480 1.22 -6480 -6380 1.55 0.75
-1980 0.965 -8950 -8640 1.24 -7240 -6990 -1.70 0.81
-2700 0.950 -8910 -8460 1.22 -7630 -7250 1.76 0.86
-3420 0.950 -9200 -8740 1.26 -8020 -7620 1.85 0.87
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -7320 -7320 1.05 -4350 ..;4350 1.06 0.59
Tensile strength = 617 psi; strain = 154,162

Flexural strength = 892 psi; strain = 215,228
~ .-1
372
TABLE 17.7.1.2
SUMMl-\.RY OF DATA FROM BIAXIAL COHPRESS ION TESTS
Mix No.2 Concrete (W/C = 0.45; SiC = 1.8; CAlc = 2.7; Alc = 4.5)
Elastic Measurements "-
-
a
2
e
3 E2 (;1 E
3
PR
23
PR
13
CJ 11 &
2
x10+6 x10+6 x10+6 x10+6
-- .
Specimen No. 5
0 -122.5 +16 +19.3 7.63 0.13 0.16 1.21
-22 -123 +16 +21.8 7.60 0,13 0.18 1.36
-1290 -118.5 +14 +17.4 7.89 0.12 0.15 1.24
-2700 -114 +21 +16.2 8.20 0.18 0.14 0.77
Specimen No. 6
0 -131 +19.5 +15.6 7.14 0.15 0.12 0.80
-22 -131 +19 +30.5 7.14 0.15 0.23 1.61
-650 -126 +16 +30.5 7.42 0.13 0.24 1.91
-1980 -123.5 +17 +30 7.57 0.14 0.24 1.76
-3420 -120 +22.5 +26.8 7.79 0.19 0.22 1.19
Uniaxial
0 -133 +21 - 7.20 0.16 - -

Ultimate (Oc) and Cracking Loads (0 pv)
ac
~
Corr. Corr. a pv Corr. °pv
°2 factor °c (0 )
c o EV °pv ° c
°c 0 0
0 1.000 -6670 -6670 1.00 -4990 -4990 1.00 0.75

-650 0.962 -8400 -8080 1.21 -5010 -4820 0.97 0.60
-1290 0.967 -8950 -8650 1.30 -5720 -5530 1.11 0.64
-1980 0.943 -9420 -8880 1.33 -5720 -5390 1.08 0.61
-2700 0.931 -9500 -8840 1.33 -5760 -5360 1.07 0.61
-3420 0.916 -9540 -8740 1.31 -5720 -5240 1.05 0.60
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -6440 -6440 0.97 -4830 -4830 0.97 0.75
Tensile strength = 381; strain 58,78

Flexural strength = 751; stra.in 133,160
-...
17.7 373
TABLE 17.7.1.3
SUMMARY OF DATA
FROM BIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
Mix No. 3 Mortar (wjc = 0.45; sjc = 2.4)
Elastic I1easurements
PR PR B1je 2
O
2 £3 £2 £1 ~ 23 13
x10+6 x10+6 . x10+ 6 x10+6
Specimen No.5
0 -199 +37 +43 4.70 0.19 0.22 1.16

-22 -197 +35 +44.2 4.75 0.18 0.22 1.26
-1290 -181 +32 +41.1 5.17 0.18 0.23 1.28
-2700 -174 +39 +36.7 5.37 0.22 0.21 0.94
Specimen No. 6
0 -170.5 +24 +27.4 5.48 0.1iJ. 0.16 1.14
-22 -172 +23.5 +45.4 5.44 0.14 0.26 1.93
-650 -165 +18 +35.5 5.67 0.11 0.22 1.97
-1980 -163.5 +23 +29.9 5.72 0.14 0.18 ·1.30
-3420 -164 +35 +26.8 5.70 0.21 0.16 0.77
Uniaxial
0 -183 +32 5.35 0.175
Ultimate (0 ) and Cracking Loads (0 )
c pv
a a c
2
Corr.
factor
a c
Corr.
"(G) a pv
Corr.
(~pvJ 0..,.E!
G
c C 0 °pv pv 0 c
0 1.000 -5640 '-5640 1.00 -3790 -3790 1.00 0.67
-650 0.968 -6310 -6110 1.08 -4110 -3980 1.05 0.65
-1290 0.910 -6570 -5980 1.06 -4510 -4100 1.08 0.69
-1980 0.959 -6820 -6540 1.16 -4510 -4330 1.14 0.66
-2700 0.874 -7100 -6210 1.10 -4950 -4330 1.14 0.70
-3420 0.962 -7240 -6960 1.23 -5320 -5120 1.35 0.73
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -6250 -6250 1.11 -3680 -3680 0.97 0.59
Tensile strength = 561 psi; strain 130,130
Flexural strength = 826 psi; strain 170,257
J
374
TABLE 17 .7 • 1 4
SUBrriARY OF DATA. FROB BIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
Mix No.4 Concrete (wlc = 0.45; sic = 2.4; CAlc = 3.6; AIC = 6.0)
.. --
Elastic measurements
-~.-~-
8 e 2 e 1 E3 PR PR t 1/e
°2 3 23 13 2
x10+6 x10+6 x10+6 x10
+6
~-#---
Specimen No. 5
--- ..
0 -144 +18 +26 6.49 0.13 0.18 1.44

-22 -143 +18 +26 6.54 0.13 0.18 1.44
-1290 -139 +17 +22.4 6.73 0.12 0.16 1.32
-2700 -135 +22 +17.4 6.93 0.16 0.13 0.79
Specimen No. 6
0 -134 +11 +22.4 6.98 0.08 0.17 2.04
-22 -133 +10 +15 7.03 0.08 0.11 1.50
-650 -131 +9 +15 7.14 0.07 0.12 1.67
-1980 -130 +15 +18.7 7.19 0.12 0.14 1.25
-3420 -128 +21 +17.4 7.30 0.16 0.14 0.83
Uniaxial
0 -148 +19 - 6.62
-
0.13
--
- -
Ultimate (0 ) and Cracking Loads (a )
c , EV ...
Corr. a c Corr. a c a pV Corr. a 0
°2 factor EV ...E.Y
«J)
c 0°c PV ° CO pv ) 0 a
c
0 1.000 -6060 -6060 1.00 -3910 -3910 1.00 0.65

-650 0.978 -7480 -7320 1.21 -4110 -4020 1.03 0.55
-1290 0.965 -8066 -7780 1.28 -4510 -4350 1.11 0.56
-1980 0.970 -8260 -8010 1.32 -4710 -4570 1.17 0.57
-2700 0.938 -8670 -8130 1.34 -4610 -4320 1.10 0.53
-3420 0.955 -9030 -8620 1.42 -4310 -4120 1.05 0.48
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -5850 -5850 0.97 -3880 -3880 0.99 0.66

Flexural strength = 703 psi; strain 275, (high)
-._--'.- --.
375
SUMlf.t11.RY OF DATA FROM BIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
Mix No.5 Mortar (w/c = 0.60; sic = 2.4)

Elastic Measurement
e e 2 e 1 E3 PR PR e 1/ e 2
°2 3 23 13
c
x10+6 xi 0+ 6 x10+ o xi 0+6
Specimen No. 5
0 -236 +41 +40 3.96 0.17 0.17 0.98

-22 -236 +41 +51 3.96 0.17 0.22 1.24
-1290 -206 +43 +40 4.54 0.21 0.19 0.93
-2700 -197 +51.5 +33 4.75 0.26 0.17 0.64
Specimen No. 6
0 -206 +47.5 +41 4 .. 54 0.23 0.20 0.86

-22 -201 +45 +41 4.65 0.22 . 0.20 0.91
-650 -186 +42.5 +36 5.03 0.23 0.19 0.85
-1980 -175 +48 +33 5.34 0.27 0.19 0.69
-3420 -172.5 +51.5 +32.4 5.42 0.30 0.19 0.63
Uniaxial
0 -233 +52 - 4.20 0.22 - -
Ultimate (0c ) and Cracking
' Load (0 )
pv
°2 Corr. °c Corr. ° c Corr. ~ °pv

factor Co c) 0 o pv (OpV) 0 ac
°c a pv
0 1.000 -4070 -4070 1·.00 -2950 -2950 1.00 0.72

-650 0.903 -4960 -4480 1.10 -3790 -3420 1.16 0.76
-1290 0.873 -5170 -4510 1.11 -3710 -3240 1.10 0.72
-1980 0.850 -5280 _4490 1.10 -4110 -3490 1.18 0.78
-2700 0.835 -5320 -4440 1.09 -4110 -3430 1.16 0.77
-3420 0.837 -5280 -4420 1.09 -3710 -3110 1.05 0.70
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -4160 -4160 1.02 -2830 -2830 0.96 0.68

Flexural strength = 703 psi; strain 195,250
376
TABLE 17.7.1.6
SUMMARY OF DATA FROI1 BIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS
Hix No.6 Concrete (w/c = 0.60; sic = 2.4; CAlc = 3.6; AIC = 6.0)
Elastic Measurements
- e
°2 e3 e 2 e1 13 PR
23
PR
13 11 e 2
x10
6
x10
6 ~106 x106
Specimen No. 5
0 -176 +29 +26 5.31 0.17 0.15 0.90

-22 -177 +27 +27.4 5.28 0.15 0.16 1.01
-1290 -173 +19 +25 5.40 0.11 0.15 1.32
-1980 -171 +22 +22.4 5.47 0.13 0.13 1.02
-2700 -172 +24.5 +22.4 5.44 0.14 0.13 0.91
Specimen No. 6
0 -153 +26 +20* 6.11 0.17 0.13* 0.77*

-22 -153 +26 +23.7* 6.11 0.17 0.16* 0.91*
-650 -150 +21 +23.7* 6.23· 0.14 0.16* 1.13*
-1980 -147 +23 +21* 6.36 0.16 0.14* 0.91*
-3420 -149 +29 +18.7* 6.28 0.20 0.13* 0.64*
Uniaxial
0 -171 +26 - 5.71 0.152 - -

Ultimate (a ) and Cracking Load (0 )
c pv
a
° 2 Carr. ° c Corr. c (J
pv
Corr. ~ (Jpv
factor
°c ~ ° pv
(a
pv
)
0
a
c
0 1.000 -3950 -3950 1.00 -2140 -2140 1.00 0.54

-650 0.980 -5380 -5270 1.33 -2520 -2470 1.15 0.47
-1290 0.983 -5660 -5560 1.41 -3310 -3250 1.52 0.59
0.972 1.43 -3610 1.69 0.64
-1980 0.961 -5820 -5660 -3710
-2700 0.977 -5960 -5820 1.47 -3710 -3620 1,,69 0.62
-3420 0.974 -6100 -5940 1.50 -3310 -3220 1.50 0.54
Uniaxial
0 1.000 -3940 -3940 1.00 -2330 -2330 1.09 0.54
Tensile strength = 397 psi; strain = 75,100

Flexural strength = 630 psi; strain = 130,215
* loose screw on extensometer
17.7 377
17.7.3 Influence of Friction at the Concrete-Plnten Interface

From all six tables it is readily apparent that the longitudinal
stra.in caused by a 3 decreases with higher values of a 2. This, as
mentioned in Section 16.7.4, could be caused by two factors:
a) an increQse in Young's modulus of th8 concrete, or
b) friction along the interfnce between the specimen and

the lateral platens.
Although (D.) cannot bo neglected for concrete (the theory

pres2nted in Chapter 18 suggests that the Young's modulus m:ly incrense),
the same effect was shown in Section 16.7.4 for aluminium \.,here it is
most unlikely that its modulus of elnsticity will increase with
increasing later21 load. Figure 16.6.4.1 shows that the friction
between concrete, curing compound, and steel platen is higher than
tho friction. between aluminium, molybdenum disulphide, nnd steel.
Hence the effect is likely to be greater for concrete than for the
aluminium specimen. Therefore the appnrent increase in moo.ulus of
the concrete is to a large extent likely to be caused by friction.
It will be assumed that the entire effect is caused by friction and
that this friction is the same in specimens 2, 3, and 4 as measured
in 5 and 6.
It must be realized that this is only a first approximation

and that by m3king the corr0ction it is assumed the loads are nearer
their true value th2.n had the correction not been m:lde. This is
particularly justified as tho corrected vnlues are conservo.tivG and
the correction is not large, generally being about -5% and in only
tvlO mortar mixes exceeding -10%.
In order to show the effect of friction, the el.J.stic measure-

ments have not been corrected. The affected values are primarily e2 ,
and e 1' as e 3 and E would be constants equal to the value with
zero laterQl load. Poisson's ratio and ~1/e2 would remain unchanged.
17.8 378
17.7.4 Ultimate ( a)
c
and Cracking (0
pv
) Loads
The ultimate and cracking loads, quoted in pounds per square

inch, are corrected to account for the friction losses. The correction
factor is listed in tho second column of this section of the six tables.
The actual recorded value of the ultimate load and the corrected ultimnte
load are in the next two columns. The column labelled oC/(Oc)o is the
correct ultimate load divided by the ultim2te load of specimen No. 1
CO
2
= 0). The next two columns are the lOQds at which major cracks
occur as detected by the pulse velocity technique, i.e.,
pv
and the °
corrected value of (j • The next to last column lists the corrected
pv
cracking load divided by the cracking load for specimen No.1 CO = 0).
2
The last column shows the value of the cracking load to ultimate load
ratio.
17.7.5 Effect of Specimen Size
A comparison of the ultimnte load of the uniaxial tested prism

with that of the slab shows good agreement. The fifth column
Cac/Co )) of the data for the uniaxial prism test lists the ratio
c 0
of the uniaxial prism to slab stren3th. For all the mixes this is
within ± 2.5% of the average of thG two strengths except Nix 3, where
the prism strength was 11% higher than the slab strength. In general
there is no indication that one specimen is particularly stronger than
th0 other.
17.8 THE EFFECT OF °2 AND COARSE AGGREGATE CONTENT ON THE

