A

Mini Project Report

on

PNEUMATIC PUNCHING AND RIVETING MACHINE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by

T.Ajay 18A35A0335
A.Durga Anil 18A35A0328
K.Karthik 17A31A03D5

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. V.V.N.SARATH M.Tech.,
Assistant Professor of ME

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, KAKINADA & Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
1-378, ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram-533437

2017-2021

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 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada & Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
1-378, ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram-533437

CERTIFICATE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the Mini project report entitled “PNEUMATIC PUNCHING AND
RIVETING MACHINE” is being submitted by T.Ajay 18A35A0335),A.Durga Anil(18A35A0328)
,K.Karthik(17A31A03D5), in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology,
during the year 2017-2021 in Mechanical Engineering of Pragati Engineering College, for the record of a
bonafide work carried out by them.

Project Guide: Head of the Department:

Mr. V.V.N.Sarath M.Tech., Dr .B.S.V. RamaRao M. Tech,Ph.D

Assistant Professor Professor

Department of ME Department of ME

External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our thanks to project guide Mr. V.V.N.Sarath, Assistant Professor of

Mechanical Engineering, who deserves a special note of thanks and gratitude, for having extended
their fullest co-operation and guidance, without this, project would never have materialized.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. B.S.V. RAMA RAO, Professor and Head of
the Department of Mechanical Engineering, for having shown keen interest at every stage of
development of our project and for guiding us in every aspect.

We wish to express our special thanks to our beloved Dr. S. SAMBHU PRASAD, Professor
& Principal for giving guidelines and encouragement.

We wish to express sincere gratitude to our beloved and respected Dr. P. KRISHNA RAO,
Chairman and Sri. M. V. HARANATHA BABU, Director (Management) and Sri. M. SATISH,
Vice-President for their encouragement and blessings.

We are thankful to all our faculty members of the Department for their valuable suggestions.
Our sincere thanks are also extended to all the teaching and non-teaching staff of Pragati Engineering
College.

T.Ajay 18A35A0335
A. Durga Anil 18A35A0328
K.Karthik 17A31A03D5

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 ABSTRACT
The pneumatic system has gained large amount of importance in last few decades. This
importance is due to its accuracy and cost. This convenience in operating the pneumatic system
has made us to design and fabricate this unit as our project. This unit, as we hope that it can be
operated easily with semi-skilled operators.

The pneumatic press tool has an advantage of working in low pressure, that is even a pressure of
6 bar is enough for operating the unit. The pressurized air passing through the tubes to the
cylinder, forces the piston out whose power through the linkage is transmitted to the punch. The
work piece thus got is for required dimensions and the piece can be collected through the land
clearance provided in the die, Riveting is also done with this by attaching a rivet mechanism to
the cylinder connecting rod end, which actuate through the pneumatic pressure inside the
cylinder. So, this may be acting as dual purpose machine.

The pneumatic press tool has an advantage of working in low pressure, that is even a pressure of
6 bar is enough for operating the unit. The pressurized air passing through the tubes to the
cylinder, forces the piston out whose power through the linkage is transmitted to the riveter
handle. Riveting is done with this by attaching a rivet bit to the riveter (through the hole in the
sheet) connecting to rod end, which actuate through the pneumatic pressure inside the cylinder.

The die used in this is fixed such that the die of required shape can be used according to the
requirement. This enables us to use different type punch dies resulting in a wide range of
products. Different types of punch as requirement can be thus got.

Also, manual riveting results in excess labor work and also several injuries may also occur
during operation. So, this project may keep a check to this problem and lead to a better
productivity.

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 INDEX
1.INTRODUCTION:

TYPES OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

PNEUMATIC & HYDRAULICS

A)HISTORY

B)MODERNIZATION

C)APPLICATIONS

D)ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

2.COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATICS:

A)ACTUATING COMPONENTS

B)FLOW CONTROL VALVES

C)SOLENOID VALVE

D)AIR COMPRESSOR

3.TYPES OF FASTENING METHODS:

RIVETING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RIVETING’S

TRADITIONAL METHOD OF RIVETING

DRAW BACK OF TRADITIONAL METHOD

OUR PROJECT DESCRIPTION

DIAGRAM

CONSTRUCTION

DESCRIPTION

ADVANTAGES

CONCLUSION.

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 INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.
Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is
through wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space. In
this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems. We will
also discuss the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and
mechanical systems.

1.2 Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of forces
and movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a confined
system. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system includes a hydraulic
system (hydra meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma meaning air in Greek).
Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and pneumatic
employs compressed air that is released to the atmosphere after performing the work.

Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. By the term "fluid” we
refer to air or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of
hydraulic power in machine operation and control. Commercially, pure water contains various
chemicals (some deliberately included) and also foreign matter, and unless special precautions
are taken when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and working surfaces in
satisfactory condition. In the cases where the hydraulic system is closed (i.e., the one with a self-
contained unit that serves one machine or one small group of machines), oil is commonly used,
thus providing, in addition to power transmission, benefits of lubrication not afforded by water
as well as increased life and efficiency of packing's and valves. It should be mentioned that in
some special cases, soluble oil diluted with water is used for safety reasons. The application of
fluid power is limited only by the ingenuity of the designer, production engineer or plant
engineer. If the application pertains to lifting, pushing, pulling, clamping, tilting, forcing,
pressing or any other straight line (and many rotary) motions, it is possible that fluid power will
meet the requirement.

