Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948

Part of the Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Indian (top) and Pakistani (bottom) soldiers during the 1947–1948 war

Date 22 October 1947 – 5 January 1949

(1 year, 2 months and 2 weeks)
Location Kashmir
Result United Nations-mandated ceasefire
Princely state of Jammu and Kashmir acceded to the
Dominion of India
Adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 47
Establishment of the UN Ceasefire Line of 1949 (later
designated as the Line of Control after the Simla
Agreement of 1972)
Territorial Pakistan controls roughly a third of
changes Kashmir (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan), whereas India
controls the rest (Kashmir Valley, Jammu and Ladakh).[12]

Belligerents

India Pakistan
 Indian Army Pakistan Army
Indian Air Force (Transport Pakistani Paramilitaries
support only)[1][2]
Gilgit Scouts[3][4]
Jammu and Kashmir
Kurram Militia[5]
Frontier Scouts[5]
Pashtun tribal militias[6]
Azad Kashmir irregular
forces
Indian National Army
veterans[7][8]
Muslim League National
Guard[9]
Swat Army[5]
Furqan Force[10][11]

Commanders and leaders

Gov. Gen. Lord Mountbatten
PM Jawaharlal Nehru
Gen. Rob Lockhart[13]
Gen. Roy Bucher[13]
Air Marshal Thomas Elmhirst[13]
Lt. Gen. Dudley Russell[13]
Lt.Gen. K. M. Cariappa[13]
Lt.Gen. S. M. Shrinagesh[14][15]
Maj.Gen. K. S. Thimayya[13]
Maj.Gen. Kalwant Singh[13]
Maharaja Hari Singh
PM Mehr Chand Mahajan
Interim Head Sheikh Abdullah
Brig. Rajinder Singh
Lt. Col. Kashmir Singh
Katoch[16]
Casualties and losses
Gov. Gen. Mohammad Ali Jinnah
PM Liaquat Ali Khan
Gen. Frank Messervy[13]
Gen. Douglas Gracey[13]
Maj. Khurshid Anwar[17]
Col. Aslam Khan[3][4]
Col. Akbar Khan[18]
Col. Sher Khan[18]
Maj. Gen. Zaman Kiani[17]
Brig. Habibur Rehman[19]
Sardar Ibrahim Khan[18]
Mirza Mahmood Ahmad[11][20]
Major William Brown[3]

Indian claims: Indian claims:

1,104 killed[21][22][23][24] 6,000 killed[25][27][28]

3,154 wounded[21][25][26] ~14,000 wounded[25]
Conflict started when Pashtun tribal forces from Pakistan invaded the
princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, prompting Indian and Pakistani
armies to get involved.

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between
India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four
Indo-Pakistan Wars fought between the two newly independent nations. Pakistan precipitated the war a few
weeks after independence by launching tribal lashkar (militia) from Waziristan,[29] in an effort to capture
Kashmir, the future of which hung in the balance. The inconclusive result of the war still affects the geopolitics
of both countries.

The Maharaja faced an uprising by his Muslim subjects in Poonch, and lost control of the western districts of
his kingdom. On 22 October 1947, Pakistan's Pashtun tribal militias crossed the border of the state.[30][31]
These local tribal militias and irregular Pakistani forces moved to take Srinagar, but on reaching Baramulla,
they took to plunder and stalled. Maharaja Hari Singh made a plea to India for assistance, and help was
offered, but it was subject to his signing an Instrument of Accession to India.[31]

The war was initially fought by the Jammu and Kashmir State Forces[32][33] and by tribal militias from the
Frontier Tribal Areas adjoining the North-West Frontier Province.[34] Following the accession of the state to
India on 26 October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar, the state capital. The British commanding
officers initially refused the entry of Pakistani troops into the conflict, citing the accession of the state to
India.[31] However, later in 1948, they relented and the Pakistani armies entered the war after this.[34] The
fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal cease-fire was
declared at 23:59 on the night of 31 December 1948 and became effective on the night of 1 January 1949.[35]
The result of the war was inconclusive. However, most neutral assessments agree that India was the victor of
the war as it was able to successfully defend[36] about two-thirds of the Kashmir including Kashmir Valley,
Jammu and Ladakh.[37][38][39][40]