ELASTIC PARAMETERS
17.8.1 The influence of A/C Qnd \V/C
The influence of the aggregQte-cement and water-cement ratios

has been the subject of much research and, although these parameters
have been included, their influence on the elastic pnrameters will not
be discussed in detail sincG some of the data, particularly the
Poisson's ratio effects, are conflicting; the individual specimen
varintions are gre2ter than the influence of the p9.rameter.
17.8 379
Therefore, until more data are available, it is of more

interest to the theme of the thesis to con,sider the effects of a 2
and coarse aggregate content on the Young's modulus and the Poisson's
ratio.
17.8.2 The Influence of 02

The influence of a lateral load on the modulus of elasticity
apparently causes the modulus to increase, but this effect can be at
least partly explained by considering the frictional losses due to the
la teral pIa tens. r:I'herefore, as mentioned in Section 17.7.3 , it ,bas
been assumed that the overall modulus is independent of a 2.
The variation of the Poisson's ratio in the plane of the applied

load (PR ) is shown in Figure 17.8.2.1. For all six mixes the Poisson's
23
ratio initially decreases and then increases with further increase in
the value of the lateral load.
In contrast, the Poisson's ratio normal to the surface of the

specimen (PR ) generally decreases with an increase in the value of
13
the lateral load (Figure 17.8.2.2). This is even more clearly seen by
studying the values of e 1 or by studying the ratio of €'I/ e 2 , which
rapidly decreases with increasing values of lateral load (Figure 17.8.2.3).
To the best of this author's knowledge, these variations in the

Poisson's ratios have hot previously been observed. The behaviour
cannot be explained by machine effects such as friction; excessive
friction would tend to cause PR to decrease, not increase. Instead
23
the phenomenon is a reflection of the macroscopic behaviour of concrete
and will be considered in detail in Chapter 18.
17.8.3 The Influence of Coarse Aggregate

The effect of increasing the volume of the coarse aggregate,
or as in this experiment, the size of the aggregate, is to cause:
a) a marked increase in the modulus of elasticity, the

increase being on an average 37% for Mixes 1 and 2, 3Cffo for Mixes
3 and 4, and 51% for Mixes 5 and 6;
0·30
~.--:
0·25(· ~.~~
.---.-.~
.---.--.--
('t")
(\J • 1 "
-00.20";"
I-:
<{ i "
"~ .
.............. 4
......
.
(/) . . . . ......... .
'.' ··········Mix
....... .
W/C _ SIC
) . 045 J·8
CALC
-" x
o "'". . . . . ......fl···· .2. 0.45 ).B . 2.7 _.0--
0.. ~----- 3 .. ' ..... 0.452.4 --t:,.--
.'-' 0·10 ........... ..
4. 045 2.4 · .. ··0· .. ··
3·6
..... :..... 5 0·60 2·4 _.-4--
. ............... 6 0·60 "2·4 w
"'~" ................ [!J ••••• e" 36 --~-
CO
o
0. 05 6 L -10'00 ~2000 -30'00 -4000
LATERAL .LOAD, 02J psi
FIGUR·E 17· 8·2·2
:. P R.13 AS' A FUNCTION OF LATERAL LOAD
(SPECIMEN. NO. 6~
MIX W/C SIC CAlC
1 0.45 1.8 -1(,-
2 0.45 1.8 2.7 -.e-.-

3 0.45 2.4 - --./!:r---.
4. 0.45 2.4 3.6 ....... -a; ........
-5 0.60 2.4 ...:...-+-.-.
6 0.60 2.4 3.6 . --..+--
O"25~ "
~.~.-._ . _ - . -'-'-f/)-.-.~. _ _
~
o .
(Y) ........
....................
~'-...
' . .
. .
(
.----. ---~ mix 2
• _____ •
~ " "- --.. mix 1-

rvO.20 -f::._, . "'----:- .
LL..
.tf)
. -'-
'-"-+'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'~-'-'-f-'-'-'-"-'-'-'-.-'-'-"-'-+
--.-- .
- - -j ] ) - . - ' .
mix 5
•
.............
Z . ····················[})JXA .. ----_"
. 0 ··· . . . -;-r.-Sn --
tf).1<----~_. ········7iJ~~i~e·
.!.I/ n n
. -.- - -6 mix 3
tf) 0'15-'
o
. ~
.
.
. ' - - ---.. --... ---------
............ 0 5
-- ..-.-... -.. .
. -:-:-:-:-:-. ~ oL.:'...... • • : :
~ .a..
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
m IX 4
n . .................. ...:..~.:-- _ . .'.
!::;.~ ........... -......... -····13 ... ::::_~_:.-.;- m~x 6 w
~......................... f1.. - .. :.... mix 4 (NO. 5) ~
0·1 0 . I . • I ~
o -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000
L
LATERA L LOAD, 021 psi.
FIGURE 17· 8·2·3
.e1/e2 AS A FUNCTION OF LATERAL LOAD
. . :(SP'ECIMEN NO.6)
MIX W/C SIC CAlC
1 0.45 1.8
-.e--.-
"
2 0.45 1.8 2.7
3 0.45 2.4 - .- - , A - - -
4 0.45 2.4 3.6 ... ····fI·· .. ·· ...

5 0.60 2.4 -.-~.-.
6 '0.60 2.4 3,6 -.-~- .
...... -------.....
--- .-e-- .......

......
~.
, , ........
........
__
.
.--- ---- ,
.
~
............................ "' .. :..... . ' . >" . "".'...........

" ~-.
" ,-,
. ; .
£!l'" ". ~'. ,"' "-......
C\J'
"
.~
(})
. "'- 1·4 .....-'. '"
'.~ ............. .
........... .
. "........, ""
.....
~
<l)'
-"-" .....
I,
"
~,
.. 9; .... :-:-: ........ ~ mix 2

""'" :--... mix 1
1.01- / .,.
----~----:----
-----
. - ____ "
..~~ ..
.. ~", . ~.:.: ... .
L /' .
-~
.......
..... . . ,. .....
........~.~ •• <... mix 4
.
J. '-'-'-.-.'
-.- '1"_'_ .
'-'-'-'-'-'-
.
-__.....
----- ~.......
.......
-____ t"h.
r:J'. 3
......tI...·mlx w
!..,., 1/ v 6
.
I
06~
'f
t
~---
•
• -. -.
. -.-.of-- '_._
-2000
! .
.
' -I : - ' - . '-'-'-'-7:fDIX
t
-3000
-
~_ .'
5 !I
4000
co
(\)
LATERAL' LOAD, . 021 psi

b) a decrease in c 1 and which is reflected in the
behaviour of the Poisson's ratios, lowering their values by 25, 43,
and 26% respectively (Figures 17.8.2.1 and 17.8.2.2).
The amount of the decrease in Poisson's ratio becomes less with higher
values of the lateral load. The influence appears to be the same for
both &1 and &2 and hence the plot of &1 / &2 is comparatively
insensitive to changes in coarse aggregate volume (or size). For
uniaxial specimens, a similar decrease was observed in Part III
(Table 14.2.2.2).
That inserting more particles of a higher Young's modulus

will increase the overall modulus is in agreement with theories
produced by Hirsch (TJH) and Hanson (TCH), and would explain both
(a) and (b). For the latter case, the higher modulus of the concrete
would result in lower deflections, including lateral deflections, for
a given change in stress.
17.9 THE EFFECT OF0 , Ale, wle, AND COARSE AGGREGATE ON THE
2
ULTIMATE AND CRACKING LOADS OF CONCRt"'TE
17.9.1 General
Figures 17.9.1.1 to 17.9.1.5 summarize in graphic form the

ultimate strength and cracking load data from Tables 17.7.1.1 to 17.7.1.6.
The first two are most significant, showing the influence of Alc, WIC,
coarse aggregate, and in particular a 2 on the ultimate strength and
apv of concrete.
17.9.2 The Influence of 02
A lateral load clearly increases the ultimate strength of

concrete (Figures 17.9.1.1 and 17.9.1.2). This confirms the trends
obtained by vvastlund, and It/eigler and Becker. The increase in ultimate
load for Wastlund's test was 38% while that for Weigler and Becker's
data varied from 29% to 44%. If we consider only the mortars, which
approximately correspond to tho aggregate sizes used by these authors,
the data presented in this chapter, after correction for friction, show
FIGURE ,17· 9·1·1
-..EFFECT OF Ale ON 0 c AND CJpv
'MlX ~ 5&.' CALC
1
1 0.45 1.8 x '. ' . . " + 1000
2
3.
0.45
0.45 ~:~ 2.7 :_ estimated· 0;-0"3 envelo es Oil
4 0.45 2 .4 3.6 i
...... ~......
r.\
. . . : - - : - : -. . . . . ~:::-• • • ~-.-.~~.
__ - - - - -
' -- -~
:-~.~:
- - --=-----=-------
---:-.-:::::-:.....................
• • •
~
··_·······1'
~
0"3 -80pO . (p s i) . .'~ 0.· .... ··:;.: ~...-.....-.. ~ . -:::Lf<5O" ... ;: /,;,;,;':-:- . . - 2 000 0
. ,.-
.
,no
.....
.-~C
I
y""--- , ."pi
'
,r~~ • , It
•
...... / :/
. ~ . .'. . . ,/ . : ./
'
// . , '/ :;
I
,
/'.' I .j
. (:1' A X'o 0 : ~
: ,/I ' . " : 1·1

. " 1 "
td G . ~ ;~
:it
I
I
I I. ' 1
,1
a J~ -2000-
i
61 1
, I II .'
,
I .. l
I
X : Cl ., A
~ If\:.
I
I ' \
\.
~U pV
'\
r;1
O"pv
bl
I
6c S/
O"pV·....
0"2
(psi).
I~ ~
oc
-4000
t:-
. FIGURE 17·9·1·2
.... EFFECT OF W/CON 0c AND 0pv
MIX W/C SIC CAlC
3
',4
0.45
0.45
2.4
2.4 , 3.6
;f.,
-'.-9-'.-
. .',
. .
. ,', + 1000
~
1
5 0.60 2.4 '-- ~--A-- estimated 01-0-3 envelopes . 1 <
6 0.60 2.4 3.6 ······0······ _~~=-=-=.~.~=-........--·i)'
. ~. ---.-:-~ ~:.~:-- ··-if r-:-:":--;=: •• ::::::: ••••••••••••• , ••
=-- - ___ __ ~: ........ ___ e.····
()3 -8000 ,(psi) - 4QOO.~· ...... /~-=-200C)"e .. ' 0
I---.;;----~! .. ..;.~~~-~~.~--a-D~~-----~~--
........ / ' /
..... '/ /
. .... /.1) / ..
.~.
.,. II
'1. 0X '1
/ .. s
.: I/ . I.:
.: I ., I.
X P, if p ," I ..~
:' I. I,:
.. . . . , 1 J
!fil
.
Jj
1~
Fi"A
.. \ -2000
: Ii\ . . i: \\
1
·0 x .p' \ ' 'C1. A\ . ;
'I \...... \
$ 10;; X 10;; ~0c X Ck~ \~ '0-2 I~

(psi) U1
~'t
-4000
0 C /(OC)02=O AS A FUNCTION' OF LATERAL LOAD
. MIX W/C SIC CALC'
1. 0.45 1.8 ~ FIGURE 17· 9·1·3
2 . 0.45 1.8 2,7 .~.-
1-5r3 0.45 2.4 :....-A-~
. '. ..~. _~ _---.>~m·lx 6
4
5
'0~45
0.60
2.4
2.4
3.6 ······0·····
_.-f._. --------- -- ','
----
. . '
6 '0.60 2.4 3.6 -~-

~~---- ~
.,;c ~
14,- ~~
//
_._.~.---.~
/'
.-;t/ " ......... a ................... ·.·······mix 4
/ .//i)--:-:: ............ '...e····· ..... ' - .--G.-._. ·

~ 1-3
~
/ . . / .. ' .. .a'" .
./........ -:- --e .. mix 2
~
t) /
/ X'
omix 1
~ ./." )( __ ;- ,-;- J.. mix 3
u
t5 1-2--
I
.j
.
;:. ---
~
---
/ ·,' ;..--.-p- .--:-- - ---
J.
I
.
:-. _..------
/ ... :.:1 /'..--"--.- .-: : : '". .-:.--'--
I .~~ ' ·-
----
. r·- .- . - . -
",-:r--........
.
/f 1
1-0~'O' .//" /". -'-'-' -
.... . , / /AJi "':-'-'
/ ./ " . /J>
'1--'-
. £/ .,./
' - ' - '-'-':-mix 5 w
())
(J)
-1000 ;..3000 -4000

-.!-.- - -2000
M
-
LATERAL LOAD} 02J pSI,
FIGURE 17~ 9·1·.4
C5pv/(Opv)(V O ASA FUNCTION OF LATERAL LOAD
2·0 .
MIX W/C SIC CALC

1 0.45 1.8 ~
2 0.45 1.8 2,7 -6.-

mix 1
1-8'''; 3 0.45 2.4 --6--
4
5
6
0.45
0.60
0.60
:2.4
2.4
2.4
3.6
3.6 '-~-
......p ......
_.-f-.-.
-- ----- -"";', .......
~.
oII
~
Q
~
>
1-6'"
'." "
. ~mix6'
~
0-> 1-4
I· b
_--- mix 3
. 1-2~ / __ . _"_. .-_-.---- I W
.a..
'"I; ."-
.- '
.,~ •• "
.p .......... ..::;::-:::> --.
-...-......-....
CD
~~( '-.J
. . --' '. .....
.~~·-f;}:.::~---=--..::::..._. .
__ • . . -
. 4 '~" .........
• •••••
mix --~~ . . . . . . . - mix

.-A- -
. '5
•••••• A • --..' . ' .
______ • ..' -._ E1 '. -....