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1.3 History of Fluid Power
Fluid power is as old as our civilization itself. Water was used for centuries to produce power by
means of water wheels and air was used to turn windmills and to propel ships. Chinese used
wooden valves to control water flow through bamboo pipes in 4000 BC. Ancient Egyptians have
built a masonry dam across Nile, 14 miles south to present Cairo, for the control of irrigation
water by canals, sluices, brick conduits and ceramic pipes. During the Roman empire, extensive
water systems using aqueducts, reservoirs and valves were constructed to carry water to cities.
However, these early uses of fluid power required the movement of huge quantities of fluid
because of the relatively low pressures provided by nature.

Fluid power technology actually began in 1650 with the discovery of Pascal's law. Simply
stated, this law says that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished equally in all
directions in a confined body of fluid. Pascal found that when he rammed a cork down into a jug
completely full of wine, the bottom of the jug broke and fell out. However, in order for Pascal's
law to be made effective for practical use, it was necessary to make a piston that would fit
exactly. Not until over 100 years later was this accomplished. It was in 1795 that Joseph
Brahmah invented the cup packing that led to the development of a workable hydraulic press.
Brahman's hydraulic press consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram. This
new hydraulic press found wide use in England because it provided a more effective and
economical means of applying large force to industrial applications.

In 1750, Bernoulli developed his law of conservation of energy for a fluid flowing in a pipeline.
Both Pascal's and Bernoulli's laws operate at the heart of all fluid power applications and are
used for analytical purposes. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of 1850 in
Great Britain that these laws were actually applied to the industry.

The first use of a large hydraulic press for foregoing work was made in 1860 by Whitworth. In
the next 20 years, many attempts were made to reduce the Waste and excessive maintenance
costs of the original type of accumulator. In 1872, Rigg patented a three-cylinder hydraulic
engine in which provision was made to change the stroke of plungers to vary its displacement
without a throttle valve. In 1873, the Brotherhood three-cylinder, constant- stroke hydraulic
engine was patented and was widely used for cranes, winches, etc. Both the above-mentioned
engines were driven by fluid from an accumulator.

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Up to this time, electrical energy was not developed to power the machines of industry. Instead,
fluid power was being used to drive hydraulic equipment such as cranes, presses, shearing
machines, etc. With electricity emerging dominantly in the 19th century, it was soon found
superior to fluid power for transmitting power over great distances.

The modern era in fluid power began around the turn of the century. Fluid applications were
made to such installations as the main armament system of USS Virginia in 1906. In these
applications, a able-speed hydrostatic transmission was installed to drive the main guns. Since
that time, marine industry has applied fluid power to cargo-handling systems, controllable pitch
controllers, submarine control system, aircraft elevators, aircraft- and missile-launching system
and radar/sonar-driven systems. In 1926, the United States developed the first unitized,
packaged hydraulic system consisting of a pump, controls and an actuator.

Today fluid power is used extensively in practically every branch of industry. The innovative
use of modern technology such as electrohydraulic closed loops, microprocessors and improved
materials for component construction continues to advance the performance of fluid power
systems. The military requirements kept fluid power applications and developments going at a
good pace. Aviation and aerospace industry provided the impetus for many advances in fluid
power technology.

Fluid power applications can be classified into two major segments:

Stationary hydraulics: Stationary hydraulic systems remain firmly fixed in one position. The
characteristic feature of stationary hydraulics is that valves are mainly solenoid operated. The
applications of stationary hydraulics are as follows:

Production and assembly of vehicles of all types.

 Machine tools and transfer lines.
 Lifting and conveying devices.
 Metal-forming presses. Plastic machinery such as injection-molding machines.
 Rolling machines.
 Lifts.
 Food processing machinery.
 Automatic handling equipment and robots.
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Mobile hydraulics: Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks such as a tower crane
or excavator truck to operate in many different locations or while moving. A characteristic
feature of mobile hydraulics is that the valves are frequently manually operated.

The applications of mobile hydraulics are as follows:

 Automobiles, tractors, aero planes, missile, boats, etc.

 Construction machinery.
 Tippers, excavators and elevating platforms.
 Lifting and conveying devices. Agricultural machinery.

The following are the two types of hydraulic systems:

1. Fluid transport systems:

Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one location to another to accomplish some
useful purpose. Examples include pumping stations for pumping water to homes, cross-country
gas lines, etc.

2. Fluid power systems:

These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems, work is obtained by pressurized
fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid motor. A cylinder produces a force resulting in
linear motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a torque resulting in rotary motion.

1.4 Classification of Fluid Power Systems

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:

1. Based on the control system

Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and performance is based on the
characteristics of the individual components of the system. The open-loop system is not accurate
and error be reduced by proper calibration and control.

Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back to a
comparator by a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to the desired
output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used to change the actual

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output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed loop system uses servo valves
and an advanced system uses digital electronics.

2. Based on the type of control: Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by
hydraulic oil or air. The system employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR,
etc. Two types of fluid logic systems are available:

(a) Moving part logic (MPL): These devices are miniature fluid elements using moving parts
such as diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement various logic gates. (b) Fluidics: Fluid
devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting fluid jets to implement various
logic gates.

Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic electrical
devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays, timers and solenoids.
These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing, speed, positioning, timing and
reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical control and fluid power work well
together where remote control is essential.

Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The electronic
brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system uses the most
advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic control (PLC) or
microprocessor (P). In the electrical control, a change in system operation results in a
cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections. The difficulty is overcome by
programmable electronic control. The program can be modified or a new program can be fed to
meet the change of operations. A number of such programs can be stored in these devices, which
makes the systems more flexible.

1.5 Advantages of a Fluid Power System

Oil hydraulics stands out as the prime moving force in machinery and equipment designed to
handle medium to heavy loads. In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical
linkages were used along with prime movers such as electrical motors and engines for handling
loads. But the mechanical efficiency of linkages was very low and the linkages often failed
under critical loading conditions. With the advent of fluid power technology and associated
electronics and control, it is used in every industry now.

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The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:
1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately: Fluid power
gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using fluid power, we
can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large forces/components with great
accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example, in Earth-moving equipment, bucket
carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator using a lever. The landinggear of an
aircraft can be retrieved to home position by the push button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a fraction of
a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and
control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid power
controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a complete
control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation machine or a group of
machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large amount
of torque while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors can even
maintain torque at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force regardless
of speed changes.
6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or elimination
of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio compared
to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital
importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in mining
and manufacture of delicate products.

1.7 Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 1.1 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

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 Figure1.1 components of hydraulic system

Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to
do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type
(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit
by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the
circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient,
as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves. 8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e.,
maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.

The piping shown in Fig. 1.1 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank
to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is
drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the

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fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and
remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.

1.8 Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Figure 1.3 Components of pneumatic system

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful
work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an
air compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided
to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized
air then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure
switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required

13
level respectively. The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder
operates in a way similar to its hydraulic circuit.

2. Components of pneumatics
A.)Pneumatic actuators.
B.)Flow control valves.
C.)Solenoid valves.
D.)Air compressor.
Pneumatic actuators
Pneumatic actuators are the devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed
air into the mechanical energy to perform useful work. In other words, Actuators are used to
perform the task of exerting the required force at the end of the stroke or used to create
displacement by the movement of the piston. The pressurized air from the compressor is
supplied to reservoir. The pressurized air from storage is supplied to pneumatic actuator to do
work.
The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight lin
motions with a rapid speed of response. Friction losses are low, seldom exceeds 5 % with a
cylinder In good condition, and cylinders are particularly suitable for single purpose applications
and /or where rapid movement is required. They are also suitable for use under conditions which
preclude the employment of hydraulic cylinders that is at high ambient temperature of up to 200
to 250
Their chief limitation is that the elastic nature of the compressed air makes them
unsuitable for powering movement where absolutely steady forces or motions are required
applied against a fluctuating load, or where extreme accuracy of feed is necessary. The air
cylinder is also inherently limited in thrust output by the relatively low supply pressure so that
production of high output forces can only be achieved by a large size of the cylinders.

1.2 TYPES OF PNEUMATICS ACTUATORS

Pneumatic cylinders can be used to get linear, rotary and oscillatory motion. There are three
types of pneumatic actuator:
They are:
i) Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders
ii)Rotary Actuator or Air motors
iii)Limited angle Actuators
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 1.2.1 Types of Pneumatic cylinders /linear actuators
Pneumatic cylinders are devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical
force and motion. The pneumatic cylinders are basically used for single purpose application
such as clamping, stamping, transferring, branching, allocating, ejecting, metering, tilting,
bending, turning and many other applications.

The different classification scheme of the pneumatic cylinders are given below

1. Based on application for which air cylinders are used

 Light duty air cylinders
 Medium duty air cylinders
 Heavy duty air cylinders

2. Based on the cylinder action

 Single acting cylinder
 Double acting cylinder
 Single rod type double acting cylinder
 Double rod type double acting cylinder

3. Based on cylinder's movement

i) Rotating type air cylinder
ii) Non rotating type air cylinder
4. Based on the cylinder's design
i) Telescopic cylinder
ii) Tandem cylinder
iii) Rod less cylinder
 Cable cylinder,
 Sealing band Cylinder with slotted cylinder barrel
 Cylinder with Magnetically Coupled Slide
iv) Impact cylinder
v) Duplex cylinders
vi) Cylinders with sensors

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1.2.1.1 Based on application for which air cylinders are used
Air cylinders can be classified according to their intended use, as light duty, medium
duty or heavy duty types. In the main this merely governs the strength of the cylinder, and thus
typical choice of material of construction and the form of construction. Comparison is given in
Table 1.1. It should be noted that classification by duty does not necessarily affect the output
performance of the cylinder, as bore size for bore size; identical cylinder diameter will give the
same thrust on the same line pressure, regardless of whether the cylinder is rated for light,
medium or heavy duty. This form of rating, however, normally precludes the use of light
classification for cylinders of large size (and thus high thrust); and medium classification for
cylinders of even large size and very high thrust outputs.

All plastic construction has the advantage of being inherently free from corrosion and
similar troubles but, in general is limited to smaller cylinder sizes and light duty applications.
As originally introduced they were intended to provide low cost cylinders for light duty work,
and where rigidity of the unit was not an important factor. The development of all-plastic
cylinders for higher duties tends to nullify any cost advantage and the types has not, as yet,
achieved any particular prominence, although the potentialities remain for corrosion-resistant
duties.