Contents
Background
Partition of India
Developments in Jammu and Kashmir (August–October 1947)
Operation Gulmarg plan
Rebellion in Poonch
Pakistan's preparations, Maharaja's manoeuvring
Operations in Poonch and Mirpur
Accession of Kashmir
Stages of the war
Initial invasion
Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley
Attempted link-up at Poonch and fall of Mirpur
Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri
Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger
Indian spring offensive
Operations Gulab and Eraze
Operation Bison
Operation Easy; Poonch link-up
Moves up to cease-fire
Military awards
Battle honours
Gallantry awards
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Background
Prior to 1815, the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16
Hindu and six Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Amir (King) of Afghanistan, combined with
those of local small rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states,
ruled by Rajput kings, were variously independent, vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor
Akbar or sometimes controlled from Kangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals,
turbulence in Kangra and invasions of Gorkhas, the hill states fell successively under the control of the Sikhs
under Ranjit Singh.[41]:536

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) was fought between the Sikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty over
Kashmir, and the East India Company. In the Treaty of Lahore of 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the
valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas River and the Sutlej River and required to pay an
indemnity of 1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company
allowed the Dogra ruler Gulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a
payment of 750,000 rupees to the Company. Gulab Singh became the first Maharaja of the newly formed
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir,[42] founding a dynasty, that was to rule the state, the second-largest
principality during the British Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947.

Partition of India
The years 1946–1947 saw the rise of All-India Muslim League and
Muslim nationalism, demanding a separate state for India's Muslims.
The demand took a violent turn on the Direct Action Day (16 August
1946) and inter-communal violence between Hindus and Muslims
became endemic. Consequently, a decision was taken on 3 June 1947
to divide British India into two separate states, the Dominion of
Pakistan comprising the Muslim majority areas and the Dominion of
India comprising the rest. The two provinces Punjab and Bengal with
large Muslim-majority areas were to be divided between the two
dominions. An estimated 11 million people eventually migrated
between the two parts of Punjab, and possibly 1 million perished in
the inter-communal violence. Jammu and Kashmir, being adjacent to
Partition of India and the movement
the Punjab province, was directly affected by the happenings in
of refugees
Punjab.

The original target date for the transfer of power to the new
dominions was June 1948. However, fearing the rise of inter-communal violence, the British Viceroy Lord
Mountbatten advanced the date to 15 August 1947. This gave only 6 weeks to complete all the arrangements
for partition.[43] Mountbatten's original plan was to stay on the joint Governor General for both the dominions
till June 1948. However, this was not accepted by the Pakistani leader Mohammad Ali Jinnah. In the event,
Mountbatten stayed on as the Governor General of India, whereas Pakistan chose Jinnah as its Governor
General.[44] It was envisaged that the nationalisation of the armed forces could not be completed by 15
 August.[a] Hence British officers stayed on after the transfer of power.
The service chiefs were appointed by the Dominion governments and
were responsible to them. The overall administrative control, but not
operational control, was vested with Field Marshal Claude
Auchinleck, who was titled the 'Supreme Commander', answerable to
a newly formed Joint Defence Council of the two dominions. India
appointed General Rob Lockhart as its Army chief and Pakistan
appointed General Frank Messervy.[49]

Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck, The presence of the British commanding officers on both sides made
Supreme Commander of Indian and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 a strange war. The two commanding
Pakistani armed forces officers were in daily telephone contact and adopted mutually
defensive positions. The attitude was that "you can hit them so hard
but not too hard, otherwise there will be all kinds of
repercussions." [50] Both Lockhart and Messervy were replaced in the course of war, and their successors Roy
Bucher and Douglas Gracey tried to exercise restraint on their respective governments. Roy Bucher was
apparently successful in doing so in India, but Gracey yielded and let British officers be used in operational
roles on the side of Pakistan. One British officer even died in action.[51]

Developments in Jammu and Kashmir (August–October 1947)

With the independence of the Dominions, the British Paramountcy over the
princely states came to an end. The rulers of the states were advised to join one
of the two dominions by executing an Instrument of Accession. Maharaja Hari
Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, along with his prime minister Ram Chandra Kak,
decided not to accede to either dominion. The reasons cited were that the Muslim
majority population of the State would not be comfortable with joining India, and
that the Hindu and Sikh minorities would become vulnerable if the state joined
Pakistan.[52]

In 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir had a wide range of ethnic and
religious communities. The Kashmir province consisting of the Kashmir Valley
Maharaja Hari Singh of and the Muzaffarabad district had a majority Muslim population (over 90%). The
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu province, consisting of five districts, had a roughly equal division of
Hindus and Muslims in the eastern districts (Udhampur, Jammu and Reasi) and
Muslim majority in the western districts (Mirpur and Poonch). The mountainous
Ladakh district (wazarat) in the east had a significant Buddhist presence with a Muslim majority in Baltistan.
The Gilgit Agency in the north was overwhelmingly Muslim and was directly governed by the British under
an agreement with the Maharaja. Shortly before the transfer of power, the British returned the Gilgit Agency to
the Maharaja, who appointed a Dogra governor for the district and a British commander for the local forces.