:...--~ • • •••• _ _
_~
A . ~ •• -=-.
. .... . . . .
~ •
..p;..--
--:.~- - • • • • • • - - - ~ mIx 2 ~'- \:). . - .... :"''.:
\!.o'
~
1-0,~~·~"-'~·':-i<.l -lOpO -20PO . -30PO ~'J.'l-I -4000

LATERAL LOAD, 0'21 psi ....
"
FIGURE 17-·9·1·5
--- Opv/CJC - ASA -FUNCTION OF LAT"ERAL "LOAD
O.9l- MIX W/C SIC CALC

1 0.45 1.8 - --,x-
~.
2 0.45, 1.8 2.7
3 0.45- 2.4 --b--
..... .lJ. .. :.
4 0.45 2.4 3,6
5 0.60 2.4 _.-+._.
6 0.60 2.4 3.6 _~t._ _~ __ +- ____ . __ . ___
_ . - ' -""""-;7---' '_'':!::''. __ .
~ -- --
--
---..........">.- -il>m ix 3
"
- - "~mix 5
-- -- -- ---
fo
---
~--
--=--~
. . - e--- - - ___ ~r - - -. - _~
--
. - -
r _
. --';;;;;;;;'--- . .,'"
'--'~~'"Q--'~'-' :~·-·--.;>mix 2
- .
./
. .
~ .~, -
o , .r,' "'--
)Y . ,
..... /' ......................... l'l............. ..... ~. .
., ". '. '1<> .. " .-..... "':.;7 / .... .••1'1 '. •: .•.• "llt ....... . -.. '" miX
. 6 w
.
'1~ " , . / ....... '"_ ())
00
0-5b '''-.... // 3000···········,.8 mix 4 -4000

'---,r( -10PO 20))0
! . - I ! !
-' LATERAL LOAD, 0'2, psI

an increase of 269'~, 231& and for Mix 5 11% (Figure 17.9.1.3 ~ • The
difference is in the order of 10% and therefore could easily be
accounted for by \vastlund' sand Weigler and Becker's failure to
consider frictional effects. Still, the trends presented by these
authors are correct and their use in Chapter 3 is justifiable.
Although there is no consistent trend of apv/o

c
with °2
(Figure 17.9.1.5), an increase in the lateral load does increase the
load at which major cracking occurs. The consequences of this are
important and are closely allied to the unusual variations in Poisson's
ratio noted in Section 17.8. As this is important to an understanding
of the macroscopic behaviour its discussion is deferred to Chapter 18,
where the major part ,of the chapter will be devoted to it.
17.9.3 The Effect of the Aggregate-Cement Ratio

Throughout the tests, for both uniaxial and biaxial compression,
increasing the aggregate-cement ratio caused a decrease in the ultimate
strength and °pv (Figure 17.9.1.1). That the ultimate l02d decreases
with higher Alc is contrary to the results obtained by Ward (MW) and
other, as yet unpublished, research, at Imperial College. It can only
be concluded that more specimens are needed to substantiate the data in
this chapter.
17.9.4 The Effect of Water-Cement Ratio

The effects of varying the water-cement ratio on the uniaxial
compressive strength are well known (DA, RN4); a decrease in the
water-cement ratio increases the ultimate strength. Figure 17.9.1.2
confirms that this is also true for concrete in biaxial compression.
Furthermore.a decrease in wlc also causes a decrease in the cracking
loads.
For concretes an increase in the water-cement ratio causes an

increase in both the Oc/(oc)o (Figure 17.9.1.3) and the opv/(cpv)o
(Figure 17.9.1.4) curves. Hence the wlc does not have a significant
nor consistent effect on the ratio of the cracking load to the ultimate
strength (Figure 17.9.1.5).
17.10 390
Thus in general a decrease in the W/C increases the strength,

but the maximum increase in strength caused by the lateral load
decreases with lower water-cement ratios.
17-9.5 The Influence of Coarse Aggregate eCA)

The effect of coarse aggregate is to decrease the uniaxial
ultimate load, but not necessarily the cracking load. In contrast,
in biaxial compression the concrete always has a higher strength than
its mortar, although tho effect is not so noticeable nor consistent for
the cracking load.
That the increase in ultimate strength due to lateral load is

greater in concretes is most clearly seen in Figure 17.9.1.3 where
ac/Cac)o is plotted against lateral load. Such a trend is not valid
for Opv/(Opv)o (Figure 17.9.1.4), but is therefore reflected in the
Opv/oc curves (Figure 17.9.1.5) where the concrete, at higher lateral
loads, has a consistently lower cracking load in comparison to its
ultimate strength than the mortars.
This is particularly significant as it indicates that the

larger sized aggregates contribute to the strength of the concrete
providing there is a lateral load, but this does not influence the
cracking loads.
17.10 OTHER STRAIN READINGS

17.10.1 Influence of the Order of Loading on the Strain Readings
The strain readings discussed in Section 17.8 were approximately
a third of the total strain readings taken. As mentioned in Section
17.5.2, strain readings ~lere also recorded for a change in CJ 2 while
°3 was held constant at -785 psi, and then when both loads were applied
simultaneously. As a result, the sum of (a) and (b) in Section 17.5.2
should equal the strain readings obtained from (c).
Such a comparison showed the readings did agree, in many cases

to ± 1~b. In fact, the agreement for the lateral (6 ) strains vIas always
2
within :!: 1% for high values of a 2- However, the 6 readings were
3
17.11 391
more scattered, the worse example being! 15% in Specimen No.5,

Hix 5. It was also observed that the total e 3 strain, obtained
by summing the separate effects of applying ° 2 and °3 , was always
greater (more positive) than the strain when both 103.ds were applied
simul taneously • This could be explained by the loss of a 3 due to
friction when °3 W3.S applied individually while ° 2 was held constant
at one of the values given in Table 17.5.4.1. 't/han both lO:J.ds were
applied together the lateral load was applied proportionally to 03
and hence the loss due to friction would be less. Lower strains would
therefore be recorded when the loads were applied simultaneously and
would account for the observed difference. This is verified by
Tables 17.7.1.1 to 17.7.1.6 which show that Mix 5 required the largest
correction factors and, as seen above, also had the largest error when
the strains caused by different orders of loading were compared.
That this is not observed in the e2 direction is because

was kept constant at a relatively low load of -785 psi while
°3 °2
was varied. It is expected, however, that a similar effect would have
been observed if 03 had been at the higher end of its range
(-1720 psi, Section 17.5.2) during the individual variation of a 2.
An alternative explanation of this behaviour is presented in

Chapter 18.
17.10.2 Surface Strain Readings up to Failure
Figure 17.10.2.1 shows a stress-strain curve for one of the

biaxial specimens.
The specimen representing Nix 1 shows the compressive strain

dropping off prior to ultimate load. This w~s also observed on several
other specimens, but not to the same extent. The reason for this will
become evident after a discussion of the observed modes of failure.
17.11 THE HODE OF FAILURE OF CONCRETE IN BIAXIAL COMPRESSION
The mode in which concrete fails has been considered throughout

the thesis, especially in Chapter 3. There it was noted that concrete
o
392 0
'L
\
oN .-
1
\
. \ .
\
o
~ o
-If)
x-
2
0::::
0
LL ....
'7 (1)
-U) - C\J (l)

W 0 c o
> ~
(1) oOZ""
n:::: r-' -E ~«
10:::
:) ~ u
Q) t-
U -w
0::: - -
0..
U)
V)
--1
Z
- :::J «
<t (9- - Z
0::: - o
LL _..0 :::)
I- r-
-U)
I 0(9
U) -OZ
U) LfIO
W 1--1
0:::
I-
-If) .
0 0 0 0·. 0
0 ·0 0 0 -0
0 0 0 0 0
0 CO CD ~ NI
l' n
1
, I I
0 0LO
; C\J .
. tsd £D -SS3C11S l'v'NIOnl18NOl +
\
17.11 393
failed by vertical splitting in uniaxial compression. The uniaxial

prism specimen in Photograph 17.11.1.1 shows this vertical cracking
(see Figure 3.1.8.1). This type of failure was then used as evidence
that concrete did not fail in shear.
Typical failures in biaxial compression are shown in the other

prints in Photograph 17.11.1.1 (see Figure 3.1.8.1). 03 was applied
on the face of the specimen nearest the camera and a 2 on the upper-
and lowermost faces. At first glance these appear to be shear-like
failures and would contradict the splitting failures observed by
Wastlund, Bellamy, and Richart, Brandtzaeg and Brown. However, closer
examination of the crack pattern along the top surface shows cracking
parallel to the a 3 direction. Even more conclusive are the plate-like
pieces which broke off all the biaxial specimens. These arc the results
of tensile cracking.
As these plates develop and break off from the rest of the
specimen, the strains in the plates relax, for the surface plates no
lon~er support part of the applied load. It is for this reason that
the strain drops off rapidly in some of the stress-strain curves
(Figure 7.10.2.1).
Such failures were predicted by the analyses of Part II

(Figures 7.6.2.3 and 8.10.1.1). The discussions in Chapters 7 and 8
both indicated thnt cracks would occur in biaxial compression parallel
to the plane of the applied loads. This would tend to split the specimen
into plates.
These plates are clearly shown in Photograph '17.11.1.1 Closer

examll1ation of these specimens shows they are completely subdivided by
such plates, some of which are shown in Photograph17.11.1.2. These
latter photographs are of particular interest for two reasons.
a) they show that for this particular aggregate, failure was

a bond failure which, from the discussion of Part III, later spread
through the mortar matrix to cause ultimate failure.
394
Mix 2 (biaxial)
Mix 2 (uniaxial)
Mix 2 (biaxial) Mix 4 (biaxial)

Mode of Failure of Concrete in Uniaxial and Biaxial Compression
395
Close-up of Plates and Aggregate Pieces
from Specimens Failed in Biaxial Compression
396
b) The pieces of mortar still on the aggregate were in the

plane of the applied IO·2ds. As a result tho large compressive stress
prevented local tensile stresses from developing along this part of
the mortar-aggregate interface and bond f.ailure did not occur. These
photographs support the analysis of Part II and the conclusions of
Part III.
Even though the plate-like failures suggest a tensile failure,

the overall failure suggests a shear failure. Robinson and Vile (R,V)
and Robinson (GSR-1) have suggested that this is a machine effect and
occurs in the last moments of failut'e. The biaxial machine vJas not a
stiff machine and the spherical seating was well lubricated (OTS-1).
As tho specimen became more subdivided by the cracks it reached a load
that it could no longer sustain. Due to the soft machine, energy was
released rapidly, the machine very likelyracked, the spherical seating
rotated, and the combination of these forced the observed final mode of
failure on the specimen. Specimens recently tested by Vile with a new,
stiffer biaxial compression testing machine and only lightly oiled
spherical seatings have emphasized the plate-like failure.
17.12 CONCLUSIONS TO CHAPTER 17 AND PART IV
It was the objective of Part IV and in particular Chapter 17

to study the biaxial strength of concrete and to show the influence
of lateral load, coarse aggregate, aggregate-cement ratio, and water-
cement ratio on the properties of concrete. From this study the
following ccnclusions may be drawn.
a) An increase in 02 has an unusual, but significant,

influence on the value of Poisson's ratio and causes an increase in
both thG ultimate and cracking loads.
b) An increase in coarse aggregate results in an increase in

the modulus of elasticity of the specimen, a decrease in Poisson's ratio,
and for concretes an increase in the ratio of the biaxial compressive
strength to the uniaxial strength.
397
c) An increase in the aggregate-cement ratio cG.uses a

decrease in the ultimate and cracking londs of both concrete and
mortar nnd the ratio of the cracking loud to ultimate strength generally
decreases with an increase in A/C.
d) In contrast, the cracking to ultimate load ratio is

virtually independent of water-cement rntio and hence an increase
in W/C decrenses both the ultimnto and cracking loads, but the effect
of lateral load is most noticeable for high W/C'mixes.
e) The biaxial specimens failed by a plate-like tensile

failure.
398
PART V
EFFECT OF THE HACROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
OF CONCRETE ON ITS PH~~OMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR

18.1 399
CHAPTER 18
THE FAILURE MECHANISH OF CONCRf.!J"'TE
18. 1 SUIvjNARY
In order to explain the failure mechanism of concrete, the

thesis has considered, on both a theoretical and experimental basis,
the possible macroscopic cause of failure. Biaxial coopression tests
were conducted in Chapter 17 in order to extend the discussion of the
failure mechanism into a more complex state of stress. However, before
presenting this discussion, it is worthwhile summarizing some of the more
important points presented in the thesis.
a) Part I. After a critical assessment of the available

failure theories it was concluded that none of the theories could
be used as a general failure criterion for concrete. Moreover, it
was sugGested that thero may bo three major causes for this: the
ultimate load may not be the true definition of failure for concrete;
the assumption used by these theories that concrete is homogeneous nay
not be valid as it may then neGlect a major cause of failure; and errors
due to machine and testing techniques may have presented an assessment
of the true properties of concrete. However, the analysis did indicate
that the following two concepts may be important to the failure of
concrete:
1) a limiting tensile strain, since this was the only

theory that could explain the modes of failure; and
2) the sum of the volumetric and deviatoric stresses,
which was considered the most lOGical form of the failuro
criterion for concrete, providing that it could be extended
to include (] 2.
b) Part II cons ide rod , on a greatly sii'Jplified basis, the

possible effects of the non-homOGeneous nature of concrete. From this
it was concluded that by assuming concrete to be heterOGeneous and
assuminG a limiting tensile strain in the mortar, it was possible to
explain much of the qualitative behaviour of concreto 0 That the
18.1 400
assumption of a limiting tensile strain provtd satisfactory supports

strongly the conclusion of Part I, which suggoste:d the i~nportance of
a limitinG tensile strain in concrete. However, Part II considered
tho limitinG tensile strain on a macroscopic level in the mortar phase,
whereas the lirJitil1G tensile strain in Part I was on a phenomenoloGical
level.
c) Part III, besides in terrcla tine; various testini3 techniques

and devoloping the X-ray tGchnique, showed conclusively that a tensile-
lil\:e cracking did occur in concrete. Horeover, this cracking occurred
in two staGGs, small stable cracks caused by shrinkage or high str~ss
concentrations due to the non-homogoneousnature of concrete (Part II),

and which oxtonded into major cracks when the applied load exceeded a
Given value (0 ). It was then suggested that in view of the conclusions
pv
to Part I, apv might be a bettor definition for the failure of concrete
than 0 since a
c' pv
1) signified a che.nGe in the elastic properties of the
concrete, and
2) miGht correspond to the long-term strength of concrete.
d) Part IV, which described a preliminary series of tests

designed to Gxt8nd tht.-:: discussion in Pa-rts I to III into biaxial
coclpression, showed that a 2 is important to the failure of concrete.
Furthormore, the tests shmved that a as well as some of the clastic
pv
parameters are dep~ndent on the value of 0 2.
As tho tests of Po.rt IV furnish data on a pv in biaxial

compression, it is now possible to re-analyse the failure theories
in Part I usini this new definition for tho failure of concrete.
Moreover, a pv \'Ias observed to increase with increasing values of
a 2' at ICJ.st for small values of a 2' but this is contrary to thG
predictions of the model thGory in Chapter 8 (FiGure 8.10.2.1)~ These
two points will be considered in more detail, and in doing so an
explanation will be presented to account for the variation in tho elastic
p3.rametors in biaxial compression and, of more importance, the behaviour
and failure of concreto will bo explained in terms of its macroscopic
structure_
18.2 401
18.2 DEFINITION OF THE FAILURE OF CONCR~"TE
18.2.1 ~pv~s the Definition of Failure
Jones (RJ-1; RJ-2) , Kaplan (HFK-6), Ward (HW) and others

have observed thD.t at some fraction of the ultimate load a major
change occurs in the 'elastic' parameters of the concrete. This is
a reflection of the increase in the siz.::; and number of cracks fonning
in the specimen. Kaplan stated that the change, as measured by strain
gaugos, reflects the onset of cracking in concrete and th0 beginning of
failure. Newman (KN-1) h:lS referred to this point as the onset of
discontinuity.
The tests of Part III, however, have shown that concrete is

discontinuous at even lower load sta;3Gs; some cracks exist in the
concrete even prior to loading while other cracks form throughout the
loading process. The pulse velocity tests showed that the chango in
elastic p'1ro..meters occurs at the lOc'l.d when these small cracks spread
through the mortar :lnd intarconnect to form major cracks. Hence, a pv
is the onset of m3.jor cracking, when th-:: cracks are of such a size as
to have a significant effect on tho elastic parameters, particularly
the lateral strain readings.
Both Rusch (HR) and Kaplan have suggested this point may be
the long-term strength of concrete.
Although this critical load may be determined from strain

readings and X-ray photographs, the easiest technique is to measure
the decrease in thl;) pulse velocity caused by these major cracks. It
is therefore proposed that a decrease in the pulse velocity in excess
of the error of the measuring equipment be used to determine when major
cracking has occurred in concrete. This, in turn, siGnifies that a
major change has occurred in the concrete. Hence this is an alternative
point on tho stress-strain curve (FiGure 3.1.8.2) that could be used to
define the failure of concreto. Figure 3.1.8.2, in fact, shows that
such a definition corresponds to the use of the proportional or yield
limit as a failure criterion in metals. Hence it is sUK~estcd
~'-
that a pv
be considered as the definition of the failure in concrete.
18.2 402
18.2.2 Need to Reconsider the Analysis of Chapter 3

That the ultiraate loc..d may be tho wrong definition of failure
was suggested as a major cause of error in the analysis of Chapter 3.
It would therefore be of interest to ro-ex3.G1ine the analysis of
Chapter 3 usinc the neVi definition of failure.
'1'0 do this, a pv or strain data must be avail3.ble. To

analyse the extensive strain data from uniaxial tests presented
by Kaplan (MFK-6) and \'Jard (Mtv) would not permit a compnrison of
the theories for, as was shown in Section 3.10.1, all the theories
reduce to a similar criterion in uniaxial states of stress. Weigler
and Becker measurod the strains in biaxial compression, but their
strain readinGS ar0 subject to criticism (Section 17.2.3). As a
result, only the data of Chapter 17 will be used to ro-examine the
analysis of Chapter 3.
18.2.3 Analysis
Using the sJ..me computer prosro..mme as was used to process
the data in Chapter 3, an analysis was made of the binxial data in
Chapter 17. By comparing these data, usin:s both a and a values,
pv c
with the variations listed in Table 3.1.6.1 it may be possible to
estimate the extent of the error due to the definition of failure and
whether the new definition for failure permits a better cOiilpromise.
For each raix the n:verage value of K, its standard deviation,

and coofficient of variation nre shown in Table 18.2.3.1 with a as
c
the definition of failure and in Table 18.2.3.2 with a as failure.
pv
18.2.4 Discussion of Results
If we consider first the statistical dat~ obtained from the
ultimate load values of the uniaxial and biaxial compressive tests
(Table 18.2.3.1), it is evidont that the mo.ximum strain (limiting
compressive strain) or the octahedral shear stress theory has tho
lowest coefficient of ~riation as well as the lowest standard deviation
of K. A comparison of these values with those in Table 3.1.6.1, shows
18.2 403
TABLE 18.2.3.1
BL~XI.i-\.L DATil. APPLIED TO THE CLASSICAL FAILURE THEORIES
ultimate load
Maximum stress Maximum stress Maximum strain

(Maximum) (Minimum) (tension)
Mix Avg. s.d. C.V. Mix Avg. s.d. C.V. Mix Avg. s.d. C.V.
1 -1670 1280 76 1 -8260 660 8.0 1 1990 367 18

(same for other
2 -8310 854 10.3 2 2000 405 20
mixes) 3 -6240 459 7.4 3 1580 339 21
4 -7650 889 11.6 4 1870 426 23
5 -4400 166 3.8 5 1220 274 23
6 -5370 731 13.6 6 1410 388 28
Haximum strain Octahedral shear stress Note:

(compression)
1) Maximum shear stress
Mix Avg. s.d. C.V. Hix Avg. s.d. e.v. and Griffith's theory
reduce to maximum stress
1 -8070 554 6.9 1 3600 180 5.0 (minimum) for this case
2 -7920 644 8.1 2 3620 247 6.8 2) Internal friction and
3 -57 LtO 230 4.0 3 2680 114 4.2 r-Iohr's theory neglect a 2
4 -6980 460 6.6 4 3320 238 7.2 3) Guest's theory did
5 -4210 142 3.4
~,-~
5 1899· 554- 29 not converge as it
reduces to a function
I'"
0 -5050 544 10.8 6 2290 212 9.3 of
°
3-
18.2 404
TABLE 18.2.3.2
BIAXIAL DATA A.PPLIED TO THE CLASSICAL FA.ILURE THEORIES
Onset of major cracking a

pv
Maximum stress Maximum stress Maximum strain

(Maximum) (Minimum) (Tension)
Mix I. . vg. s.d. C.V. Mix Avg. s.d. C.V. Mix Avg. s.d. C.V.
1 -1670 1280 76 1 -6270 1340 21.4 1 1590 518 33

(same for other 2 -5220 268 5.1 2 1380 288 21
mixes)
3 -4280 463 10.8 3 1190 343 29
4 -4220 243 5.8 4 1180 282 24
5 -3270 212 6.5 5 989 270 27
6 -3050 612 20.0 6 945 361 38
Maximum strain
(compression) Octahedral shear stress
Note:
Mix iivg. s.d. C.V. Mix Avg. s.d. C.V. same as table
18.2.3.1
1 no convergence 1 2680 453 16.9
2 -4970 236 L~. 8 2 2240 96 4.3
3 -3950 245 6.2 3 1820 153 8.4
4 -4110 209 5.1 4 1810 40 2.2
5 -3210 218 6.8 5 1440 75 5.2
6 -2520 389 15.4 6 1330 247 18.6
18.2 405
that they arc in excellent QGreement with the two theories, with the
one exception of Mix 5, which had ~ coefficient of variation of 29 for
K as com~utGd from the octallGdral shear stress theory.
If a is used as a failure criterion (Table 18.2.3.2) rather

pv
than the ultimate 103ds, the standard deviation of the K's as computed
from thQ maximum strain (limiting compressive str:J.in) and octahedral
shear stress theories is still in excellent agreemont with the standards
of Table 3.1.6.1.
A comparison of Table 18.2.3.1 with 18.2.3.2 indicat0s there

is no trend as to whether a or a is the better definition of
pv c
failure to be used \'V'i th these theories. This is, of course, a reflection
of the observation nude in Section 17.9.2 that the ratio of apv/o is
c
comparatively independent of the lateral load.
ReGardless of the definition of failure, either the maximum strain

(limi tinS c0:11pressive strain) or the octahedral shear stress theory is
the most suitable quantitative failure criterion for concrete in biaxial
compression. In addition, these theories must be examined qualitatively
as in Chapter 3. The octahedral shear stress theory (Section 3.7) assumes
that failure will occur alone; an inclined plane Section 3.1.8, the X-ray
tests, and the plate-like failure in biaxial compression have clearly
shown that such a mode of f:tilure does not exist in concrete. Hence the
octahedral shear theory is not a failure criterion for concrete.
However, S(;ction 3.3 showed that the maximum strain theory gavG
good quali ta tive agreement with the phenomenological be}1..aviour of
concrete. Yet this was for a limi tinc:~ t€:nsile str.::tin, whereas the dD. to.
of Chapter 17 (Tables 18.2.3.1 and 18.2.3.2) indicate that a limiting
compressive strain gives the best quantitative results. However, if the
maximum compressive strain were the criterion, failure would occur norma.l
to the comprc-ssivc: stro.m. In..stend, Photographs 17.11.1.1 sho\v that
failure was normal to the maximum tensile strain, B • Therefore there
1
is a basic conflict botweon the qualitative and quantitative agreement
of the theory and the data.
406
It is concluded that neither the m3.ximum strain theory nor the

octahedral shear stress theory are suit:::ble failure criteria for
concrete. This is in accord vii th the conclusions of Chapter 3.
A similar conclusion is drawn concerninz Bresler and Pister's

octahedral shear-normal stress theory. The data from the concrete
Hixes 2, 4, and 6 are plotted on Q ooc t-t oc t diagram in Figure 18.2.4.1.
If 0 is used as the definition of failure, the diagrnL1 is not linear,
c
but if is used t
0 is ne8rly independent of the value of the
pv oct
normal stress. Hence the agreoment is poor. However, Bresler and Pister
qualified the theory to limit its applic3.tion to conpression-tension only.
That the variation of the K values is so high in some instances

may also be due to errors induced by the testing m3chine on the
investigators. A comparison of the statistical data in Table 18.2.3.1
with the equivalent do. t3. from Bellamy, b/:tstlund, and tveigler and Becker
(Chapter 3) shows thnt the variations obt.:lined by each investigator are
similar. This is particularly significant considerinG the different
testin~ techniques, hlixcs, etc., used. Therefore any errors due to
tostin3 were either nCGlisible, had little influence on the analysis,
or were approximately the same regard10ss of the invGstigator. The last
is unlikoly since such different testing techniques were used.
18.2.5 Conclusions
In sUlmilary, tho existinG failure theories are not failure
criteria for concrete. The generally poor aGreement between theory
and data is unlikely to be causod by machine effects nnd, unless
~nothor definition of failure is proposed, tho analysis of Chapter 3
is independent of whether a or 0 is used to define failure.
pv c
Therefore it is concluded that tho major C2use of the
discrep:tncy between tho theories discussed in Part I and the data
is their nssumption that concreto is homoeeneous. The thesis has
shown that the mncroscopic structure of concrete is important to an
understD..ndin~ of the behaviour of concrete and since tho thoories neGlect
this they may be neGlectin'~ one of tho primary cC\.usos of f3.ilure in
concrete.
FIGURE 18· 2·4·1,
5000
OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR-NORMAL STRESS THEORY
........
tf)
COMPARED WITH DATA OF CHAPTER 17
0.
~
Mix2 (;)
'01"4000 Mix 4 x
.1:1
o ivi i x 6
r-
eYe ~ .~ x
u)I' ,
(/)'
(Jpv -----
~1-3000
J-
.(/)
n::
«
w
Il"2000
(/)
::---....::----r---.~--~-~
-1 "
«
n::'
"0
w
.
_------~---~--s~-
_~-.- J!l .
I I.. 1000
~
U
o
~
l 9· • ,. ~u... l ' 2 .~" '""' -' 0
'+500 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000 '-J
OCTAHEDRAL NORMAL STRESS, CYoet (psi)
18.3 408
18.3 ~ GENEP~L CONCEPT FOR THE FAILURE OF CONCRETE
It was shown in the conclusions to Chapter 3 that many of

the theories were based on an equation of the form
= ••• 18.3.1.1
or extended to include the influence of a 2' this might be
= ••. 18.3.1.2
This included the Guest theory, Internal Friction theory, Mohr's

theory, and to a certain extent the enGrgy theory and Griffith's theory.
In the chapters following Chapter 3 it was observed that Cowan's,
Bresler and Pister's and Brandtzaeg's theories and the model could also
be expressed in this general form. More recently, and from a considera-
tion of energy and stress invarients, Newman (KN-1) has proposed that such
an equation may describe the failure of concrete. That all these theories,
many of which have been proposed as specific failure criteria for concrete,
should express a similar concept would indicate that this may be important
to the failure of concrete.
Many of these theories, including the internal friction, Mohr 1 s,