Force limitation with air cylinders are purely matter of size and cost. Since line
pressures available are usually very much lower than pressure common in hydraulic circuits,
air cylinder must be very much larger in diameter than the hydraulic cylinders for the same
thrust performance. Where a very high force is required the cost of the suitable size of air
cylinder may work out at more than the cost of a complete hydraulic system to do the same
job. In addition the cost of the compressed air feed such cylinders could also be prohibitive.

1.2.1.2 Based on the cylinder action

Based on cylinder action we can classify the cylinders as single acting and double acting. Single
acting cylinders have single air inlet line. Double acting cylinders have two air inlet lines.
Advantages of double acting cylinders over single acting cylinders are

1. In single acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only on one side. Hence this cylinder can
produce work only in one direction. But the compressed air moves the piston in two directions in
double acting cylinder, so they work in both directions
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2. In a single acting cylinder, the stroke length is limited by the compressed length of the spring.
But in principle, the stroke length is unlimited in a double acting cylinder

3. While the piston moves forward in a single acting cylinder, air has to overcome the pressure
of the spring and hence some power is lost before the actual stroke of the piston starts. But this
problem is not present in a double acting cylinder.

A) Single acting cylinders.

Single acting cylinder has one working port. Forward motion of the piston is obtained by
supplying compressed air to working port. Return motion of piston is obtained by spring placed
on the rod side of the cylinder. Schematic diagram of single acting cylinder

Single acting cylinders are used where force is required to be exerted only in one direction. Such
as clamping, feeding, sorting, locking, ejecting, braking etc.

Single acting cylinder is usually available in short stroke lengths [maximum length up to 80
mm] due to the natural length of the spring. Single Acting Cylinder exert force only in one
direction. Single acting cylinders require only about half the air volume consumed by a double
acting cylinder for one operating cycle.

Construction features of single acting cylinder

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There are varying designs of single acting cylinders including:
1. Diaphragm cylinder
2. Rolling diaphragm cylinder
3. Gravity return single acting cylinder
4. Spring return single acting cylinder

i) Diaphragm cylinder
This is the simplest form of single acting cylinder. In diaphragm cylinder , piston is replaced by
a diaphragm is replaced by a diaphragm of hard rubber, plastic or metal clamped between the
two halves of a metal casing expanded to form a wide, flat enclosure. Schematic diagram of
diaphragm cylinder is shown in Figure 1.2. The operating stem which takes place of the piston
rod in diaphragm cylinder can also be designed as a surface element so as to act directly as a
clamping surface for example. Only short operating strokes can be executed by a diaphragm
cylinder, up to a maximum of 50 mm. This makes the diaphragm type of cylinder particularly
adaptable to clamping operations. Return stroke is accomplished by a spring built into the
assembly or by the tension of diaphragm itself in the case of very short stroke. Diaphragm
cylinders are used for short stoke application like clamping, riveting, lifting, embossing and
riveting

Construction features of diaphragm cylinder

ii) Rolling diaphragm cylinder

They are similar to diaphragm cylinders. Schematic diagram of Rolling diaphragm cylinder is
shown in Figure 1.3.They too contain a diaphragm instead of piston, which is this instance rolls
out along the inner walls of the cylinder when air pressure is applied to the device, thereby
causing the operating stem to move outwards. Compared with the standard diaphragm type, a
rolling diaphragm cylinder is capable of executing appreciably longer operating strokes
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(averaging from 50 mm to 800mm).Separate guiding of stem is not normally provided in these
designs, since the component being actuated by the cylinder usually cannot break out of set
limits of motion. Any off-center displacement is compensated by the rolling diaphragm with no
loss of power. Materials used for rolling diaphragms in present – day designs ensure good
durability under normal operating conditions. On the other hand, even very small cracks or cuts
in the diaphragm will generally lead to early failure because if high stresses are imposed on the
flexible material as it unrolls at each stroke. If the actuator needs to be dismantled for any
reason, it must accordingly be inspected carefully for any burrs or sharp edges inside. Metal
cuttings also constitute a hazard if they are able to enter the cylinder housing

Construction features of rolling diaphragm cylinder

iii) Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder

Figure 1.4 shows gravity return type single acting cylinders. In a push type (a), the cylinder
extends to lift a weight against the force of gravity by applying oil pressure at the blank end. The
oil is passed through blank end port or pressure port. The rod end port or vent port is open to
atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder. To retract the
cylinder, the pressure is simply removed from the piston by connecting the pressure port to the
tank. This allows the weight of the load to push the fluid out of the cylinder back to tank. In pull
type gravity return type single acting cylinder the cylinder (b) lifts the weight by retracting. The
19
blank end port is the pressure port and blind end port is now the vent port. This cylinder will
automatically extend whenever the pressure port is connected to the tank.

iv) Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder

Spring return single acting cylinder is shown in Figure 1.5 in part (a) push type the pressure is
sent through pressure port situated at blank end of the cylinder. When the pressure is released,
the spring automatically returns the cylinder to the fully retracted position. The vent port is open
to atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder.
Part (b) shows a spring return single acting cylinder. In this design cylinder retracts when the
pressure port is connected to the pump flow and extend whenever the pressure port is connected
to the tank. Here pressure port is situated at rod end of the cylinder.

Figure 1.5 push and pull type single acting cylinder

B) Double acting cylinders.