The predominant political movement in the Kashmir Valley, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah,
believed in secular politics. It was allied with the Indian National Congress and was believed to favour joining
India. On the other hand, the Muslims of the Jammu province supported the Muslim Conference, which was
allied to the All-India Muslim League and favoured joining Pakistan. The Hindus of the Jammu province
favoured an outright merger with India.[53] In the midst of all the diverging views, the Maharaja's decision to
remain independent was apparently a judicious one.[54]

Operation Gulmarg plan

According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army
prepared a plan called Operation Gulmarg and put it into action Indus river
as early as 20 August, a few days after Pakistan's independence. Muzaffarabad
The plan was accidentally revealed to an Indian officer, Major O. Poonch
Bhimber
S. Kalkat serving with the Bannu Brigade.[b] According to the Ravi river
plan, 20 lashkars (tribal militias), each consisting of 1000
Pashtun tribesmen, were to be recruited from among various
Pashtun tribes, and armed at the brigade headquarters at Bannu,
Wanna, Peshawar, Kohat, Thall and Nowshera by the first week
of September. They were expected to reach the launching point
of Abbottabad on 18 October, and cross into Jammu and
Kashmir on 22 October. Ten lashkars were expected to attack the Operation Gulmarg locations
Kashmir Valley through Muzaffarabad and another ten lashkars
were expected to join the rebels in Poonch, Bhimber and
Rawalakot with a view to advance to Jammu. Detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments
were described in the plan.[56][57]

The regimental records show that, by the last week of August, the Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (PAVO
Cavalry) regiment was briefed about the invasion plan. Colonel Sher Khan, the Director of Military
Intelligence, was in charge of the briefing, along with Colonels Akbar Khan and Khanzadah. The Cavalry
regiment was tasked with procuring arms and ammunition for the 'freedom fighters' and establishing three
wings of the insurgent forces: the South Wing commanded by General Kiani, a Central Wing based at
Rawalpindi and a North Wing based at Abbottabad. By 1 October, the Cavalry regiment completed the task of
arming the insurgent forces. "Throughout the war there was no shortage of small arms, ammunitions, or
explosives at any time." The regiment was also told to be on stand by for induction into fighting at an
appropriate time.[58][59][60]

Scholars have noted considerable movement of Pashtun tribes during September–October. By 13 September,
armed Pashtuns drifted into Lahore and Rawalpindi. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan noted a
scheme to send tribesmen from Malakand to Sialkot, in lorries provided by the Pakistan Government.
Preparations for attacking Kashmir were also noted in the princely states of Swat, Dir, and Chitral. Scholar
Robin James Moore states there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the
Punjab border from the Indus to the Ravi.[61]

Pakistani sources deny the existence of any plan called Operation Gulmarg. However, Shuja Nawaz does list
22 Pashtun tribes involved in the invasion of Kashmir on 22 October.[62]

Rebellion in Poonch

Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out in Poonch, about which diverging views have
been received. Poonch was originally an internal jagir (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative
family line of Maharaja Hari Singh. The taxation is said to have been heavy. The Muslims of Poonch had long
campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the Punjab province of British India. In 1938, a notable
disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached.[63] During the Second World War,
over 60,000 men from Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army. After the war, they
were discharged with arms, which is said to have alarmed the Maharaja.[64] In June, Poonchis launched a 'No
Tax' campaign.[65] In July, the Maharaja ordered that all the soldiers in the region be disarmed.[c] The absence
of employment prospects coupled with high taxation drove the Poonchis to rebellion.[64] The "gathering head
of steam", states scholar Srinath Raghavan, was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by Sardar
Muhammad Ibrahim Khan (Sardar Ibrahim) to further their campaign for accession to Pakistan.[67]
According to state government sources, the rebellious militias gathered in the Naoshera-Islamabad area,
attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. A battalion of state troops was dispatched, which cleared the
roads and dispersed the militias. By September, order was reestablished.[68] The Muslim Conference sources,
on the other hand, narrate that hundreds of people were killed in Bagh during flag hoisting around 15 August
and that the Maharaja unleased a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told Richard Symonds, a
British Quaker social worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately.[69]
According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair...
was greatly exaggerated".[68]