Cowan's, and Newman's theories, suggest a shearing-type failure. Both
Cowan and Newman realized that this did not occur in concrete subjected
to pure tension. To overcome this difficulty they proposed that a
limiting tensile stress or strain may be critical in this or similar
states of stress and hence the failure is normal to the applied tension.
However, these theories still predict a shear failure in uniaxial and
biaxial compression. Previous work (Section 3.1.8) as well as the data
of Parts III and IV of the thesis show that in these states of stress
shearing failures do not occur, at least on a phenomenological level.
Furthermore, it was suggested in the conclusions to Chapter 3

that a limiting tensile strain is import~nt, aS the limiting strain
l
theory (tensile strain) was the only theory that could explain all the
modes of failure in uniaxial tension and compression, biaxial compression,
and biaxial compression-tension. The analysis of Part II supported this
conclusion by showing that the assumption of Q limiting tensile strnin
in the mortar could explain certain aspects of the failure of concrete.
18.4 409
The modes of cracking observed in Part III and the plo.te-liko failures
obtained in bin.xin.l compression and further evidence that a limiting
tensilo strain is import~nt.
However, as was showp in Section 18.2, a limiting tonsile

strain criterion, at le~st on thG phenomenolo3ical level, cannot
account for the incrc:J.se in 0and a in biaxial compression.
pv c
Newman (KN-1), on the other h3.nd, has suggested that an equation similar
to the form of aqua tion 18.3.1.1 can account for this increc"'.sG. Therefore
by a suitable combination of these two concepts it ffi2y be possible to
account for the beh~viour of concrete, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
The model theory, which h~s been shown to be compatible with

equation 18.3.1.1 (Section 8.1.3) and which used a limiting tensile
strain in the mortar as a f~ilurc criterion, incorporates both these
concepts. Furthermore, the model may permit an explanation of
equation 18.3.1.1, which is a phenomenological equation, in terms of
the macroscopic structure.
18.4 THE IvIODEL IN BIAXIAL COMPRESSION
18.4.1 The Hodel Applied to Mixes 2, 4, and 6; Uniaxial Compression
The data from the uniaxial compressive tests of the 3 concrete

mixes described in Chapter 17 were substituted into the model theory
as discussed in Section 8.6.1. The inputs used for each mix are listed
in Table 18.4.1.1. The modulus of elasticity for the mortar phase
(computer input F) of each concrete V!:J.S obt3ined from Hixes 1, 3, and
5 respectively. Tho numerical values for the unknown constants A, D,
and x' (Table 18.4.1.1) were adjusted by trial and error (Section 8.8.2)
until agreement between the behQviour of the model 3nd of the concrete
Wo.s obtQined. The results of the computer programme and the correspond-
ing data mensurud from the concrete specimens nrc presented at the bottom
of Table 18.4.1.1 and in Figure 18.4.1.1.
18.4 410
TABLE 18.4.1.1
Designator
Computer Programme Inputs
in
Mix 2 Mix 4
(Section 8.9.1) programme
* Critical tensile strain A 0,00018 0.00013 0.00010

Limiting compressive strain HI -0.003 -0.003 -0.003
Aggregate diameter, La B 0.75 0.75 0.75
* Angle Sub tending Aa D 40 31.5 34
Modulus of Mortar, Em E 4,770,000 5,180,000 4,230,000
Modulus of Aggregate F 10,200,000 10,200,000 10,200,000
Factor in Equation 8.6.1.1 X 000
Adjustment of X for diagonal
members Q 1 1 1
Iteration error y 0.001 0.001 0.001
* Area correction for'diagonal
members X' 2.84 4.0 3.3
Water-cement ratio B' 0.45 0.45 0.60
Coarse aggregate-cement ratio C' 2.7 3.6 3.6
Sand-cement ratio Dr 1.8 2.4 2.4
Air void content 0.015 0.015 0.015
Elastic Constants
Modulus of Elasticity (Measured) 7.34x106 6.62x106 5.71x106

Modulus of Elasticity (Model) 7.31x106 6.59x10 6 5.73x106
Poisson's Ratio (Measured) 0.16 0.13 0.152
Poisson's Ratio (Model 0.159 0.130 0.150
Compressive strength (measured) -6440 -5850 -3940
411
COMPAF~ISON OF UNIAXIAL
COMPRESSION DATA WI TH 'MODEL
o Actual
., data (Ch.17)
x ----- Data from model (Ch.8)
L-6000
j
/
/
/
/
/
-4000' /
(/)
(j)
W /
0:: /
I- /
(j)
I'
...J -3000' I
«
,Z /
I
I
o I
:::J I
I- '~
(9 , upv
z -2000
o
...J
-200 -400 -600 -800 -1000 ' -1200

0' -200 ~400 -600 -800 -1900
, 0 '. -200 ' -400 -600 -800
LONGITUDINAL ,ST RA IN J €3 (inJin)
18.4 412
Tho agroement at lo,sds less than a (failure) is excellent,

pv
boing genorally within::: 2%. However, when the specimen fo.ils (0 )
pv
nnd larGo discontinuities occur, tho model simulates this by tho
fClilure of one or more of its interned n18mbers. As was shown in
Section 8.10.2, the model is too simplified to nccount for the behaviour
of concrete nfter failuro. Yet \vhen Ficure 8.10.1.1 is coopared with
Figure 3.1.8.1, 'tho theory is in excellent quo.litative aGreement with
the observed modes of fnilurc in concrete. Furthermore, it is the only
theory to da to which tries to expl:7.in the b0h:J. viour of concrete from a
considerntion of the interparticle, m~croscopic behaviour. As will be
shown later in this section, this is of particular importance since it
provides a physical interpret\:ttion of oquation 18.3.1.1.
18.4.2 The Model Applied to }fix 4; Biaxial Compression

It wns stated in Section 3.1.6 tho.t the true test of n failure
theory wes not how nccur~tely it predicted the behaviour in uniaxial
states of stress, but how closely it accounted for the bohaviour of
the material in more complex sto.tos of stress. To test the model the
middle mix (Mix 4) of the three concretes described in Chapter 17 was
used. The inputs of Table 18.4.1.1 were substituted into the computer
programme, a constant lateral load (\'12 = -02) applied to the model, and
W (=
3
-°3 ) increased. Tho lands Gt which 0pv occurred and the resulting
YounG's modulus and Poisson's ratios are shown in Figures 18.4.2.1 to
18.4.2.3 respectively (for tho case x = 0). If these are comp~red with
the actual test dntc, from Hix 4 (Table 17.7.1.4) the ngreement is poor.
Tho model not only fails to account for the behaviour of the elastic
parametors, but does not even predict the increase in a with
pv
laternl load (Figures 17.9.1.1 and 17.9.1.2; also refer to Fi1ure
8.10.2.1).
Such poor agreement may be due to one of two factors: n)
the usc of a limitin3 tensile str~in in the mortar, or b) the present
form of the model is insufficient to account for the full effoct of the
increase in volumotric strtJt3S c::1.used by ° 2. It would at first s~em
loSical that the f.:::tiluro of the model to predict the incr03,se in a

pv
FIGURE 18·4 ·2·1
COMPARISON OF MIX 4
. ·WITH MODEL
. o;;v VALUES
. 0: psi
-60 00
1
3 -50100 -40pO -3qpO -20QC? ~OpO 10
~ )/1.
.' '/ \
• 1
-i ~
/ ,
/.- / \
/' {0 '\'
. /
Mode~ -z-~/ / \
-1000
(x=f(cr~) .1
c:,.
I '\
~·.P ~\.
" I / '\4z-- Model (x =0)
-"
i·/ .".
\
: qI ". .
.
.
\.
~
\
~
\ Mix 4
-\ (corrected for
" .
'-"
,
--~'-2'000
"\ \0 friction)
. \
~ \ -3000
\. \ ~
~
w
\ \ ()2 psi
\ ~
\ 'Mix 4 (uncorrected)
FIGURE 18·4·2·2
414
COMPARISON OF MIX 4
WITH MODEL
<.D
YOUNGJS MODULUS
o
....-
x -
.~ ro rt
0. /'
/Model (x =f(G2 ))
.CJ) /
::J
...J /'
::J
o
o Mix 4
2 specimen No:6
. '){
,/ . Model (x=O)
----- ---- -{::l--------- --El- -..;... - - - - -
~-,-~ ' ;
o -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000
LA TERAL LOA-OJ psi
()2 J
18.4 415
miGht be caused by the use of the limiting tensile strnin criterion.

However, the thesis has prusentcd considerable justific~tion for its
usc and Q chanGe to another criterion will not 3lt0r tho computed
behaviour of the elc..stic p.J.r~"..1~10ters (Fi Gl1res 8.8.1.1 and 8.8.1.2)
prior to a • Hence the influonce of the volumotric stress must be
pv
increased.
This c:J.n be accomplished through equation 8.6.1.1 which

modifies tho stiffness of the model members. This equation is of
the form
Ema = Em+Xa.
The similarity betweon this equation and the equations for the
internal friction (Hohr's theory), Cow~n's theory, nnd Bro.ndtzaeg's
theory is obvious: Ema corresponds to the shear stress /s/ and a
to tho normal stress (Section 3.5). iilthouGh the pt.'l.rameter x
adjusts the moduli cf the me:mbers it c~n be interpreted as accounting
for the effect of the volumetric stress.
Det us :J.ssume that x is a line2I' function of the lateral'

lo,'l.d and aGD. in use tho model, but vary the vJ.lue of x for different
values of a 2. The results are shown in Figures 18.4.2.1 to 18.L~.2.3.
There is now reasonable ngreemont between the vo.lue of a pv as
computed by the model 2nd ns obtained from the tests of ChClpter 17.
This nlteration has also improved the aGreement between the model and
the computed elQstic parameters. The trends for PR values are in
13
goneral D.Greement and so are the VCllUGS for the Young's modulus.
However, the tests of ChJ..pter 17 showed th:J.t nfter ..c."ln: initial decrease
PR then increased with a further increase in In teral load; the 1l1odel
23
does not predict this. Hence it is reasonable to conclude that by
increasing the effoct of tho volumetric stress better ~greement has
been obtained between the model and the theory.
As will be shown later, tho initial decree.se in PR is caused

23
by microcracks or other effects. Of present interest is the subsequent
increase of PR wi.th an increase in lateral load. This C3.n be explained
23
18.4 416
by introducing a factor Q, where
x
Em °= Em + Q 0, ••• 18.4.2.2
and which ~pplies only to the ccntr~l members, C1, C2, C3 (Figure
18.4.2.4). However, the progrnmmo is written so that if Q=0
then x/Q = 0 n.nd the effect of the volumetric stress on the central
members is entirely elimi:n.::ttod.
Let us consider tho extreme case where x Q G2in incroases as

a function of °2 , but Q= 0 and thus eliminates the effect of x
on the centrnl members of tho model. The results are shown in
Figures 18.4.2.5 to 18.~·.2.7. PR incroases with lateral load,
23
and hence is in General agreement with the behaviour of concrete as
determined in Ch.J.pter 17. Similarly, tho trends of PR
and the
13
Young I s modulus .:tre also in tJ.z,raomen t with the actual dn ta. Hov.J0vor,
wi th this modification, the model shows tho. t a pv decre2.s0S with
incroo.sing 10. terJ.l loo.d.
At tho other extreme, where Q= 1 und central mombers are

subjectod to the full influence of the effect of the volumetric stress,
0pv incroQses vlith Intor2.l land ns is expected from thd clat:.:.• Therefore
it is rec'..sonn.ble to assumo th:J.t in between these tuo Gxtromes, some
combin3.tion of Q and x mClY provide o. compromise solution. HO"'I~ver,
considerable study of this is needed since the use of equ2tion 8.6.1.1

\'Ins an entirely arbitrary assumption. As a result it rn:='-y Gvcn be found
neccssclry to us~ 2110ther form of this cquntion nnd possibly to limit its
influence to compression membors. Such nn nnolysis will be very costly
in terms of computer timo.
Tho nbove ~nalysis has boon sufficient to show th~t n consideration

of the volumetric stress and 0. liL1itin~ tensile strClin criterion in the
mort~r phase, at least as Gxpressed by tho model, cnn explain:
a) the increase in apv due to a 2 '

b) the variations c'f the el::wtic paramoters with a 2' and
c) tho modes of failure observed in concroto in uniaxinl and

binxinl sta t·,;)s of strGss.
FIGURE 18·4-2·4
THE MODEL 417
~-W3
V RESTRAINT' IN
LONG AND. SHORT
MEMBERS
-W-"'>
2
<--w
, 2
MODE-L
NOTATION
(FIGURE 8·2·1~6)
. 0'
\
, FIGURE '18·4·2.5
COMPARISON OF M1X 4
WITH MODEL
~v VALUES
U3 psi
,-60,00=--.-5Q{JO -~30 ~~-3o,P?===_ -29go -10:00
I
d,","'2-,
{\
'I .
/ \.
/><'0 \
I \
Mix 4 ~// . &~-1000
(uncor'rected) t b \
/ ..
I ~ Model
I "'-. X= fCo-2), Q=O'
1 '-.' '
\
r-Mix 4
". ",
..1,"'-2000
-\ (co rre ct ed fo r u""