Schematic diagram of double acting cylinder is shown in Figure 1.6. Double Acting Cylinders
are equipped with two working ports- one on the piston side and the other on the rod side. To
achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the piston side and the
rod side is connected to exhaust. During return motion supply air admitted at the rod side while
the piston side volume is connected to the exhaust. Force is exerted by the piston both during
forward and return motion of cylinder. Double acting cylinders are available in diameters from
few around 300 mm and stroke lengths of few mm up to 2 meters.

Figure 1.6 Double acting cylinder

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Construction of Double acting cylinder
The construction features of double acting cylinder are shown in Figure 1.7. The construction of
double acting cylinder is similar to that of a single cylinder. However, there is no return spring.
In double acting cylinder, air pressure can be applied to either side (supply and exhaust) of the
piston, thereby providing a pneumatic force in both directions. The double acting cylinders are
mostly commonly used in the application where larger stroke length is required.

The seven parts of the double acting cylinder are

1. Base cap with port connection

2. Bearing cap with port connection
3. Cylinder barrel
4. Piston
5. Piston rod
6. Scrapper rings
7. Seals

The base cap and bearing cap are made of cast material, aluminum or malleable cast iron.
The two caps can be fastened to the cylinder barrel by tie rods, threads or flanges.

Cylinder barrel is usually made of seamless drawn steel tubo to increase the life of the
sealing components, the bearing surfaces of the cylinder are precision machined,. For special
applications, the cylinder barrel can be made of aluminum, brass or steel tube with hard chromed
bearing surface. These special designs are used where operation is infrequent or where there are
corrosive influences.

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 The piston rod it is preferably made from heat treated steel. A certain percentage of
chrome in the steel protects against rusting. Generally the threads are rolled to reduce the danger
of fracture.

Piston seals are provided in between piston and barrel to avoid leakage. A sealing ring is
fitted in the bearing cap to seal the piston rod. The bearing bush guides the piston rod and may
be made of sintered bronze or plastic coated metal.

In front of this bearing bush is a scrapper ring. (wiper ring). It prevents dust and dirt
particles from entering the cylinder space. Bellows are therefore not normally required.
The materials for the double cup packing sealing are
Perbunan, for -20 to + 80
Viton, for -20 to +190
Teflon for -80 to +200
O rings are normally used for static sealing.
Construction of Double acting cylinder
There are two types of double acting cylinders.
i) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.
ii) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides

i) Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.

Figure 1.8 shows the operation of a double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side.
To extend the cylinder, pump flow is sent to the blank end port as in Figure 1.8 (a). Fluid from
the rod end port returns to the reservoir. To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod
end port and fluid from the blank end port returns to the tank as in Figure 1.8 (b)

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ii) Double acting cylinders with piston rod on both sides

A double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides (Figure 1.9) is a cylinder with rod
extending from both ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where work can be done
by both ends of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive. Double rod cylinders
can withstand higher side loads because they have an extra bearing one on each rod to withstand
the loading. Double rod cylinders are used when there is bending load and accurate alignment
and maximum strength is required. A further advantage is that rod is precisely located and may
be used to guide the machine member coupled to it, dispensing with external guides or bearing
in many cases, most standard production models are available either in single rod or double rod
configuration A disadvantage of double rod configuration is that there is a reduction in
maximum thrust due to the blanking effect of the rod cross section on the piston area and a
slightly larger size of cylinder is required for a given duty. The thus will be the same on the
ingoing stroke as that of a single rod double acting cylinder.
1.2.1.3 Based on the cylinder action
Rotating type of cylinders are used in applications where cylinder body is connected to a
rotating member and air connection to the cylinder in a stationary housing. They are not widely
used. Non Rotating type cylinders are widely used Industries. Cylinder body is connected air
connection are mounted stationary housing and piston rod moves and
1.2.1.4 Based on the cylinder's design
In industry , differentiation is made between special design of regular cylinder and the special
duty cylinders designed for a special purpose that are known by designation of their own.
Special design cylinders are basically natural variations of single or double acting cylinders.
Variations in special designs derived from standard production of cylinders and merely
exchanging selected parts for others of different shapes or material. Special duty cylinders on the
other hand are from the start designed to non-standard conditions of service or application.
Following section deals with some of commonly used special design and special duty cylinders.

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A)Telescopic cylinder
Telescopic cylinder (shown in Figure 1.10 (a) and (b)) is used when long stroke length and short
retracted length are required. They extend in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits
inside of the previous stage. Figure 1.10 (c) shows the construction of a typical double acting
telescopic cylinder with two pistons (Two stages).

Figure 1.10 double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side
Extension stroke: When the pressure is applied at port A, air flow through port X and Y and
pressure is applied on both sides of Piston 1. But difference in areas causes the piston 1 to move
to the right. Once the piston 1 fully extends, Inner Piston 2 will extend.
Retraction stroke: To retract, air is applied to port B. Air pressure will act on the annulus of the
inner piston 2 and moves inner piston 2 to the left. When the inner piston moves to left and
started to close port X, air from port B goes to annular side of the piston 1 via port Y and pushes
the piston 1 to the left.
Figure shows the construction of a typical double acting telescopic cylinder with three pistons
(three stages)
Forward stroke: when the pressurized air enters the port p, larger ram of diameter A moves
first. Since the diameter of Ram A is relatively large, this ram produces large force at the
beginning of the lift of the load. ( usually in many application, initial inertial is high and larger
force is required in the beginning, once initial inertia is overcome, smaller force is required to
keep moving the weight). When ram A reaches the end of the stroke, ram B begins to move,
providing smaller force. When ram B reaches its end position, Ram C will move outward to
complete the stroke.
Retraction stroke: When the pressurized air enters the port T, then it acts on the annular area of
Ram A and ram A is retrieved. Once the Ram A is retrieved, pressure continues to act on
annular area of Ram B and retrieves Ram B. In similar way, the Ram C is also retrieved.