Pakistan's preparations, Maharaja's manoeuvring

Scholar Prem Shankar Jha states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede
to India if it was not possible to stay independent.[70]:115 The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the
Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister, Ram Chandra Kak, and
appointed retired Major Janak Singh in his place.[71] On 25 August, he sent an invitation to Justice Mehr
Chand Mahajan of the Punjab High Court to come as the Prime Minister.[72] On the same day, the Muslim
Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan warning him that "if, God forbid, the
Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them".[73] This set the ball
rolling in Pakistan.

Liaquat Ali Khan sent a Punjab politician Mian Iftikharuddin to explore the
possibility of organising a revolt in Kashmir.[74] Meanwhile, Pakistan cut off
essential supplies to the state, such as petrol, sugar and salt. It also stopped trade
in timber and other products, and suspended train services to Jammu.[75][76]
Iftikharuddin returned in mid-September to report that the National Conference
held strong in the Kashmir Valley and ruled out the possibility of a revolt.

Meanwhile, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped

to West Punjab, along with dozens of
rebels, and established a base in Murree.
From there, the rebels attempted to
acquire arms and ammunition for the
rebellion and smuggle them into Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime
Kashmir. Colonel Akbar Khan, one of a Minister of Pakistan

Murree, overlooking Kashmir handful of high-ranking officers in the

Pakistani Army,[d] with a keen interest in
Kashmir, arrived in Murree, and got enmeshed in these efforts. He
arranged 4,000 rifles for the rebellion by diverting them from the Army stores. He also wrote out a draft plan
titled Armed Revolt inside Kashmir and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin to be passed on to the Pakistan's Prime
Minister.[78][79][17]

On 12 September, the Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan and
another Punjab politician Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan. Hayat Khan had a separate plan, involving the Muslim
League National Guard and the militant Pashtun tribes from the Frontier regions. The Prime Minister approved
both the plans, and despatched Khurshid Anwar, the head of the Muslim League National Guard, to mobilise
the Frontier tribes.[79][17]

The Maharaja was increasingly driven to the wall with the rebellion in the western districts and the Pakistani
blockade. He managed to persuade Justice Mahajan to accept the post of Prime Minister (but not to arrive for
another month, for procedural reasons). He sent word to the Indian leaders through Mahajan that he was
willing to accede to India but needed more time to implement political reforms. However, it was India's
position that it would not accept accession from the Maharaja unless it had the
people's support. The Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that
Sheikh Abdullah should be released from prison and involved in the state's
government. Accession could only be contemplated afterwards. Following
further negotiations, Sheikh Abdullah was released on 29 September.[80][81]

Nehru, foreseeing a number of disputes over princely states, formulated a policy

that states

"wherever there is a dispute in regard to any territory, the matter

should be decided by a referendum or plebiscite of the people
concerned. We shall accept the result of this referendum whatever it Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime
Minister of India
may be."[82][83]

The policy was communicated to Liaquat Ali Khan on 1 October at a meeting of the Joint Defence Council.
Khan's eyes are said to have "sparkled" at the proposal. However, he made no response.[82][83]

Operations in Poonch and Mirpur

Armed rebellion started in the Poonch district at the beginning of October 1947.[84][85] The fighting elements
consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-
servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."[19] The first clash is said to have occurred at
Thorar (near Rawalakot) on 3–4 October 1947.[86] The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire
Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at the Poonch city came under heavy siege.[87][88]

In the Mirpur district, the border posts at Saligram and Owen Pattan on the Jhelum river were captured by
rebels around 8 October. Sehnsa and Throchi were abandoned by State Forces after attack.[89][90]

Radio communications between the fighting units were operated by the Pakistan Army.[91] Even though the
Indian Navy intercepted the communications, lacking intelligence in Jammu and Kashmir, it was unable to
determine immediately where the fighting was taking place.[92]