\0 friction) ,
\
\ "''"-3000 ~
\ ~
\ Q)
<\ U2 psi
L
FIGURE 18·4·2·6
419
COMPARISON OF Ml X 4
WITH MODEL
(,0
YOUNG/S, MODULUS
o
~
.U)
x
OJ
0..
Mix 4
/SpeCimen No 6
Mix 4
specimen No 5
~
---~Model '
--- -- -- -- -- ---
-
C''--
1-----
..
-- , X=f(02)~ Q=O
o -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000

LATERAL LOAD, ~2) psi
FIGURE 18· L l·2·7·

POISSONJS RATIO
21~ .
'r''--'~:-'-.Mix
o
.........P"R
4 '13
........ '" .'.'-_--~ --
~
fr.::
-...
or
Lf)
I
I ~--
.-',,.-;;..~-.
5J---- ". " .~:",., .
""-.
o--Model
x=f(02),0=0
(f) r~".:::...-:-:-" ---"-"-"S-"_,, ~,

- '. /"-"- "-
6 ~.'
.
~--:.~
(f) ~ , , Model
(f) d x=f«()2), Q=O
o
0...
f'.-
Q~o/ ______~p_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~ft_ _ _ _ _ _~'
°0 -1000' -2000 -3000 -4000
LATERAL LOAD, 0"21 psi
18.5 420
18.5 THE BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE IN BIAXIl·i.L COHPRESSION
18.5.1 Introduction
The p!'cvious discussion has explc..ined certclin aspects of the

behaviour of concrGte in biaxi·3.1 compression in what is basico.lly a
phenomenoloc;ico.l nnnner; no (:xpl:tnntion hC!.s been given as to ho1,o/ the
m::::.croscopic structure: is influenced by the: incre0..se in volumetric stress
nor how this behaviour is relatod to tho D:tcroscopic bohaviour of
concreto in unio.xi~l compression ns discussed in Pnrt III. This section
will rel:tte the m::tcroscopic bchnviour to the phenomcnoloSical behnviour
of concrete in a m~'.nncr Ctnc..locous to the discussion of Chapter 14 but
will Gxtend the concepts to show the effect of the volumetric stress.
18.5.2 The Behaviour of Concrete Prior to LoadinG
In Section 14.2.1 dry concrete was described o.s cont:tining small,

stable, prinnrily bond cl".:o.cks ct1used by stress (stn'2in) conccntro.tions due
to shrinlc\.gc. Hsu (H,S,S,W) has studied this 3.nCllyticCllly unO. v,ith
simple models has shown th'J.t shrink.:tG'8 c:m nccount for these crQ.c1cs.
/.8 shrink:.10o is associntod with a dr:~'-ing out of concrete, it would bo
reo.sonablo to expect thnt dry concretes would cont:l.in more shrinl-(~ge
cracks than sCttur8.tea. concretes. If so, this m:J.Y be reflected in the

a pv ::md a c vnlues of :1. dry Ctnd :t satur1ted concrete.
The: mixvs of Part III wer~ :J.ir-driod for 8 weeks after curine
for 2 weeks. In contr:J.st, tho specimens of Part IV woro cured for 28
days Gnd t...:sted on the 29th nnd 30th d:J.ys in a StJ.tur::.ted condition.
Mix G of Part III and lvlix 2 of Pc.rt IV aro the simplest to compare as
they hi':lve the so..mo \\1.:1. tor-cement ret tio .::.nd the same 0. ggregC'. to-cement
ratio. The o-vor.:J.C;8 ultimo.-ce lo.::td of tho X-ray nnd pulse velocity tests
w:ts -6840 psi and the r2tio of a to a was 38.2%. In contro.st,
pv c
the ultimate strength of tho sGtur:ttod spocimens \V2cS -6440 psi and
a pv/oc w'].s 75%. Hence drying the C'. ncrete 11.:'..s c;ro.::ltly lov/cred tho
v.J..lue of 0
• This cle:J.rly shows the effoct of drying the concrete
pv
ctnd tho influence it is likely to h::tve on shrink2[;o cr2cks 2nd their
prop2gntion into m1.jor cracks.
18.5 421
This also suggests that o is more sensitive to the

pv
method of curing than 0 •
c
For the biaxial specimens of Chapter 17, even though they were
saturated, it is not unreasonable to assume that prior to loading they
also contained microcracks. These cracks could have been caused by
shrinkage (especially under the strain gauges where the concrete was
allowed to dry in order to apply the gauges), temperature changes during
setting, bleeding around the aggregates, or poor bonding duo to the
smooth surface of the Thames River gravel.
18.5.3 The Behaviour of Concrete in Biaxial Compression at

Loads Less than 0
pv
In uniaxial compression, it was shown in Section 8.10.1
that due to the applied compression, 0"7' and the thrust ring effect,
;;
members C1 and C2 are in tension. The addition of a lateral load, - O ,
2
will reduce the stress in C2, but increase the stre:-3s in CI (Figure
1B.4.2.4). Since the criterion of failure in C1 is a limiting tensile
strain, an increase in <2 will cause a decrease in tho value of °3
required to cause failure in C1 (i.e. °pv ). ~ence the load at which
9Pv occurs decreases as 02 increases, as was shown in Figure 1B.4.2.1
for the case X = o.
To correct this, the effect of the volumetric stress was
emphasized by increasing x as a function of the lateral load. Increasing
x in fact increased the modulus of each member by tho amount of stress in
that member. The load ring in the °2 - 03 plane (D23) was already
carrying a large proportion of the load (Section_B.2.1), due to the
largo proportiog of stiff a.ggregate in the ring in comparison with the
short mortar segments. As a result an increase in x had the largest
effect in D23 and hence the modulus of the members vvas increased more,
and therefore carried a larger portion of the applied load. As the
ring assumed a larger portion of the load, thrust rings D12 and
D13 carried a correspondingly smaller portion. Due to this influence
the strain in C1 was not as high for a given value of and as it
°2 °3
would have been if x = o. Hence an increase in
°2'
that is, an
18.5 422
incroo.se in tho voluTI1otric stress (Gqu.'1 tion 18.3.1.2), caused a

stiffenin~ of the thrust rine:'.
~.-' Due to thiS, a pv increased with
an incro~s0 in a 2 (FiGure 18.4.2.1).
From a consideration of Anson's conclusions such a thrust

rins effect misht be expocted. l~nson observod that due to the
difference in the proP0Tties of the ClGsresate nnd the mortnr, large
restraints c1evGloped o..t their interfacG (FiGure 8.2.1.5). This
creatod :1 state of tria.xinl compressicn in tho short mcrt:J..r segment
vlhich could sr8:1 tly incroo,se the strenGth and stiffness of the membor
o.s 0.. whole.
Therefore, x is n po.ro.l:1eter that on tho phenomenological

level accounts for tho influence of th0 volumetric stress, but on
the mo..croscopic level represents the increaso in restr:1int betv-leon the
Q5sreCQte Qnd mortCtr c:J.us8d by their difforGnt ol:J.stic properties.
Hence .:l volumetric stress incre:1ses the internnl stiffness of tho
m:l. terial and in so doing reducos the nngni tude of the tensile strains.
As iJ. result, hiGher lo.::tds may be supported by tho specimen prior to
fo-ilure (0 ). This is p':l,rticularly truo in trinxial compression, where
pv
the volumetric stress will be 1.::trGe o-nd, QS hns beon shown by Rich::t.rt,
Br:J.ndtzQoG~ and Brown, Boll,::t.my and fulmer, very hiGh ultimate strengths
co-n be obtnined.
In Section 17.9.4 it was shown that if the wnter-cement ratio

docre['..sos them the m:::ximum v:J.lue of a pv/(OpV) 0 also decrensGs. Hence
the rostrnining influonce is eroClter for wec.ker (hi!3her Vi/C) mortars.
An oXCl.minntion of Poisson's and Youn:;ls modulus vC'..lues prosontod by
Anson (N;\.) suggosts the CG.uso of this phenomenon. Dividing Poisson t s
rn. tio by the YounG's modulus is the S:l.111e ClS the ro.. tio of the In ter~l.l
str:J.in to a uni.nxi:~'..l, lonci tudinnl loo..d. If this r.:l tio incre::.'1.8C!s then
for Q 8i von 1011[;i tuc1in:J.l loctd the lCl. ter:11 str.?in is l::rGor. HiGher
In. ternl stro..ins in the mortar at the Cl.[Sgrego.. te-ll'10rtnr intGrfnce
(Figure 8.2.1.5 and 8.4.1.1) will C::1.USO ,:::t larGO rcstr:l.int. FiGure
18.5.3.1 shows th2t for Q c10CI'OD.SO in VI/C, V/J~ decroQsos c..nd honce
tho rostro.ining e,ffect is less. I~s Q result the incranso in strength
due to lL-'.. tc'r:J.l lOQd is o.lso loss.
~
FIGURE 18·5·3·1 423
0~
I
X~-
0
~l /
I
I
I·
I
/
.. 1/
/
~ /
0 /
~~
1
/ /
Xt'- /
<.01 I /
/
/ 4
/
.. j
I /
01 I
t-:..? 01
~
1/ /
CVj
S::!/ 1/ .
W $2~ 0/ ~/
--x / 0/
A tD.
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ tl
.- /
J /
/
/ /
~
I ~ /
0..- / . Jl../
/
X .- d
~ /
, I
/ EFFECT OF W/C ON ))/E
IN MORTARS
From (MA)
"0 1
xl
(Y)
03
~ ,
04 . 0·5
~
0·6
e
. WATER-CEMENT RATIO
"
18.5 424
Ne\.,rman (KN-1) predicted that the volumetric stress m::ty C2.use

chc..nGes in the YounZ's Modulus of the concrete. The above discussion
has shown tho.. t the volumetric stress causes an incr8,::-'-s0 in stiffness
of the members of tho thrust rinc;s, which in turn incre:J.scs the stiffness
of the specimen, :~t IG:J.st in the a 2 -0 plClne (FiGures 18.4.2.2 and
3
18.4.2.5). Honce, as tho volur.lotric stress incre::tses the Young's modulus
of the concrete will .::1.1so increo.se.
That such nn effect miGht occur h2d boen sue;gestcd in Po..rt IV,
where it WetS concluded tho. t the :;'PP'-:lrcmt increase in Younr~' s modulus
was cD.used by either a change in the Young's modulus of the r.1nteriClI
or the loss of applied land duo to friction of the platens. It was
assumed in Chnpter 17 on tho information then nvnilable that the entire
influence wns due to friction. It is now evident that the increo.se in
the Youn:;'s modulus is most likely J combination of these two effects.
Howover, with the data at present o.vnilable, it is impossiblo to separate
tho two influences, therefore hoth the oriGin3.1 and the corrected datn
were prosented in Tables 17.7.1.1 to 17.7.1.6. Fortunately the corrections
were sm2-11, Generally in tho order of 5%, .::tlthouCh a few corrections were
ns hiGh ns 10% It is concluded thc..t nn increase in the volumetric
compressive stress will cause o..n increase in tho Youn3'S modulus.
The volumetric stress also influonces tho other clnstic parameters.
Fisure 17.8.2.2 shows PR as n function of a 2- The oriGinal

13
sharp increase or decrease in PR between 0 .:tnd -22 psi may be caused
13
by tV/o fnctors:
8.) the non-line:J.r oponin::; of shrinkage crCl.cks, or
b) .:1 movement of tho lnternl tr:tnsducer during the

adjustment of the lateral lTI.J.chine.
Such an effect i,s most likely c:luscd by (b), but once the lateral machine
was in position the Gxtensometer waG not touched nCnin until the tests
were coft1plctc. ~\s.'J. result the dccreo.so of PR with n.n increase in
13
lateral load (FiGure 17.8.2.2) is a reflection of the bohaviour of the
cencrate. This influence of lateral lO:1d (volumetric stress) on PR
13
425
confirms the above conclusion that the volumetric stress stiffvns the
thrust ring and thus there is proportionally less strain in C1 (~).
Hence with increasing a 2' e 1 decroases and so dOGS PR •
13
In contrast, Fisure 17.8.2.1 shows that PR initially decreases
23
3nd then incrcCtscs as 0- increases. The subsequent incro.::tse hns been
2
duplicn ted in the L1oc1el by usinG a fnctor Q which reduces the influence
of tho restrainin~ effect (x) on the contrnl members C1, C2, and C3. As
the mortQ.r seements of the centrnl members nr.::; lonr;er thnn the mortnr
segmonts in tho thrust rings, the restraining influence caused by the
differenc0 in elnstic properties of the n~Sregnte and the mortar may be
expected to be less in these centro.l members (FiGure 18.4.2.4). Q
compensates for this. J.ls 3. result, the thrust rinES is more sensitive
to the influence of °2 than is C2. Hence for hic;hervalues of 02'
0. given chnnce in 03 will C2use n higher proportion of tho stress to
be supported by the thrust ring. Since equilibrium of the thrust ring
must be obtninod and the stiffness of C2 is not increasinG as rapidly
as tho thrust rinG, the strain in C2 must increase. This cnuses the
increGse in Poisson's r~tio observed in Figures 17.8.2.1 and 18.4.2.6.
However, this does not Qccount for the initi2l decrense in PR