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B) Tandem Cylinder
Schematic diagram of Tandem cylinder is shown in Figure 1.12. Tandem cylinders are two
separate double acting air cylinders arranged in line to one cylinder body so that the power
generated by the two is added together, thereby approximately doubling the piston output. A
tandem cylinder is used in applications where a large amount of force is required from a small-
diameter cylinder. Basically, a tandem cylinder is simply two or more separate cylinders stacked
end to end in a unit and with all the pistons mounted on a common piton rod. Pressure is applied
to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of the larger area. The drawback is that
these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder of larger flow rate than a standard
cylinder to achieve an equal speed because flow must go to both pistons.

Figure 1.11 Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side

Tandem cylinders are used where large output force is required with appreciable saving in bulk
and weight. Tandem cylinders are employed where a small diameter of the assembly is required.
c) Rod less Cylinder
A rod less air cylinder differs from a basic air cylinder in that no piston rod extends outside the
cylinder body. Instead, the internal piston is connected to an external carriage, by means of a
magnetic or mechanical coupling system.

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Table 1.3 Graphical symbols of cylinders

5.4 Cylinder mountings.

The way in which the cylinder is mounted influences service life, maintenance frequency
and success of the entire installation. Poor mounting design can cause excessive side loads and
stresses which will bring about early failure of some vita component. There are three main
categories of cylinder mounting. The selection of these mountings depends on the application
and machine configuration.

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1. Fixed Centerline mountings
2. Pivoted centerline mountings
3. Fixed non centerline mountings
Fixed Centerline mountings: In this mounting, the cylinder is supported along its center line.
The mounting bolts are thus subjected to shear or simple stress. This mounting needs accurate
alignment. Misalignment is not tolerable.

Pivot centerline mounting: Many applications need rotational degree of freedom for a cylinder
as it reciprocates. The pivot mounting can be clevis type or trunnion type. This mounting
permits rotational freedom in one plane. If universal joint is used, greater degrees of freedom are
possible.

Fixed non centerline mounting: This mounting of cylinder introduces torque under loaded
condition. The cylinder may rotate or bend about its mounting bolt when loaded. The stress level
on the cylinder is higher as compared to the center line mounting.

Flow control valves

Flow-control valves, as the name suggests, control the rate of flow of a fluid through a
hydraulic circuit. Flow-control valves accurately limit the fluid volume rate from fixed
displacement pump to or from branch circuits. Their function is to provide velocity control of
linear actuators, or speed control of rotary actuators. Typical application include regulating
cutting tool speeds, spindle speeds, surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically
supported loads moved upward and downward by forklifts, and dump lifts. Flow-control valves
also allow one fixed displacement pump to supply two or more branch circuit's fluid at different
flow rates on a priority basis. Typically, fixed displacement pumps are sized to supply maximum
system volume flow rate demands. For industrial applications feeding two or more branch
circuits from one pressurized manifold source, an oversupply of fluid in any circuit operated by
itself is virtually assured. Mobile applications that supply branch circuits, such as the power
steering and front end loader from one pump pose a similar situation. If left unrestricted, branch
circuits receiving an oversupply of fluid would operate at greater than specified velocity,
increasing the likelihood of damage to work, hydraulic system and operator.
Functions of Flow-Control Valves Flow-control valves have several functions, some of
which are listed below:
1. Regulate the speed of linear and rotary actuators: They control the speed of piston that is
dependent on the flow rate and area of the piston:
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Velocity of piston (Vp) (m/s) = Flow rate in the actuator (m 3/s) Q / Piston area (m2)Ap
2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the flow to them: Power (W) =
Flow rate (m3/s) *Pressure (N/m2) a P = Qxp 3. Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow
to various branches of the circuit: It transfers the power developed by the main pump to different
sectors of the circuit to manage multiple tasks, if necessary.
Classification of Flow-Control Valves
Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:
1. Non-pressure compensated.
2. Pressure compensated.
1. Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are
used when the system pressure is relatively constant and motoring speeds are not too critical.
The operating principle behind these valves is that the flow through an orifice remains constant
if the pressure drop across it remains the same.

Figure 1.3
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control valve is shown in
Fig. 1.3. It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It consists of a screw (and needle) inside a
tube-like structure. It has an adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit.
The size of the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the
needle. For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. Usually, charts are
available that allow quick determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve settings and
pressure drops. Sometimes needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling
the flow in one direction only. The check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction
without any restrictions. As shown in Fig. 1.4, only the flow from A to B is controlled using the
needle. In the other direction (B to A), the check valve permits unrestricted fluid flow.
Pressure Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valves overcome the difficulty caused by non-
pressure compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in relation to the changes in the
system pressure. This is accomplished through a spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces
28
the size of the orifice when pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure
compensator acts to keep the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback
mechanism from the outlet pressure. This keeps the flow through the orifice nearly constant

Figure1.4 Sectional view of pressure compensated flow control valve

Compressor
A Compressor is a machine which compresses the air at ambient temperature (taken as
15 Deg C) and atmospheric pressure (1 Bar) to higher pressure such that its density i.e. mass
per unit volume increases.