Accession of Kashmir
Following the Muslim revolution in the Poonch and Mirpur area[93] and Pakistani backed[94]:18 Pashtun tribal
intervention from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa aimed at supporting the revolution,[95][96] the Maharaja asked for
Indian military assistance. Mountbatten urged him to accede to India to complete the legal formalities, although
Mountbatten's insistence on accession before assistance has been questioned.[97] The Maharaja complied, and
the Government of India recognised the accession of the princely state to India. However, Nehru, according to
his biographer Sarvepalli Gopal, did not give any importance to Mountbatten's insistence that there be a
temporary accession. Neither did Sardar Patel.[98] Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it. The Jammu
& Kashmir National Conference volunteers aided the Indian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan
invaders.[99]

Pakistan refused to recognise the accession of Kashmir to India, claiming that it was obtained by "fraud and
violence."[100] Governor General Mohammad Ali Jinnah ordered its Army Chief General Douglas Gracey to
move Pakistani troops to Kashmir at once. However, the Indian and Pakistani forces were still under a joint
command, and Field Marshal Auchinleck prevailed upon him to withdraw the order. With its accession to
India, Kashmir became legally Indian territory, and the British officers could not a play any role in an inter-
Dominion war.[101][102] The Pakistan army made available arms, ammunition and supplies to the rebel forces
who were dubbed the 'Azad Army'. Pakistani army officers 'conveniently' on leave and the former officers of
the Indian National Army were recruited to command the forces. In May 1948, the Pakistani army officially
entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made plans to push towards Jammu and cut
the lines of communications of the Indian forces in the Mehndar Valley.[103] In Gilgit, the force of Gilgit
Scouts under the command of a British officer Major William Brown mutinied and overthrew the governor
Ghansara Singh. Brown prevailed on the forces to declare accession to Pakistan.[104][105] They are also
believed to have received assistance from the Chitral Scouts and the Chitral State Bodyguard's of the state of
Chitral, one of the princely states of Pakistan, which had acceded to Pakistan on 6 October 1947.[106][107]

India claimed that the accession had the people's support through the support of the National Conference, the
most popular organisation in the state.[108] Historians have questioned the representativeness of the National
Conference and the clarity of its leaderships' goals. They observe that while many Kashmiris supported Sheikh
Abdullah and the National Conference at the state level, they also supported Jinnah and the Muslim League at
the all-India level.[109]

Stages of the war

Initial invasion

The first clash occurred at Thorar on 3–4 October

1947.[86] On 22 October another attack was launched in
the Muzaffarabad sector. The state forces stationed in the
border regions around Muzaffarabad and Domel were
quickly defeated by tribal forces (some Muslim state
forces mutinied and joined them) and the way to the
capital was open. Among the raiders, there were many
active Pakistani Army soldiers disguised as tribals. They
were also provided logistical help by the Pakistan Army.
State defence of the Kashmir Valley 22 October
Rather than advancing toward Srinagar before state 1947 – 26 October 1947
forces could regroup or be reinforced, the invading forces
remained in the captured cities in the border region
engaging in looting and other crimes against their inhabitants.[110] In the Poonch valley, the state forces
retreated into towns where they were besieged.[111]

Records indicate that the Pakistani tribals beheaded many

Hindu and Sikh civilians in Jammu and Kashmir.[112]

Indian operation in the Kashmir Valley

After the accession, India airlifted troops and equipment

Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October
1947 – 17 November 1947
to Srinagar under the command of Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit
Rai, where they reinforced the princely state forces,
established a defence perimeter and defeated the tribal
forces on the outskirts of the city. Initial defense
operations included the notable defense of Badgam
holding both the capital and airfield overnight against
extreme odds. The successful defence included an
outflanking manoeuvre by Indian armoured cars[113] during the Battle of Shalateng. The defeated tribal forces
were pursued as far as Baramulla and Uri and these towns, too, were recaptured.

In the Poonch valley, tribal forces continued to besiege state forces.