23
for low lnternl londs. This could be caused by two factors.
n) Hicrocracks may cause Ct subst:tntinl amount of this

initi;l.l decre:1se. Let us consider a crnck with its plo..ne normal to
the a 2 direction. a 2 will close this crack, but as 3 is increased °
while a 2 is hold const.J.nt the In tornl tensilo strain ii1ducod by a 3
mo..y become ·0f sufficient size to re-open this crack. This would be
rocordod as D. high tensile strain and hence .::thiGh vnlue for PR •
23
However, as (j 2 is incrensed to .:1. higher v::llue the same chango in
a 3 will open fower of tho cro.cks and PR will o.ppnrently decreC:1.se.
23
Finnlly n later:!.l load is ronched which is suffiCient to prevent the
majority of the cr'1cks fr.~::'l oponin2: for the chCtnse in a 3' and the
decro'J.60 in PR stops.
23
18.5 426
It is also possible that for low l~terQI lo~ds the full

influence of the assrecnte-mortnr rcstrnining effect is not evident.
In other \-lords, for low vnlu'Os of 02 nIl tho stiffnesses in the
compression members incro2so in nbout the same proportion (Q = 1) and,
as shown in Figure 18.L~.2.3, PR
23
decreases with incrensing
2
- , °
However, with a further incrense in 02 the aggregnte restrnint on the
short, morc hiGhly stressed mortar segments of the thrust ring becomes
more sicnificnnt in compo.rison with the lower stressed, longer mortar
segments in C2 (Q>1). Thus, as shown in Figure 18.4.2.6, this causes
PR to increase with incrensini3 12 tornl IO.2d.
23
Therefore due to either (0.) or (b) or some combinntion, PR
23
first decreases with nn incrense in 02 nnd then increCtses.
The Behaviour of Concrete in Binxinl Compression at °

18.5.4 -------------------------------------------~----------pv
If the lnternl load is of sufficient maGnitude, it will prevent
the formation of n tensile stress in the C2 direction cnuscd by ° 3.
However, it will increase the tonsile stress in the C1 direction and,
as hypothesized in Figure 8.10.2.1, °pv will occur at lovlGr v:tlues
of a 3 as 02 incrcClses. This was confirmed in FiGUre 18.4.2.1 for
'x = O.
HOvlover, by accounting for the effect of tho volumotric stress
on tho thrust ring (x >0) , it WD.S possible to sho\-! how the thrust ring
nssuDcd n larger portion of the appliod lond 2nd the tensile strnin in
C1 was correspondingly reduced. This effect produced nn increase in (5
pv
wi th inc rens ine; a 2.
18.5.5 The Behnviour of Concrete in Bio.xinl Compression at

Londs in Excess of a
pv
Whon C1 fails, failure is normal to C1. and p~rallel to tho plano
of the applied loo.ds. Diasonnl mO;:lber D13 fo.ils shortly if not immedintely
after C1 and D12 bocomes a mechanism. After failure (0
) the specimen
pv
is split into a series of planes parallel to the oajor thrust rine; in the
plane of the applied loads (Figures 3.1.8.1, 8.10.1.1, and Photograph
17.11.1.1). These plates are still cap2ble of supportinG the applied
loads and hence the loads can be inc rea sod beyond G
pv.
18.5 427
However, the platos on the free surface of the sp0cimen begin

to brenk D.\v':!.y at this stnge. The result is tho. t strQin sauges on the
surfo..ce often register hiGhly errntic rendines. In some instances the
strains in the plate relaxed (Figure 17.10.2.1) ns the pl.'1te separated
from the specimen.
Ultinnte failure will Gventually occur by ono of the following

mech::misms •
a) For smnll Internl loads of a constant mnenitude, the

cOlllpression in C2 caused by °2 may be overcome by the induced tensile
strnins frem °3 , If so, C2 may eventually f:::til in tension. This
would le2vo tho specimen dividod into columns (C3) and failure would
occur as in uniaxial compression.
b) The thrust rin'''s may buckle outwClrd in the direction.

,..l
°1
c) The mortnr segments may fail due to smaller scale models
in tho rnorto..r (fiLA), by excessive compression, or by buckling.
d) The a.~gregate may fail.
Although item (c) may occur in hiGh triaxial compression, no

evidence has been found that suggests such a failure occurs in biaxial
compression. However, mech:tnisms (0.) and (b) will account for the
increaso in °c with incrensinc; lateral lO:J.d. For low vQlues of the
ultimo..te lond (0..) may predominate, but ClS the v:J.lue of 02 is increasod
a tr2nsition will occur to mechClnism (b). Such:::t transition, coupled
with the increase in the stiffness of the rings cClused by ncgregate-
morto'r restraint, \iould -::xplain the shQpe of thG 0 - (J 2 ul timn te
3
load curves (Figures 17.9.1.1 and 17.9.1.2).
Moreover, it WLlS shown in Section 17.9.5 th3.t larGo-sized

aggrego.tes contribute to the ultim:tte strength providing thoro is a
lnter~l load, but such a v~rintion did not influence the cracking lands.
This would indic·:t te thQ t x is o.ppnrently independent of 3.ggregn. te size.
However, once cracking hQS occurred, the ultinnte load rr.ay be increased
by nn increase in aG~reGat0 size by one of two mechanisms.
18.6 428
a) The plates that form after the specimen fails will be

thicker due to the greater aSgreeate diameter (.this phenomenon was
actually observed in the failed specimens) and hence the platos will
be more resistant to bucklinG (see (b) above).
b) The larGer stone.s may tend to interlock and interact more

than sand particles and hence contribute more to tho stability of the
plates.
18.6 THE MODEL

18.6.1 Interprotation of the Unknown Parameters in the Model
This chapter has presented certain physcial interpretations

of the unknown parameters x, Q, A, D, and x' required in the analysis
of the model. x and Q adjust the modulus of the members· of the model
to simul~te the restraining effect at the aGGregate-mortar interface.
This is due to the difference in the elastic characteristics of the
mortar and the aggregate and is analogous to the platen restraint
described in Section 16.6. A is a limitin~ tensile strain in the
mortar: probably the strain (or maybe the strain energy) at which
cracks can propagate through the mortar to interconnect ~nd cause mnjor
cracking. As a result, it is not the strnin at which bond cracks form,
but will have a larger value thnn this. D and x' were used in the
model to adjust the areas of the members. AlthOUGh their physical
interpretation is not so obvious, these parameters may, in fact,
compensate in part for the restraininG effect. Anson has shown that
the restraint is large and is the major reason why the Poisson's ratio·
of concrete is less than that of the mortar Qnd the nssregQte. Figure
8.8.1.2 shows that the Poisson's ratio is primarily depend~nt on x'.
Hence x' adjusts the lattice to compensate for this effect of the
restraint. Similarly, x' Qnd D have the m3.jor influence on the
Young's modulus (Firsure 8.8.1.1). Thus x, Q, D, ~nd x' componsate
for tho orrors in assuming the model (interna.l structure of concrete)
to be pin-jointed.
18.7 429
18.6.2 The Use of the l-1odel

The model has shown itself to be n most useful tool for
understandin~ the behaviour of concrete. Despite its simplifying
assumptions it has been able to:
a) interrelate much of the macroscopic and phenomenological

behaviour of concrete, even in biaxial compression,
b) offer an explanation for the unusual variations in the

elastic parameters observed in biaxial compression,
c) explain the macrostructural behaviour of concrete at

opv and hence is compa tible "'lith the definition of failure presented
in this thesis,
d) provide an explanation from the macroscopic structure of

the modes of failure observed in concrete, and
e) combine the effect of a volumetric stress with the concepts

of a limiting tensile strain in the mortar phase.
However, the model requires an assessment of certain arbitrary

constants and this prevents it from being readily used as a failure
theory to predict data. Instead, it offers a concept and a physical
model to explain data at present available. The value of the model
lies in this last aspect. Without the model it would have been difficult
to explain the data presented in Chapter 17.
18.7 TWO CONCEPTS IHPORTANT TO THE FAILURE OF CONCRETE
18.7.1 The Two Concepts

In the above discussion it has been shown that two factors
are important to the failure of concrete. These are:
a) on a phenomenological level, the volumetric stress, and
b) on a macroscopic level, the limiting tensile strain in

the mortar.
430
The model has shown that those two concepts are compatible and do
provide a reasonable explanation of the behaviour of concrete, including
the elastic behaviour, fo.r the states of stress considered.
In uniaxial tension, the volumetric stress probably has only a

minor importance; the major influence on failure is the limiting
tensile strain. Similarly, in uniaxial compression,the effect of the
volumetric stress is likely to be small, but its influence becomes more
important vJhen the applied state of stress is extended into biaxial
and triaxial states of stress. This suggests that the relationship
between these two concepts \vill not be a simple one, but of a non-
linear nature.
18.7.2 The Volumetric Stress

That the volumetric stress becomes more important in biaxial
and triaxial compression is a reflection of the increase in the inter-
actions (restraints) between the particles as the volumetric stress
increases. For concrete in pure tension, tho tensile strain is caused
directly (for clarity, strain concentrations caused by the inclusion
are excluded) by the applied load; the thrust ring has only a minor
effect. However, in uniaxial compression, tho thrust ring and Poisson's
ratio induce the tensile strain through the interactions of the coarse
aggregates. In biaxial and triaxial compression this effect, and hence
the volumetric stress, become even more important. The result on the
phenomonological level is an increase in the stress at which apv
occurs as the volumetric stress increases. Hence on a phenomenological
level this may possibly be expressed by some form of equation 18.3.1.2,
but on the macroscopic level it represents an increase in the inter-
actions of the COCl.rsc aggregate particles and th~ surrounding mortar
matrix.
18.7.3 The Limiting Tensile Strain

On its own, the concept of a limiting tensile strain, either
on a phenomenological or a macroscopic level, could not account for
the increase in a • When considered phenomenologically in Chapter 3,
pv
18.7 431
the concept of a limiting tensile strain did explain the modes of

failure. However, Richart, Brandtzacg, and Brown, Blakey and Beresford,
Tsuboi and Suenaga, Grassam (Section 3.3.3), and more recently Kaplan
(MFK-6) have shown, by measuring the large scale, phenomenological
strains (for example, with electrical resistance strain gauges) at
ultimate or at the onset of major cracking, that the strain is not
a constant.
On the other hand, the analysis of Part II, in particular

the model, suggests the criterion may be a oacroscopic limiting tensile
strain in the mortar (or, if smaller models are considered as consisting
of sand particles and cement paste, the limiting strain may be in the
cement paste).
That the limiting strain may be on a macroscopic level is

supported by Hard O'1W) , who concluded that if account was taken of
the aggregate (i.e., subtract the influence of sand and coarse aggregate)
for both mortars and concretes, a constant limiting tensile strain of
300 x 10-6 in/in. was found in the ~~rticular paste. FU~hcrmore" he
observed that for his experiments the limiting tensile strain in uniaxial
tension was approximately equal to the lateral strain at a ( 0 ) in
pr pv
uniaxial compression. On this basis \'!ard suggested that a limiting
tensile strain in the paste was important to the failure of concrete.
Kaplan has shown, and Chapter 14 confirmed, that the tensile strain at
cracking decre~sed as the volumetric concentration of the coarse
aggregate increased. This also supports the concept that there may be
a limiting tensile strain on a macroscopic level, since this apparent
reduction in the limiting strain may be due to three effects:
a) the higher Young's modulus of the aggregate, which will

make the overall (measured) phenomenological strnins appear smaller
than the macroscopic strains in the paste;
b) stress and strain concentrations caused locally by the

aggregate particles (Chapter 7); and
18.7 432
microcracks formed by shrinkage strains ~nd other

strain concentrations around the inclusion.
Hence the strains meQsured on a phenomenological level are not a true

indication of a critical tensile strain on the macroscopic level.
However, it is conceivable that this criterion may be expressed

on a phenomenological basis providing appropriate compensation is made
for (a), C)), and (c). If such a correction is made, it may be found
that the limiting tensile strain is indirectly measurable on a
phenomenological level. It is also possible that this may be expressed
in terms of the strain energy in the paste since "energy is the only
measuroble quantity which is common to both the structural and
phenomonological dimensional levels" (KN-1).
18.7.4 Relationship to Existing Failure Theories

In Soction 3.4.1 it was mentioned that A of Guest's theory
allowed for the influence of the volumetric stress on the failure
load. For ductile materials A is generally zero, indicnting that
the volumetric stress has little effect. In Section 3.4.2 it was
mentioned that the analysis of Chapter 3 showed that A varied from
~ to 1.0 and hence inferred that the volumetric stresg was not negligible.
It was shown in Section 3.10 that m::ny of the failure theorj:es

express the concept that a volumetric stress will influence the strength
of concrete. Furthermore, in some of these, notably Cowan's,
Brandtzaeg l s, to a certain extent Griffith's, and more recently
Newmants, it VIas renlized that in certain states of stress, a tensile
strain Vias important. As a result they established inequalities to
determine when the criticnl strain became important and at this stage
used another equation to predict failure, The discussion of this chapter
suggests that the logic expressed by these authors is reasonable.
However, Cowan's and Newm:l.n's theories predict shearing-typo failures.
It has been shown that for the states of stress considered in the thesis,
these do not exist.
433
The following conclusions may be made.
a) The existing failure theories, although many express

the two concepts that have been shown to be important to failure, hove
underestimated the influence of the limiting tensile strain, especially
in compressive states of stress. The thesis suggests that this is
primarily due to their assumption that concrete is homogeneous (Section
5.4.2) and as a result they are unable to account for the modes of
failure and some of the quantitative data.
b) In contrast to Cowan's theory, there is no sudden break

between the stage when the tensile strain and some other factor are
each critical. Instead the volumetric stress and the critical tensile
strain are closely related, with the volumetric stress gradually
assuming more importance in biaxial and triaxial states of compression.
c) In contrast, to Brandtzaeg's theory, which probably comes

closest to expressing these concepts, the discussion of the thesis
strongly suggests that the reason behind the importance of these
factors and hence the failure of concrete is the heterogeneous nature
of the structure of concrete.
It is emphasized that these conclusions are based on a

limited number of tests in uniaxial tension and compression and biaxial
compression and for concretes made from, relatively smooth-surfaced,
strong aggregates.
CHAPTE~
SUMNARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
19.1 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