29
Compressors are classified in many ways out of which the common one is the classification
based on the principle of operation.
Types of Compressors:
1. Positive Displacement and
2. Dynamic Compressors.
Positive displacement compressors can be further divided into; reciprocating and rotary
compressors
Under the classification of reciprocating compressors, we have
 In-line compressors,
 "V"-shaped compressors,
 Tandem Piston compressors.
 Single-acting compressors,
 Double-acting compressors,
 Diaphragm compressors.
Reciprocating compressor:
It is a piston-liner assembly, piston is attached to the crankshaft via a connectingrod.
The shaft is further coupled to motor which drives the assembly.
It is used onboard to fill compressed air into air bottles mainly to supply starting air to main and
auxiliary engine, and for other subsidiary purposes.
Reciprocating In-line Compressors:
These are most commonly used compressors with varying pressure ranges.
These are simple in design with almost very little automation. The cylinders of various stages
are found in a straight line when seen from top. These compressors are commonly direct driven
by electric motors or diesel engines. Refer the attached diagram of the reciprocating in-line
compressors.

30
Single Acting Compressors:
They are the reciprocating compressor which has piston working only in one direction. The
other end of the piston is often free or open from which no work is performed. There is only one
side compression or the upper part of the piston is used to compress the air. The bottom part is
open to crankcase and is not utilized for They are come under air cooled compressors with
concentric valves mounted on each cylinder head unit which are placed in V-shape i.e. at the
angle of 90 degrees from each other and may or may not be connected to same crank pin on the
the compression of air.

Double acting compressors

As from its name it uses its both sides to compress the air. These type of compressors have two
sets of suction/intake and delivery/exhaust valve on both sides of the piston. As the piston
moves up and down, both sides of the piston is utilized compressing the air. The intake and
exhaust valve operates corresponding to the movement of the piston or with the stroke of the
compressor. The air is compressed accordingly and delivered continuously as compared to
single-acting air compressor

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 V-shaped compressors
crank shaft. They are compressors of higher capacity so the cooling is required. The v-shaped is
given to such compressor for achieving better torque and balancing by displacing different units
at some angle.

Roto-dynamic compressors, we have

 Centrifugal compressors, and the
 Axial flow compressors.
Centrifugal compressor:It consists of a rotary wheel with blades mounted on them, the wheel
and blades when rotated develops a negative pressure, the inducer guides air into the blades.
Centrifugal force generated due to moving blades increases the velocity of air. The air is guided
to the diffuser which acts as a divergent nozzle and reduces the velocity and increases the
pressure. Thus, the density of air i.e. mass per unit volume increases. It is used onboard in
turbocharger, for supplying compressed air for combustion in engine cylinder.
A Centrifugal compressor primarily consists of;
1. Stationary casing
2. Rotating Impeller
3. Diffuser
Centrifugal compressor is also known as Radial Compressor.
Axial Flow compressor
It consists of a casing fitted with several rows of fixed blades and rotor attached with several
rows of moving blades. · The fixed and moving blades are placed on alternate rows the function
of the fixed blades is to receive the high velocity air from the moving blades. Axial flow

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 compressor is also a high speed machine and speed may even vary from 10,000 to 30,000 RPM.
Pressure ratio of 10:1 can be achieved.

Punching Process:
The press is the punching machine tool designed to punch blank of sheet by applying
mechanical force or pressure. The presses are exclusively intended for mass production and they
represent the fastest and more efficient way to form a metal into a finished punched product. In
manual or conventional methods of pressing the disadvantages may be
 Angular misalignment of the sheet
 higher material handling time and manufacturing lead time's
 reduced safety for the worker

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34
35
Rivets
Rivets are short cylindrical pieces of ductile metal having a head at one end and slightly tapered
tail on the other end

 The portion of a rivet between the head and the tail is called shank.
 Used to join two or more pieces of sheet metals permanently, plates to rolled sections,
rolled section to each other etc...
 Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and Aluminum alloys are some of the metals commonly
used for rivets
 Rivets are used for joining of sheets and plates in bridges, boilers, storage tanks, pressure
vessels and ships etc...

TYPES OF RIVETS
Following types of rivets are used for different work

(1) Structural rivets (12 to 45mm dia.):

(2) Boiler rivets (12 to 50mm dia.)

(3) Small rivets (2 to 10mm dia.)

36
37
RIVETING
The process of joining two or more plates by means of rivets is called riveting. It is a is used
widely in automobile and aerospace industry and in many other applications physical structure r
atomic structure. However force is required for riveting. Riveting where we require permanent /
semi-permanent bonding and where bonding and where bolting and welding is not an option.
Mostly done for low thickness sheet In this process, the metallic parts to be joined do not under
go any change in their metals and aluminum

 During riveting, rivet head is formed from the tail of the rivet places in the rivet holes
drilled in the plates to be fastened.
 Forming of head may be either by hand tools or by machines.
 In machine riveting, force is applied by means of hydraulic or pneumatic pressure.

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CLASSIFICATION OF RIVETED JOINTS
Depending upon the manner of placing the plates, riveted joints are classified in to two types.
(a) Lap joint and
(b) Butt joint.