In Gilgit, the state paramilitary forces, called the Gilgit Scouts, joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby
obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops from Chitral,
whose ruler, Muzaffar ul-Mulk the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.[114][115][116]

Attempted link-up at Poonch and fall of

Mirpur

Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces after

recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent a relief column
southwards, in an attempt to relieve Poonch. Although
the relief column eventually reached Poonch, the siege
could not be lifted. A second relief column reached Kotli,
and evacuated the garrisons of that town and others but
were forced to abandon it being too weak to defend it.
Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the tribal forces on
Attempted link-up at Poonch 18 November 1947 –
25 November 1947 with the help of Pakistan's PAVO
26 November 1947
Cavalry.[117] This led to the 1947 Mirpur massacre
where Hindu women were reportedly abducted by tribal
forces and taken into Pakistan. They were sold in the
brothels of Rawalpindi. Around 400 women jumped into wells in Mirpur committing suicide to escape from
being abducted.[118]

Fall of Jhanger and attacks on

Naoshera and Uri

The tribal forces attacked and captured Jhanger. They

then attacked Naoshera unsuccessfully, and made a series
of unsuccessful attacks on Uri. In the south a minor
Indian attack secured Chamb. By this stage of the war
the front line began to stabilise as more Indian troops
became available.

Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri Operation Vijay: counterattack to
25 November 1947 – 6 February 1948
Jhanger

The Indian forces launched a counterattack in the south

recapturing Jhanger and Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal forces continued attacking the Uri garrison.
In the north Skardu was brought under siege by the Gilgit Scouts.[119]
 Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger 7
February 1948 – 1 May 1948

Indian spring offensive

The Indians held onto Jhanger against numerous

counterattacks, who were increasingly supported by
regular Pakistani Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the
Indians attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit scouts
made good progress in the High Himalayas sector,
infiltrating troops to bring Leh under siege, capturing
Kargil and defeating a relief column heading for Skardu.

Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 – 19 May

1948

Operations Gulab and Eraze

The Indians continued to attack in the Kashmir Valley

sector driving north to capture Keran and Gurais
(Operation Eraze).[94]:308–324 They also repelled a
counterattack aimed at Tithwal. In the Jammu region, the
forces besieged in Poonch broke out and temporarily
linked up with the outside world again. The Kashmir
State army was able to defend Skardu from the Gilgit Indian Spring Offensive 19 May 1948 – 14 August
Scouts impeding their advance down the Indus valley 1948
towards Leh. In August the Chitral Scouts and Chitral
Bodyguard under Mata ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and
with the help of artillery were able to take Skardu. This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into
Ladakh.[120][121]

Operation Bison

During this time the front began to settle down. The siege of Poonch continued. An unsuccessful attack was
launched by 77 Parachute Brigade (Brig Atal) to capture Zoji La pass. Operation Duck, the earlier epithet for
this assault, was renamed as Operation Bison by Cariappa. M5 Stuart light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in
 dismantled conditions through Srinagar and winched
across bridges while two field companies of the Madras
Sappers converted the mule track across Zoji La into a
jeep track. The surprise attack on 1 November by the
brigade with armour supported by two regiments of 25
pounders and a regiment of 3.7-inch guns, forced the
pass and pushed the tribal and Pakistani forces back to
Matayan and later Dras. The brigade linked up on 24
November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from
Leh while their opponents eventually withdrew
northwards toward Skardu.[122]:103–127 The Pakistani
attacked the Skardu on 10 February 1948 which was
Operation Duck 15 August 1948 – 1 November repulsed by the Indian soldiers.[123] Thereafter, the
1948 Skardu Garrison was subjected to continuous attacks by
the Pakistan Army for the next three months and each
time, their attack was repulsed by the Colonel Sher Jung
Thapa and his men. [123] Thapa held the Skardu with hardly 250 men for whole six long months without any
reinforcement and replenishment.[124] On 14 August Indian General Sher Jung Thapa had to surrender Skardu
to the Pakistani Army,[125] and raiders after a year long siege.[126]

Operation Easy; Poonch link-up

The Indians now started to get the upper hand in all

sectors. Poonch was finally relieved after a siege of over
a year. The Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who had
previously made good progress, were finally defeated.
The Indians pursued as far as Kargil before being forced
to halt due to supply problems. The Zoji La pass was
forced by using tanks (which had not been thought
possible at that altitude) and Dras was recaptured.

Operation Easy. Poonch link-up 1 November

1948 – 26 November 1948

Moves up to cease-fire

After protracted negotiations, both countries agreed to a cease-fire. The terms of the cease-fire, laid out in a
UN Commission resolution on 13 August 1948,[127] were adopted by the Commission on 5 January 1949.
This required Pakistan to withdraw its forces, both regular and irregular, while allowing India to maintain
minimal forces within the state to preserve law and order. Upon compliance with these conditions, a plebiscite
was to be held to determine the future of the territory.