It was the objective of this thesis (Section 1.5) to "explain
certain aspects of the phenomenological beh~viour of concrete in terms
of its mo..croscopic structure .:tnd behetviour. 1t On the b:J.sis of the
research in the thesi,s combined with other ClvCtilnble informo.. tion,
Chapters 14 Ctnd 18 offer D. logic.:ll explo.no.tion of how the macroscopic
structure of concrete intcrCtcts to produce the phenomenological behaviour
observed in unio.xio..l and binxic.l compression. Moreover, it WClS suggested
that the volumetric stress .:tnd n limiting tunsile strain in the paste are
criticnl to the f.:lilure of concrete.
However, there nre numerous other important conclusions throughout

the thesis which have lod to those statements~ They are regrouped and
summ3.rized below.
19.2 TESTING TECHNIQUES
Two Ek1..jor testing techniques were developed. The first was

the X-ray technique, which was capable of detecting cracks nnd othGr
flo.\,18 in concrete while the concrete wets under lond, yet the technique
in no way interferod with tho continuity of the specimen or the internal
stress or strQin distribution. The second W'J,S a biaxio.l compression
testing machine CCtpnblc of testinG concreto sp8cimcns 10 x 10 x 4 inchos.
Tho data presented in ChClpter 17 represent the first results from
binxinl compressivG tests on concrete m2..de from coo.rse n.sgrogate of a
pxuciical size, where the In. ternl lond could be varied independently of
the m::tin lo:-:tcl. Both of these techniques ,~re thought to be contributions
to concrete technology.
Furthermore, the acoustic, pulse velocity, and X-ray techniques

\-Jere intcrrelnt-.;,d .:lnd their advnnt:lges o..nd disadvantages listed. These
techniques were found to be complol11ontc.ry 3.nd ns n rosult a coordinated
series of tests using those techniques provided considerable informntion
on the fnilure of concrete.
19.3
The pulse velocity tochniquc wo.s proposed ,::.s a convenient

method for defininG tho cnset of major cracking (failure) as it is
sensitive only to largo cracks and can be used even on structures.
HICROCRACKING IN CONCRETE
The tests using the [lcoustic, pulse volocity, and X-ray techniques
produced considernblo informCl tion on microcro.cking in c·"ncrcte. From
these tests it was shovJn. that microcr.::lcks form 2nd propctga to throughout
loadinG, o.nc1 it was confirmed that some of tho cracks had formed in the
concreto prior to lOCldille;, probnbly due to strains c.C'..usod by shrinkage.
At 101,01 loads these cracks, \-'hich \-Jere primarily bond failures, "rere
small and had only n minor influence on the bc~~viour of concrete.
However, at ~ certain load defined by the pulse velocity or X-ray
techniques, or by an increase in Poisson's ratio, thos~ small cracks
spre.::ld through tho mortnr nnc1 interconnected to form mnjor cr3.cks.
These caused an increClse in Poisson's r:J.tio and a decrease in Young's
modulus.
The volumo concentration of coarse agGregate was found to have

a major influence on microcracks; en increase in percentage volume of
coarse aGGregate CClusod an incro:1.se in the number of cracks that formed
or propaGated at .::lny given 102d, and this was reflected in a decrease
of the load 8.t which major cracks formed.
19.4 THE BElli-\. VIOUR OF CONCRETE IN BIAXIAL COHPRESSION
A series of tests on mortars and ccncretes showed th:1.t the

latcrnl load, 02' increased the load at which l!1:1jor crackin5 occurred
as well D.S the ultimate lO:ld. Furt~ermore, it was determined thnt
Poisson's rn tio and the YounG' s moc~,ulus .::lro not constants, but
dependent on the vo..lue of u • These results nrc considered important,
2
not only to an understandin5 of the failure of concrete, but 'also for
the design of shells, two-way floor slGbs, arch dnr1s, and prestressed
concreto.
19.5 THE MACROSCOPIC BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE
In accord with the conclusions of Part I, that the heteroGeneous

n:1.ture of concrete wo.s important to its failure, Q study Wo.s mo.de in
PQrt II of the macroscopic beh2viour of concrete. From this it WQS
concluded that an inc 1 till ion of n different Young's modulus to that of
the mor.tur would hnve a substantial influonce on the stress distributicn
within the concrete. The inclusion with the largest influonce WelS that
of an air void (E = 0). By assuming n limiting tensile strain in the
paste, it was possible to predict the most likely oriontation of cr2cks
and from this deduce the phenomenologico'l mode of failure. \Vhen this
was compo.red with the failure modes in concrete, eood agreement was
obtained. The annlysis also sUGgested thnt bond failures are likely
to occur.
To nccount for the interactions of the inclusions, Chapter 8

nnolysed a pin-jointod model structur~. Although this simplified model
was unnble to predict the ultim2te loo'cts of concrete, it did account
for the stress-strain curve of concrete in uniaxinl compression up to
the lo~c at which major cracks occurred. Furthermore, the modol offered
an explanation for the modes of failure generally obServed in concrete.
In Part III the influence of coarse abgre~o.te on microcracks

and in turn the effect of microcrncks on the behaviour of concrete was
clearly shm.,rn. Tho effect of both the small and meljor crncks on the
stress-strain curve and Poisson's ratio Wo.s shown, and in so doing,
emphnsized the import:l.nce of the influence of the IT1'J.croscopic structure
of concrete on the mechJ.nism of failure.
In uniaxial conlpression the cr.1.cks formed in a direction parallel

to the applied compression, sue~esting that failure w~s due to induced
tensile stresses rather than shenr stresses. This agreed with the
behaviour of the model.
The do.ta of Part IV, which studied the behaviour of the onset
of major cracking in binxi21 compression, were contrary to the predictions
of the model theory (Chnptcr 8) but Cmpter 18 showod that if restraint
437
at the agsregnte-mortar interfaco was considerod, it was possible to

oxplnin not only the incrcClse in load nt which nnjor crncks occurred,
but also the increase in Youne's modulus and the unusual vo..rintion of
Poisson's ratio. This rostro.int, in turn, was shown to depend on the
lateral stress, or in effect, the volumetric str~ss.
Henco by consicering the heterogeneous nature of concrete and

tho interactions botwo2n trw p::lrticles it h::lS beon possible to explain
Ijnny factors of the phonomenolcgicc..l bc:haviour of concretE:; in uniaxial
o..nd biaxial compression.
19.6 THE FAILURE OF CONCRETE
The analysis of Part I studied the existins failure theories

o..nd c')ncluc1od th:tt none was entirely Qcceptable IJ.S Q fnilure criterion
for concrete. It was suge;0stcd that this wo..s dUG to the: definition of
failure usud whon t0stinG concrete, tho assumption of the theories that
CO::'lcrote W.::lS hOn1:)gonoous, or bec2us0 the data were in error. Howev0r,
tho analysiS did suggost that th0 volumetric o.nd deviatoric stress and a
limiting tensile strain llny bo important to the failure of concrete.
The ccnclusions of Part II emphasized tho importance of L\. limitins

tensile strain to tho failure of concrete, but sUGgested the critical
strain may bo in the mortar or, more lOGically, in the p:'l.ste.
The experiments of Part III showed that at a lond defined by

the pulse velocity technique, D. raD.jor chnnge occurred in the structure
of the concrete. This point (0 ) VJQS defined as the failure of concrGte.
pv
/ The data of Part IV proved th:tt the la ternl load hnd n significant
effect on both the ultimate lond and the loo.d at which major cracks
(failure) occurred.
19.7 SUGGESTED CRITERIA F()j;~ TIre FAILURE OF CONC~r.vrE
That the load at which mQjor cracks occurred increased with

Ie. ternl lO::l.d \vo.s contrary to tho conclusions of Part II. At first this
indicated that the concept of D. limiting tensile strain might be in error.
19.8
However, the analysis of phenomenoloSicnl failure theories, . the

agreement obtninec1 from the theorotico..l an:;..lysis of PnrtII, the
experimonto.l dn t:J. of Pnrt III, :J.nc~ thd [lodes of f:tilure in the tests
of Parts III and IV nIl SUGg8st ,~ limiting tensile str3in, most likely
in the l::Qste. However, Chapter 18 showed thn t Q limiting tensile strain
in conjunction with nc1c1itionnl restr~:tininG effect nt tho nsgregntG-E10r~r
interface caused by 02. could Clccount for the beh::..viour of concreto in
bio..xial compression. This could' be expressed as a function of the
volumetric stress.
Hence it was concluded thnt both Q limitinG tensile strain in

the p:lste (nncroscopic) and a volumetric stress Cphenomenolo:sicnl) arc
important to the fClilure of concrete. When these tWJ criteria. :::"1'0
expressed by the model, it is Shov/11 thn t th.:;y are compatible, and

account for the incronse in ultimate 1·::l:1.d \vith °2 as well as the
variation in elastic parameters and the modes of failur0 for the state
of stross studied.
19.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The most loGicnl extension of this research would bo to
conduct Cl more comprehensivG stucfy of the behaviour of concrete
in biaxinl compression. G. W. D. Vile, \Alith 0.. ~rQnt from the
Civil EnGineerinG Resoarch Association, h~s started such n study.
The equntion for the failure criterion of concrote is nlso

.::1n important aroo. for more resoc.rch. Emphasis should be pl:>..ced on the
effect of the volumetric stress an~: thv concept of D. limiting tensile
strain in the paste. In particular, some method should be devoloped for
exprossine this limitinG tensilo strain on Q phenomenological level.
If so, it mny bo possible to write nn equation to ~xpress the failure
of concrete. This thosis would then offor a physic2l interpretation
for such an equation.
Other ideas for further study are as follows:
0..) The resonant frequency tuchnique is theoretically very

~romising 2nd further efforts should be llnde to perfect it, using phase-
angle equipment.
19.8 439
b) ThG X-ray technique was developed successfully, but its

potential has hardly been exhausted. It is suggested that the
technique could bo improved by another compromise of the variables.
With this it could bo used to study the factors which influence
shrinkage and other microcrack forGntion.
c) The model requires further study, especially to find a

more funcb.f:1ental way to simuln to tho aGESregn te-mortar restraint.
Consider~tion might nlso be ~iv0n to extonding the model above a •
pv
d) Considerable research is noeueu on a pv' especinlly to
determine if it is the long-term strength of concrete .::.nd how it v3.ries
from one state of strass to the next.
440
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NOTE. A new referencing system? based on initials of the author,

has been tried in this thesis. For example a publication by
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of more publications they are (AAG-1) etc. Joint authorship,
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are listed alphabetically below.
This method has several advantages.
a) For the reader, especially if he is familiar with

the literature on the subject, the initials are more meaningful
than an arbitrary numbering system. This should reduce the need
to refer to the references o
b) For an author us~ng this form of designation, particularly

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THE FAILURE MECHANISM OF CONCRETE

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE

BIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

G. S. Robinson, B.S.E., D.I.C.

A thesis submitted for the Degree of

Imperial College of Science and Technology,

This thesis studies the failure mechanism of plain concrete.

1) The analysis of Part I studies the existing failure theories

2) Part II contains an analytical study of the heterogeneous

3) Part III describes a coordinated series of tests to study the

4) Part IV extends the discussion of the previous sections to

5) On this basis, the discussion in Part V proposes a

The writer deeply grateful to the following people and

Professor A. L. L. Baker, under whose supervision the research

Mr. K. Newman, who suggested the research programme, arranged

Mr. G. W. D. Vile and Mr. 0. T. Sigvaldason, both close friends

Mrs. E. Corliss of the United States National Bureau of Standards,

Mr. C. E. Paine and Control Instruments, Ltd., for their

Mr. R. Alford, Mr. L. Jacovides, and Mr. D. Pedaer, who

Miss Joyce Gurr, who skilfully took and prepared numerous

My many other friends who, though not directly involved with

The Marshall Scholarship Commission for originally providing

The Civil Engineer Corps of the United States Navy, in which

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO PART I

CHAPTER 3 THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE

CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO PART II

CHAPTER 8 A STRUCTURAL MODEL TO SIMULATE THE INTERACTION

CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION TO PART II 179

CHAPTER 10 GENERAL INFORMATION AND DESCRIPTION OF

CHARTER 11 A STUDY OF MICROCRACKS IN CONCRETE USING

CHAPTER 12 A STUDY OF MICROCRACKS BY MEASURING THE VFLOCITY

CHAPTER 13 X-RAY DETECTION OF MICROCRACKS IN CONCRETE

CHAPTER 14 CONCLUSIONS TO PART III

CHAPTER 15 INTRODUCTION TO PART IV

CHAPTER 16 DRSIGN AND PROVING OF A BIaXIAL TESTING MACHINE

CHAPTER 17 THE BEHAVIOUR OF MORTARS AND CONCRETES IN

CHAPTER 18 THE FAILURE MECHANISM OF CONCRETE

CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

The work described in this thesis is part of an integrated

1.2 THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

With a better understanding of the properties of concrete,

As a result there is a definite need to know more about the

Therefore this thesis will consider certain aspects of the

1.3 LEVELS OF STUDY

From a distance, concrete appears uniform and homogeneous.

According to Freudenthal (AMF)*, "A material body consists of

a)the phenomenological or engineering level where

1.4 LEVETS OF STUDY USED FOR CONCRETE

It is at the phenomenological level, where the material is

* Refer to comment at start of bibliography

Through extensive testing on a phenomenological level, data

To carry such an approach to the extreme would be to study

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS

It is therefore the objective of the thesis to explain certain

1.6 OUTLINE OF THESIS

To achieve this objective, the research and the thesis

a) Part I. As a foundation for the remainder of

b) Part II considers theoretically a hard inclusion

c)In Part III the theoretical analysis is substantiated

d)Part IV provides detailed information on the behaviour

e)Part V summarizes the thesis by interrelating not only

The notation used in the thesis is generally defined when

0 0 principal stresses, whore