Drawback of traditional method of riveting:

Riveting process creates more noise because of hammer blows. Riveted assemblies are not tight
and leak proof. The projection of riveted head adversely affects the appearance of the riveted
structure.
Our project description:
The pneumatic system has gained large amount of importance in last few decades. This
importance is due to its accuracy and cost. This convenience in operating the pneumatic system
has made us to design and fabricate this unit as our project. This unit, as we hope that it can be
operated easily with semi-skilled operators.

The pneumatic press tool has an advantage of working in low pressure, that is even a
pressure of 6 bar is enough for operating the unit. The pressurized air passing through the tubes
to the cylinder, forces the piston out whose power through the linkage is transmitted to the
riveter handle. Riveting is done with this by attaching a rivet bit to the riveter (through the hole
in the sheet) connecting to rod end, which actuate through the pneumatic pressure inside the
cylinder.
Also, manual riveting results in excess labor work and also several injuries may also occur
during operation.so, this project may keep a check to this problem and lead to a better
productivity.

39
Diagram

Pneumatic punching and Riveting machine

Constructional specifications:
Double acting cylinder-specification

The cylinder ends covers to make sure the cylinder works very smoothly,safely and low
noise.With self-lubricating bearing,the piston rod is lubricating free.
It is widely applied to the automatic equipment in light industry,chemical industry,textile
industry,electronic industry
Package Content: 1 x Air Cylinder
Product Name: Air Cylinder
Model: SC 50-150
Action Type: Double Action
Bore: 50mm
Stroke: 150mm
Max Pressure: 1.0Mpa
Material: Aluminum Alloy
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3 way 2 position Solenoid Valve Air 3/8"

Specification :
Voltage: DC 12V
Positions: Three way/Two position
Working Media: 40 Micron Filtered Air
Action Mode: Inner Guide Type
Port Size: 3/8" NPT
Pressure applied: 1.5-8.0Kgf/cm /21.3-113.8 PSI
Max Pressure: 12kgf/cní (171PSI)
Operating Temp: 5 to 60°C / 41-140°F
Voltage Range: -20%~+10%
Power Consumption: AC220V:2.0 VA, DC24V: 3.0W
Insulation and Protection: Class F Class / IP65
Wiring Form: Terminal
Highest Action Frequency: 5 Cycles/Second
Shortest Excitation Time: 0.05 Second
Body Material: Aluminum Alloy
Package include: 1pc x Solenoid Valve

41
 Description
The pneumatic system has gained large amount of importance in last few decades. This
importance is due to its accuracy and cost. This convenience in operating the pneumatic system
has made us to design and fabricate this unit as our project. This unit, as we hope that it can be
operated easily with semi-skilled operators.

The pneumatic press tool has an advantage of working in low pressure, that is even a
pressure of 6 bar is enough for operating the unit. The pressurized air passing through the tubes
to the cylinder, forces the piston out whose power through the linkage is transmitted to the
riveter handle. Riveting is done with this by attaching a rivet bit to the riveter (through the hole
in the sheet) connecting to rod end, which actuate through the pneumatic pressure inside the
cylinder.

Also, manual riveting results in excess labor work and also several injuries may also
occur during operation.so, this project may keep a check to this problem and lead to a better
productivity.

Advantages of riveted joints:

 Simplicity of design and control.
 Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders & other components
 Machines operate by simple on –off type control.
 A riveted joint is more reliable than welded joints in applications which are subjected to
vibrations and impact forces.
 Riveted joints can be used for non-ferrous metals like aluminum alloy, copper, brass or even
non-metal like plastic and asbestos.
 Riveted joints are free from thermal after-effect because no heat required in this joint.
 Quality inspection is easy in riveted joint.
 When the riveted joint is dismantled, the connected components are less damaged as compare to
welded joint.

Disadvantages of riveted joints:

 Smooth and uniform speeds against loads are not achievable as in Hydraulic systems.
 Beyond certain load usage of pneumatic system is expensive.
 Material cost of riveted joint is more.

42
 The labor cost of riveted joints is also more than that of the welded joint.
 Overall cost if riveted joint is also high.
 Riveted assembly have more weight than welded assembly.
 Riveting process creates more noise because of hammer blows.
 Holes required to insert rivets cause stress concentration.
 Production time is more for assembly.
 Riveted assemblies are not tight and leak proof.
 The projection of riveted head adversely affects the appearance of the riveted structure.

Reliability
 Pneumatic systems tend to have long operating lives and require very little maintenance.
 Because gas is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shocks.
 The gas in pneumatic absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics directly transvers
force.

Storage
 Compressed air can be stored allowing the use of machines when electrical power is lost.

Safety
 Very low chance of fire (compared to hydraulic oil).
 Machines can be designed to be over load safe.

Reference
1. Aditya Polapragada, Sri Varsha, “Pneumatic Auto Feed Punching and Riveting Machine",
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT), Vol. 1 Issue 7, and
September - 2012, ISSN: 2278-0181.
2. Vijaylaxmi.G.Biradar, SiddharamPatil , RM Lathe, “Automation of Sheet Bending Machine
Using Electro Pneumatic Devices” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research
Volume 3, Issue 9, September-2012 1 ISSN 2229-5518.
3. Handbook of die design, Second Edition, 2006, McGraw-Hill Handbooks, Ivana Suchy.
4. Materials Handbook, Fifteenth Edition, 2008, Mc-Graw-Hill Handbooks, George. S.Brady,
Henry.R. Clauser.

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