Indian losses in the war totaled 1,104 killed and 3,154 wounded;[21] Pakistani, about 6,000 killed and 14,000
wounded.[25] India gained control of about two-thirds of Kashmir; Pakistan, the remaining one-
third.[38][128][129][130] Most neutral assessments agree that India emerged victorious from the war, as it
successfully defended most of the contested territory, including the Kashmir valley, Jammu, and
Ladakh.[36][37][38][39][40]
 Moves up to cease-fire. 27 November 1948 – 31
December 1948

Military awards

Battle honours

After the war, a total of number of 11 battle honours and one theatre honour were awarded to units of the
Indian Army, the notable amongst which are:[131]

Jammu and Kashmir 1947– Naoshera Srinagar

48 (theatre honour) Punch Tithwal
Gurais Rajouri Zoji La
Kargil

Gallantry awards

For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective
countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, and the Pakistani award
Nishan-E-Haider:

India

Major Som Nath Sharma (Posthumous)

Lance Naik Karam Singh
Second Lieutenant Rama Raghoba Rane
Naik Jadu Nath Singh
Company Havildar Major Piru Singh Shekhawat

Pakistan

Captain Muhammad Sarwar

See also
Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts
Battle of Badgam
Sino-Indian War
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Siachen war
Kargil War
Brigadier Mohammad Usman – Mahavir Chakra

Notes
a. At the beginning of 1947, all the posts above the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army were
held by British officers.[45] Pakistan had only four lieutenant colonels,[46] two of whom were
involved in the Kashmir conflict: Akbar Khan and Sher Khan.[47] At the beginning of the war,
India had about 500 British officers and Pakistan over 1000.[48]
b. Major Kalkat was the Brigade Major at the Bannu Brigade, who opened a Demi-Official letter
marked "Personal/Top Secret" on 20 August 1947 signed by General Frank Messervy, the then
Commander in Chief of the Pakistan Army. It was addressed to Kalkat's commanding officer
Brig. C. P. Murray, who happened to be away at another post. The Pakistani officials suspected
Kalkat and placed him under house arrest. He escaped and made his way to New Delhi on 18
October. However, the Indian military authorities and defence minister did not believe his
information. He was recalled and debriefed on 24 October after the tribal invasion of Kashmir
had started.[55]
c. Under the Jammu and Kashmir Arms Act of 1940, the possession of all fire arms was prohibited
in the state. The Dogra Rajputs were however exempted in practice.[66]
d. According to scholar Christine Fair, at the time of independence, Pakistan had one major
general, two brigadiers, and six colonels, even though the requirements were for 13 major
generals, 40 brigadiers, and 52 colonels.[77]

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(https://books.google.com/books?id=VaeuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA219). In D. A. Low (ed.). Political
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acknowledging Abdullah as their leader 'up to Kohala' – that is, locally- and Jinnah beyond.
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Mohammad Abdullah and those of Allama Iqbal and Quaid-e-Azam hanging side by side in the
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Further reading
Major sources

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948.

(1987). Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.
LAMB, ALASTAIR. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990. (1991). Roxford Books. ISBN 0-
907129-06-4.
PRAVAL, K.C. The Indian Army After Independence. (1993). Lancer International, ISBN 1-
897829-45-0
SEN, MAJ GEN L.P. Slender Was The Thread: The Kashmir confrontation 1947–1948. (1969).
Orient Longmans Ltd, New Delhi.
VAS, LT GEN. E. A. Without Baggage: A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations
1947–1949. (1987). Natraj Publishers Dehradun. ISBN 81-85019-09-6.

Other sources

COHEN, LT COL MAURICE. Thunder over Kashmir. (1955). Orient Longman Ltd. Hyderabad
HINDS, BRIG GEN SR. Battle of Zoji La. (1962). Military Digest, New Delhi.
SANDHU, MAJ GEN GURCHARAN. The Indian Armour: History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941–
1971. (1987). Vision Books Private Limited, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7094-004-4.
SINGH, MAJ K BRAHMA. History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (1820–1956). (1990). Lancer
International New Delhi, ISBN 81-7062-091-0.
Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from
Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999. RoseDog Books. ISBN 9780805995947.

External links
 Partition and Indo Pak War of 1947–48 (https://web.archive.org/web/20110405210142/http://ind
ianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=BfMpdR9l1kE=&ParentID=a2G
SpnDbruI=), Indian Army, archived 5 April 2011.

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